SOCIAL STRATIFICATIONS

In the social sciences, social stratification is a concept used to define

the relative social status of individuals within a given social group, category,
geographical area, or other social units. It is derived from the Latin word
"strātum" (plural; parallel, horizontal layers) that refers to the categorization
of its people by a given society into socio-economic rankings based on factors,
such as wealth, income, social status, occupation and power. Stratification is
characterized as the act of sorting information, individuals, and objects into
different groups or layers. It is a method used in combination with other
system for data analysis (Wikipedia).
Further, it is an essential underlying character of the societies. As we
find in all cultures, ancient and modern, it is historical and as it persists in
simple or complex cultures that was universal. The social distinction based
on high and low is both societies' historical heritage.
For over time, these social strata and layers including divisions and
subdivisions have been recognized on the bases of gender and age, position
and status, skills and incompetence, life chances and economic cum political
ascription and monopolization, ritual and ceremony, and on numerous other
grounds. Indeed, social stratification is dynamic in nature. The distinctions of
dominance and inferiority, authority, and subordination, as well as
occupation and vocation are no less dependent on it. Despite progressive
thoughts and radicalism, equality and democracy, socialism and communism,
still social stratification has persisted.

MEANING & NATURE

Social stratification refers to the classification of individuals by a society
into socioeconomic category rankings based on various factors, including
wealth, income, ethnicity, education, and power. Moreover, the term
stratification refers to a mechanism by which individuals and classes are
classified in a status hierarchy that is more or less permanent. Furthermore,
it refers to the division of a population into structures, one on top of another.
Social stratification is a horizontal differentiation of society into higher
and lower social units, according to Murray (1947) in his book entitled
Introductory Sociology. Further, Tumin (1953) also stated that social
stratification refers to structures in a hierarchy of roles in any social group or
community that are unequal in terms of power, property, social assessment,
and/or social gratification.
Stratification thus contains two phenomena, (1) the distinction of
individuals or groups ranked higher than others by certain individuals or
groups and (2) the ranking of individuals according to some valuation basis.
Based on certain variations in ideals that it assigns to various positions,
society compares and ranks individuals’ classes. When individuals and
classes are graded according to some widely accepted valuation bases, we
have social stratification in a hierarchy of status levels based on inequality in
social status. We mean the organization of any social group or community by
which roles are commonly separated by stratification. Regarding control, land,
assessment and intellectual satisfaction, the roles are unequal.
The nature of stratification has contributed to the issue of social
inequality that is from the past to current situation. These inequalities are
institutionalized and unchangeable in communities that have closed
stratification structures. A person born into a specific economic and social
strata or caste remains until he/she dies in this stratum. Numerous current
industrial societies have structures of open stratification or class
stratification. Social mobility is possible in open stratification structures, but
certain members of the community do not have the ability to fulfill their
potential.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STRATIFICATIONS
The following social stratification characteristics were described by
Melvin M. Tumin in his publication entitled American Sociological Review
(1953):

1. It is Social
Stratification is social in the sense that it does not reflect
biologically mediated discrimination in social. It is true that variables
such as power, intellect, age, gender also may serve as the bases from
which status is classified. But these differences alone are not enough
to justify why some societies are granted more power, land, and prestige
than others.

2. It is Ancient
The system for stratification is very old. Also, in the small
wandering bands, stratification is present. Age and sex carry the
primary stratification factors. Almost every ancient civilization gave
distinction between rich and poor, powerful and humble, freemen and
slaves. Social philosophers have been deeply concerned with economic,
social, and political inequalities since the times of Plato and Kautilya.

3. It is Universal
The social stratification is universal. The difference between rich
and poor is noticeable everywhere. Stratification is quite present in non-
literate communities.

4. It is in Diverse Forms
In all cultures, social stratification has never been standardized.
The Aryan society was divided into four Varnas: Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
 Vaishyas and the Sudras; the ancient Greek society into freemen and
slaves; and the ancient Chinese society into mandarins, traders,
farmers and soldiers. The ancient Roman society was stratified into two
strata: The Patricians and the Plebeians. The general forms of
stratification found in the modern world tend to be class and land.

5. It is Consequential
The Stratification System has its own implications. Due to stratification,
the most important, most desirable, and sometimes the scarcest items in
human life are distributed unequally. The method has two types of
implications: (i) Life chances and (ii) lifestyle. Such topics as infant
mortality rates, lifespan, physical and mental illness, marital problems,
separation, and divorce apply to life chances. The lifestyle however, include
living modes, residential areas, education, leisure practices, parent-child
relationships, modes of transportation, and so on.

Elements of Social Stratifications

There are several common elements of all stratification systems.

Differentiation, ranking, evaluation and rewarding have been
established as these components. Tumin (1953) identified the components
of social stratification as the following:

1. Status Differentiation
It is the mechanism by which social roles, such as father and
mother, are decided and differentiated from each other by combining a
distinctive role, a set of rights and responsibilities.
Differentiation of status functions more successfully when: a)
Tasks are identified clearly.
b) Power and obligation shall be separated.
c) A recruitment and training system exists.
d) There are appropriate penalties to motivate individuals, including
incentives and sanctions.

Responsibilities, services, and privileges are allocated not to specific

persons, but also to status. The societies will create general and
universal rules or guidelines that will extend to many and different
people who are to inhabit the same status, e.g. all the different women
who will play a parent's role.

Differentiation is not in itself an independent method. Ranking is the

easiest way to promote understanding the differentiation process.
 2. Ranking

Ranking is defined as a position on the achievement or status

scale as a classification of individual.

Ranking is done on the basis of:

a. Personality traits that persons are assumed to require if they are

to learn and successfully perform roles such as intellect,
aggressiveness, and politeness
b. The abilities and skills that are considered essential, such as
physiological, numerical or linguistic skills, for effective role
performance
c. The general characteristics of the job, such as complexity,
cleanliness, risk, etc.
The aim of the ranking is to classify the right candidate for the correct
position. Non-valuative rating, i.e. jobs are classified as harder or easier,
cleaner or dirtier, better or riskier, and the individuals are classified slower,
smarter or more capable than others without indicating that some are
socially more important and others are less important because of these
qualities. Ranking is a selective method in the sense that only certain
statuses are chosen for comparative ranking and only some are generally
included in the ranking process with all selected features, e.g. the Father-
Mother status is not ranked.

3. Evaluation:
The method of assessment further solidifies classification and ranking.
While the ranking procedure relies more or less on the question, the
assessment process focuses better and worse on the question. Assessment
is both a personal and social characteristic. That is, people give everything
a relative value, a degree of choice and a priority of desirability. To the
point that assessment is a learned value, people tend to share a specific
set of values with a consensus that tends to evolve within a society. The
social dimension essential for evaluation stratification would be value
consensus.

The Three Dimensions of Evaluation

a. Prestige- These relates to honour and includes respectful behaviour.

Radcliffe-Brown (1955) in his publication “The British Journal of
Sociology ” mentioned three groups that were typically granted special
prestige in hunting societies: those old people, those with supernatural
abilities, those with special personality traits such as hunting ability.
 Prestige is the goods or commodity that is in limited supply and it is,
therefore, more valued.

b. Preferability- Those positions, i.e. status roles, which are selected by

most citizens, are rated higher, e.g." I'd like to be a doctor here).”

c. Popularity- Those common status roles that people know to be very

prestigious are assessed higher, e.g. Nowadays, the students are taking
a course for being a teacher because this occupation is very popular.

4. Rewarding

Differentiated, rated, and assessed statuses are assigned to differential

incentives in terms of positive things in life. In different ways, social units
such as households, subcultures, social classes, and professions that are
socially classified are rewarded differently. A few of the benefits are health
care, education, wages, and positions of prominence.

Two Types of Rewarding

1. Abundant- Which rather than material, these are spiritual or psychic

and are secured in the process of performing a role, such as pleasure,
love, and respect.
2. Scarce- In this context of desirable and limited incentives, social
stratification becomes important. Many who have influence take
possession of these incentives in a system where there is an unfair
distribution of incentives. In conclusion, it can be assumed that the
social mechanism that shapes and retains the stratification structure
is distinction, rating, assessment and rewarding.

FORMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:

Sociologists distinguish between two forms of systems of stratification:

the closed systems and the open systems. Closed systems accommodate no
change to social status. It is described as a place where individuals can do
little or nothing to alter their social status. They do not allow people to change
levels and do not facilitate social interactions between levels. The caste
systems and slavery are closed systems of stratification in which individuals
may do little or nothing to alter their social status. Open systems on the other
hand, focus and allow layers and classes to move and interact. It is based on
success, allowing layers and classes to move and interact. Different systems
reflect, emphasize, and promote these cultural values and influence people's
opinions. Class systems and estate systems are the examples in open systems
of stratification. Hence, stratification systems include the caste system, the
class system, slavery, and estate system (Encarnacion, 2019).
Slavery (Free or Unfree)

Slavery is a system in which people are bought and sold as

slaves against their will, compelled to work, or kept in
captivity or cages.

Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture,
purchase, or birth; and can also be deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to
work, or to demand compensation. Historically, slavery was institutionally
recognized by many societies. Slavery predates written records and has
existed in many cultures. The number of slaves today is higher than at any
point in history, remaining as high as 12 million to 27 million. Most are debt
slaves, largely in South Asia, who are under debt bondage incurred by lenders,
sometimes even for generations (Encarnacion, 2019).

Caste Systems

Caste systems are closed systems of social stratification in

which individuals inherit their status and experience little

mobility.

Caste is a complex social system that incorporates some or all of the

components of endogamy, hereditary transfer of jobs, social status, social
identity, hierarchy, exclusion, and authority. Caste is a closed social
stratification structure in which membership is determined by birth and
remains fixed for life; castes are also endogamous, which means that marriage
is prevented outside one's caste, and children are automatically members of
their parents' caste. Race or ethnicity, economic class, or religious affiliation
is the most prevalent stratification of castes. Castes have been noted in
cultures all over the world throughout history, but they are sometimes
mistakenly considered to be a practice specific to India (Encarnacion, 2019).

Historically, there were four well-known types in the caste system in

India: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (commerce),
Shudras (workmen). In these four caste classifications, some people left out
were called "outcasts" or "untouchables" and were ostracized and persecuted.
While Indian culture is often associated with the term "caste system," in many
non-Indian societies, the system is prevalent. Caste structures have been
found in various cultural settings around the globe, including primarily
Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Buddhist, and other societies (Encarnacion, 2019).
Class Systems

Social class refers to the grouping of people, typically based on

income, education, and occupation, in a stratified social
hierarchy.

Social class refers to the grouping of people in a stratified social

hierarchy into positions. In terms of variables, such as wealth, income,
education, and occupation, a class consists of a group of people who share
similar status. Class systems, unlike caste systems, are transparent. People
are free to get a standard of education or jobs different from that of their
parents. They can also socialize with members of other classes and marry
them, allowing individuals to switch from one class to another. Employment
is not fixed at birth in a class system. While family and other social models
help direct an individual towards a career, there is a place for personal choice.
Certainly, class systems are the most accessible, which means that they have
the most vertical mobility (Encarnacion, 2019).

Estate Systems

Estate systems are characterized by land ownership and were

widespread during the Middle Ages and through the 1800s in

Europe and Asia.

In feudal systems, estates were classified especially in Europe during

the Middle Ages. They were less restrictive than castes, and some mobility was
permitted. In an estate structure, according to their birth, military strength
and landholdings, men are assigned to their strata. Unlike castes, instead of
religious rules, estates were created politically through man-made laws. Each
estate had a code of suitable behavior of its own (Encarnacion, 2019).

The common threefold divisions are:

A. The nobility (first/highest) estate), consisting of aristocracy and gentry;
B. The clergy (second estate), which had a lower position, but had various
privileges; and
C. The commoners, ranging from peasants and artisans to everything else.

The individuals of different strata were defined in an estate structure by

the privileges they had and the obligations they were supposed to fulfill. These
structures differ depending on their degree of vertical mobility, or the
likelihood that the stratification ladder will rise or fall. A person has virtually
no chance of going up or down in some so-called closed societies. There is
more vertical mobility in open societies to some individuals, and maybe many
individuals will level up or even go down. To define the consistency or lack
thereof of an individual's rank across these variables, sociologists use the term
status consistency. Caste structures equate with high consistency of status,
although there is lower consistency of status for the more fluid class structure.
In economic, social, political, and ideological aspects, social stratification
structures trigger relational sets of inequalities (Encarnacion, 2019).

SOCIAL MOBILITY

Social mobility refers to the transition from one social status to another
within the social system. This indicates a change in social standing. All
societies offer some conditions for social mobility. Unlike culture, social
mobility is the extent that people can transfer from one class or level of status
to another.

It is claimed that the greater the degree of social mobility, the more accessible
the class structure. In evaluating the relative "openness" of a social system,
the idea of social mobility has fundamental significance. The aspect, shapes,
direction, and magnitude of social mobility depend on the nature and types of
social stratification. In order to find out the relative 'opening' of a social
system, sociologists studied social mobility.

Any community that enhances its standards would also enhance its
social standing. But there are no uniform levels of social mobility in all
countries. From time to time, it varies from society to society. The rate of
mobility in India is inherently poor because of the predominant occupation
which is agriculture and the continuity of the caste system which is relative
to the other nations of the world (YourArticleLibrary).

Types of Social Mobility:

In social stratification, the movement occurs in three directions.

(a) From lower to higher

(b) From higher to lower
(c) Between two positions at the same level.

Two Types of Social Mobility:

 1. Horizontal mobility
2. Vertical mobility

HORIZONTAL MOBILITY

This refers to the transfer of people possessing the same level from one
social group to another. This implies that the ranks of these two categories
are not distinct. It demonstrates a change of place without a change of status.
For example, horizontal mobility is the case if a teacher leaves one school and
joins another school, or a bank officer leaves one branch to work in another
or even changes residence.

VERTICAL MOBILITY

This refers to the transfer of individuals from one layer to another or

from one place to another while their class, occupation, and power change. It
is the movement from lower to higher or higher to lower is involved. Two forms
of vertical mobility exist. One is upward, and the other is downward).

Further, it is called upward mobility if a person moves from lower status

to higher status. For instance, it is said to be upward social mobility if the son
of a peon enters a bank as an officer, but if he loses the job due to some other
cause or inefficiency, he is downwardly moved from his previous job. So
downward mobility takes place when a person steps down and changes
his/her status from one position to another.
 Non-state Institutions

Governments have put up different institutions that provide

services for its people's welfare, such as public works, military and
police forces, education, transportation, public works, health services,
and other departments and agencies. Similar institutions are utilized by
external support agencies as channels for programs and projects
intended to benefit the poor. These are non-state institutions that take
various forms and have different functions and purposes that greatly
impact the people's everyday living and the country's activities as a
whole. There are significant numbers of these institutions that promote
human rights while others, unexpectedly, commit crimes or even
perpetrate violations affecting people's lives and basic freedoms.

Forms of Non-state Institutions

❖ Non-state institutions intended to promote the country’s economy

A. Banks

Banking institutions are companies, corporations, or associations, or

any lawful organizations approved by the government which is engaged
in the lending of funds acquired from the general population through
the receipt of deposits and the sale of bonds or obligations of any kind
(Jimenez 2017, 174). These also lend money to individuals and business
houses that need it.
In our country, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas or BSP has the sole
authority in monitoring and compiling various indicators on the
Philippine banking system and classified banks according to the
following:

1. Universal and commercial banks are banking institutions that

grant short term loans and varieties of banking services. This
represents the largest group, resource-wise, of financial
institutions in the country. Universal banks offer services, which
are wholesale banking, retail banking, and investment banking.
Thus, it operates and functions like a commercial and investment
bank. Examples of existing universal banks in the country
include Banco De Oro (BDO), Bank of the Philippine Islands (BPI),
Philippine National Bank, and UnionBank, while commercial
banks include East West Bank and Bank of Commerce (Jimenez
2017,175).
These are the largest universal and commercial banks in the
country by total assets as of December 2019:
Top 10 Best Banks in the Philippines as to Assets
 Source: https://www.esquiremag.ph/money/industry/rural-thrift-commercial-
banksdifferences-a00289-20200709

2. The thrift banking system – These are banks specializing in

offering savings accounts and home mortgages for clients. These
are sometimes referred to as Savings and Loan Associations
(S&Ls). They accumulate savings from depositors, and then invest
it. They also provide short-term working capital as well as
medium- and long-term financing to businesses engaged in
agriculture, services, industry and housing, and diversified
financial and allied services, and to their chosen markets and
constituencies, especially small and medium enterprises and
individuals (Caña 2020).

Source: https://www.esquiremag.ph/money/industry/rural-thrift-commercial-banksdifferences-
a00289-20200709
3. Rural and Cooperative Banks- These are the most well-known
type of banks in the rural communities. Their role is to promote
and expand the rural economy in an orderly and effective manner
by providing the people in the rural communities with basic
financial services. They help the farmers through the stages of
production, from planting to selling of their products (Jimenez
2017, 175).

Rural banks and cooperative banks are differentiated from each

other by ownership. Rural banks are privately owned and
managed; cooperative banks are organized/owned by
cooperatives or federation of cooperatives. Example of banks
belong to this group are, East West Rural Bank Inc., Cantilan
Bank Inc (A Rural Bank), and One Network Bank (A Rural Bank).

Source: https://www.esquiremag.ph/money/industry/rural-thrift-commercial-banksdifferences-
a00289-20200709

B. Corporations

Corporations are legal entities that are independent and distinct

from their owners. Corporations enjoy most of the rights and
responsibilities that people have; they can enter agreements, loan
and borrow money, sue and be sued, recruit workers, own assets,
and pay taxes. These may be non-profit organizations engaged in
activities for the public good; municipal corporations, such as
cities or towns; or private corporations organized to profit
(Kenton, 2020).
 In legal interpretations, a corporation is like a person who has
responsibilities and has the power to buy, sell and own property;
it can enter into leases and contracts, and it can even bring
lawsuits. It also must pay taxes or, if failed, can be prosecuted or
punished if it breaks the law. The leading corporations in the
country are SM Prime Holdings, San Miguel Corporation, Ayala
Land, SM Investments Corporations, JG Summit, Petron
Corporation, Smart Corporations,
Nestle, and Meralco.*

*https://www.inc.com/articles/1999/10/14108.html. Retrieved on October 18, 2020

Philippines Top 5 Companies List by Market Cap as on

January 1,
2020 (Source: https://www.value.today/headquarters/philippines)

Top 1
Top 2
Top 3

Top 4

Top 5
C. Cooperatives

These financial institutions promote and undertake savings and

lending services among their members. These generate common
pool of funds to provide financial assistance and other related
financial services to their members. Furthermore, each member
has a fair share of the risks and benefits of his/her financial
undertaking by the agreed cooperative principles, rules, or
regulations (Jimenez 2017,177).

There are different types of cooperatives in the Philippines, and

these are:

a. Credit Cooperative – is a financial institution owned and

controlled by its members that promote and undertakes
savings and lending services. It generates a shared pool of
funds to provide financial assistance and other related
financial services to its members.

b. Consumer’s Cooperative – frequently appears as retail outlet

possessed and worked by the consumers, for example, food co-
ops. Its primary aim is to procure and distribute goods to its
members and even nonmembers.

c. Producer’s Cooperative – is a joint production undertaking of

all members where they processed products from raw
materials to produce goods for sale by the cooperative to its
members and nonmembers or their chosen market. All the
products made shall be sold in the name and account of the
cooperative, shall be considered as products of the cooperative
and its members.

d. Marketing Cooperative – focuses on supplying goods or

production inputs to members and marketing their products.

e. Service Cooperative – concerns giving services such as medical

and dental care, hospitalization, transportation, insurance,
housing, labor, electric light and power, communication,
professional and other services.

f. Multipurpose Cooperative – is a combination of two or more of

the forms of different types of cooperatives. Example of this is
Panabo Multi-Purpose Cooperative (PMPC).
g. Advocacy Cooperative – is a cooperative focused on advocating
cooperativism among its members and the public through
sociallyoriented projects, education and training, research and
communication, and other activities to reach out to its
intended beneficiaries.

h. Agrarian Reform Cooperative – intends to develop an

appropriate system of land tenure, land development, land
consolidation and land management which is organized by
marginal farmers who are agrarian reform beneficiaries.

i. Cooperative Bank – is a cooperative that aims to provide wide

range of financial services to its members.

j. Dairy Cooperative – has members that are engaged in fresh

milk products which may be possessed or marketed as dairy
products

k. Education cooperative – is organized to own and operate

licensed educational institutions without going beyond what is
stipulated in RA No. 9155 known as the Governance of Basic
Education Act of
2001

l. Electric Cooperative – has the purpose of managing the

generation and utilization of renewable energy sources and the
acquisition and operation of sub-transmission or distribution
to household members. Common example of this is the electric
cooperative in most provinces like Davao del Norte Electric
Cooperative (DANECO).

m. Fishermen Cooperative – is organized by fishermen members

in localities whose products either as fresh or processed
products.

n. Housing Cooperative – is a cooperative that aims to provide or

assist members who actively participate in the housing savings
program to have access to housing provisions. It is controlled
and co-owned by its members.

o. Insurance Cooperative – aims to venture into the business of

insuring life and property of cooperative and their members.
 p. Water Service Cooperative – is organized to manage water
systems' distribution and operation to distribute potable
waters to its members and their households.

q. Worker’s Cooperative – is organized by workers who are

workers, aiming to provide employment and business
opportunities to its members.

r. Other types of cooperatives as may be determined by the

Cooperative Development Authority (CDA)*

The cooperatives mentioned above are just a few of the long lists from
the CDA, which can be found on their official website.

D. Labor/Trade Unions

These are membership-based organizations created by workers

and their leaders who are united to promote, protect their
common interest and welfare in their workplace. For example, the
same company's banana plantation workers can create their own
union to be heard and be given what is due to them, especially
during disadvantageous or unfair situations in their workplace.
Specifically, trade unions represent their members to accomplish
the following, which are the reasons why workers would join:

1. Negotiate agreements with employers on their wage/salary and

working conditions
2. Deliberate significant changes to the workplace
3. Discuss members’ concern towards their employers
4. Escort members in disciplinary and grievance meetings
5. Provide legal and financial provisions for members
6. Raise concerns and demands for the members such as free
health and insurance benefits, and the like
7. Take collective action to enforce the agreed terms with
employers (Jimenez 2017, 178)

Most of these trade unions are independent of any employer. The

Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) and the National Labor
Relations Commission (NLRC) are the government's overseers to ensure
the employees' welfare in congruence with what is stated in the
Constitution and the Labor Code of the Philippines. Unions are usually
independent of their employers, yet sometimes they work closely or take
 the form of partnership to come up with a collective agreement that will
give satisfaction to both of them.
Agreements can be reached voluntarily but sometimes with the help of
the arbitration panel from the NLRC. In case agreement of both parties
is impossible, a union may apply for statutory recognition in written
form, which can be secured first from the employer. However, if the
employer refuses to do so, then the union can bring the case to the
NLRC, Court of Appeals, and Supreme Court for a decision. The court
will then assess the level of union membership and the presence of any
other union.
*http://attyatwork.com/introduction-to-cooperatives-kinds-of-cooperatives-in-the-philippines, Retrieved October 15, 2020
Whether the union is recognized or not, membership in it is voluntary
and does not require all workers to join as stipulated in our law; thus,
they have the right to refuse to become a member. The worker is also
protected from discrimination for being a union member. Moreover,
trade union membership should not be grounds for refusal or dismissal
from employment and illegal selection for termination or redundancy by
the employer.
Nonmember workers will still enjoy the same protection as it does to
union members if a collective bargaining agreement is reached.
Employers cannot force workers to join their (employers) preferred
union and has no right to deduct payments from the employees in
return for union membership without the employees’ approval.

• Collective Bargaining- is the process of negotiating the terms or

conditions of employment such as working conditions, rules in
the workplace, retirement and health benefits, wage/salary and
bonus, and the like between an employer and organization of
workers.

• Redundancy- refers to an employee's dismissal from his/her job

by the employer to reduce the workforce. If you are being made
redundant, you are entitled to receive redundancy pay.

OTHER NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS

The following below are non-state institutions that are noneconomic.

A. Transnational Advocacy Groups

Transnational advocacy groups are organized to promote and

advocate principled causes, ideas, and values that aim to bring
change to ordinary people's daily lives. Members can be any
knowledgeable, committed individuals and organizations with the
same cry for change across state borders. Advocacy organizations
are known by different names: non-state actors, NGOs, and
transnational advocacy networks. Among the common actors that
 play a significant part in the establishment of these organizations
are the media, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), religious
organizations, local social movements, foundations, trade unions
and consumer organizations, intellectuals and scholars, and
other agencies in international and regional intergovernmental
organizations and the like (Jimenez 2017, 180).
Among the issues that these groups are determined to give
attention include human rights, consumer rights, women’s rights,
environmental issues, international peace, and many others.
These groups become influential because of their relationships
and connections being developed with other like-minded groups
across borders that they use to change international policy and
action.

Importance of Transnational Advocacy Groups

a. They serve as voices of civil societies and of groups outside
the political arena.
b. They promote more comprehensive opportunities for
dialogue on human rights issues, cultural and
environmental concerns, and others across borders.
c. Through mobilization of information in support of a cause,
they can influence international policy, actions, or
practices.
d. They create activities among themselves to forward their
principled cause and make it happen.

B. International Organizations
These are created after an international agreement between countries
or organizations and become institutions that provide avenues for
diplomatic agreement, rules, and activities among nations.
International organizations can be categorized into two: International
Governmental Organizations (IGOs) and International Nongovernmental
Organizations (INGOs or, more commonly, NGOs).
IGOs and NGOs exist for different reasons, such as controlling the
multiplication of conventional and nuclear weapons, overseeing trade
exchange, keeping up military alliances, ending world hunger, poverty,
or discriminations, and encouraging the spread of democracy harmony.
The most notable International Organization is the United Nations,
which was established on October 24, 1945, which aims to end World
War II; the organization also creates programs and advocacies that aim
to address poverty, hunger, and terrorism. Environmental problems,
economic issues, and many others can be read in Article one of the UN
Charter.
Source: https://www.sparknotes.com/us-government-and-politics/political-science/international-
politics/section4/

Socio- Cultural and Political Institutions (Micheli, 2000,

11-18)
Family sets as the basic and the most essential institution in the society. It is
the core of the inter-relations of the community. It is the primary source of the
values, hierarchical status, and relational functions in the group.
Social Institution is the inter-relationship between persons and among the
groups in accordance with the functions and responsibilities in the society. The
word “Family” is defined as the social group characterized by common
residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction (Murdock 1941:1). Family is
the basic unit of the society that fosters the beginning of values, norms, and
belief systems. In addition, family is described as a group of people united by
mutual agreement through ties of marriage, blood or adoption, and mutual
relational inter-action and communication in creating as well as maintaining
common culture.

Kinship

* Kinship – is web of social relationships that creates an important level of

the lives of the people in the society. It affects and influences the sociocultural
and political processes and development.

* Descent - is the Origin or background of a person in terms of family or

nationality.

Descent Group (Social group with same ancestry of the people)

1. Unilineal Society - The origin of a person is either from the mother’s or
father’s line of descent.

2. Matrilineal Descent – an individual’s origin from his/her mother’s

descent group.

3. Patrilineal Descent - a person’s origin from his/her father’s descent

group.

Marriage
* Marriage - The essential institutional symbol of the family. It is a cultural
mechanism that ensures the continuity of the social group. It serves as the
foundation of family and sets as inviolable social institution. It consists of
the love, economic and social security, the parent’s desires, companionship,
protection, and common interests (Bowman). In the Philippine Family Code,
it is stated that marriage is the special contract of permanent union between
a man and a woman entered in the accordance with law for the
establishment of conjugal and family life. In addition, this law fosters two
aspects: Contact - applies to man and woman only, and Status - created
between parties.

https://pixabay.com/vectors/marriage-married-wedding-37230/

Forms of Marriage
1. Monogamy - allows a man to marry only one spouse at a time.
2. Polygamy – It is a form of more than one marriage and can be
described in two ways:
⚫ Polygyny - Marriage of one man into two or more women at the same
time. It is commonly practiced by Muslims and known as a status
symbol for the man.
⚫ Polyandry - Marriage of a woman to two or more men at the same time.
3. Selection of Marriage Partners
* Types of Norms in Selecting of Marriage Partners
⚫ Endogamy - dictates one should marry within one’s group, clan or
ethnic affiliation.
⚫ Exogamy - One can marry outside one’s clan or ethnic affiliation.
⚫ Levirate Norms – A widow marries the brother or the nearest kin of her
deceased husband.
⚫ Surrogate Norm - Men should marry the sister or nearest kin of his
deceased wife.
Family
Family serves as the core of the inter-relational dynamism in the society.
It is the bearing for the persons development. It varies from one culture to
another – the way of living, belief system and values formation of its
members.

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Structures of Family
1. Based on Internal Organization or Membership
a. Nuclear Family - described as the composition of husband and his
wife and their children in union recognized by the other members of the
society. The two kinds of Nuclear Family is known as 1 st, Family of
Orientation - the one that is born and reared or socialized, and 2nd, Family
of Procreation - family is established through the mutual agreement of both
parties in a marriage that consists of husband, wife and children.
b. Extended Family – is composed of two or more nuclear families that
economically and socially related to each other. The relationship may be
through parent to child relationship.

2. Based on Authority
a. Patriarchal Family - the authority is given to the father or the eldest
male in the family.
b. Matriarchal Family - the authority is given to the mother or the
eldest female in the family.
c. Egalitarian Family - both husband and wife exercise an equal
amount or way of authority.

Functions of Family
1. The family performs the function of biological continuance and the
preservation of the bloodline in accordance with the socio-cultural
agreement of the family.
2. The Family gives its members social status that enables them to
carry all the essential benefits of the family.
3. The family performs economic and social functions in the society
that allows its members to further develop all the resources acquired by
the family.
Structural Characteristics of the Filipino Family
1. The basic unit of the Philippine society is the nuclear family.
2. The Christian Filipino family is known as a large group that normally a
combination of both nuclear and extended families.
3. Blood kinship serves as an important role in the Filipino family that
emphasizes strong affiliation of the siblings most particularly in the rural
areas.
4. Family affiliation is emphasized in a form of “compadre or compadrazgo”
system that can be elaborated in the different rituals/occasions like
baptism, confirmation and marriage.
5. Filipino Family is commonly known as Patriarchal in authority that means
the father serves to be the leader/source of authority in the family.

Filipino Values in the Family

Utang na Loob – is an exchange of goods and services between individuals in

form of good faith. Most of Filipinos strongly observe this value out of filial
piety and respect.

Palabra de Honor – is an act of

fulfilling the promised services
between individuals. Most
Filipinos prefer to do the
agreement as a sign of strong Filipino Values in
commitment and trust. the Family

Pakikisama – is an act of
being with the person in any
forms/situation.

Bayanihan – is an act of
unified workforce in a form of
volunteerism for
greater cause.
Challenges and Threats of Filipino Families
Challenges/Threats Description
Many of the Filipino families of today are
not experiencing the difficulty of uniting
with all its members. Most common factors
Disintegration of the Family of the disintegration are lack of
communication within the family members
and acceptance among the closest
relational affinity.
There are Filipinos who are now hooked
Substance Abuse and addicted with the different illegal
substances that can greatly cause
problems into the family. The youth are
now carried away by the most common
way of living of the family in the society.
Arising number of families today are now
experiencing the absence of parents in the
growth and development of their children.
There are many valid reasons to cite of why
Parental Absenteeism this is currently happening. One of those
reasons is the low family income that
pushes both parents to seek for better
work options to supplicate the needs of
their family members.
Due to the concurrent social problems,
many families of today are greatly affected
Economic Difficulty of the economic difficulty which eventually
divide the society.
Filipinos of today are no longer practicing
the Filipino values, and instead much
Deteriorating of Family Values easier to welcome and live the other
country’s values and culture.
Many Filipino teenagers are now
Alarming Rising incident of experiencing early teenage pregnancy due
Teenage Pregnancy to lack of parental guidance and strong
peer pressure.

Social and Political Structure

Types of Political Description Functions
Organization
 Band Traditional Group of Most traditional and smallest type
people of group that aims to meet the
Egalitarian - means that basic needs for survival. Power
they see people of the depends on the skills and
same age and gender as personality of a leader.
Tribe the same. Traditional society which focuses
on meeting the basic needs of the
group. It is now structured and
organized for it is more dependent
on horticulture. The leader
possesses more power, however,
can be deposed if he/she exercises
too much power to the group.
Chiefdom A political group It is permanent and formal
characterized by social government. The leaders are role
hierarchies, models who are responsible in
centralization of power resolving disputes among
and distribution of members. Leadership is
resources to the dependent on the skills and the
members. capacity to lead the group.

State The most complex in It is formal political organization in

relation to social, a modern or industrial way of
economic, and political living that defined the citizenship
organization. of its constituents according to
their rights and responsibilities.
The group imposes regulation to
manage the large population of the
group.

Each group of people in the society have the similarities when it comes to
translation of leadership by the leader. The role and responsibilities of a leader
is greatly beneficial to the members of the group. One thing that holds and binds
the group is the exercise of power of a leader in their respective group or
community.

Components in Social and Political Structure (Blau. 1963, 305-316.)

1. Power - It is the sum of authority and legitimacy of a leader. It is the
ability to lead the group with the use of skills, knowledge and leadership with
efficiency and effectiveness. The leader may use power to exercise sanctions,
punishments or directives to the members of the group.
2. Authority - It is the right of a leader to maximize or use power to
command the members of the group. It is a translation of power by exercising
the capacity to lead out of expertise in a particular concern or decision-making.
3. Legitimacy - It is the recognition of someone who serves to be right and
proper. When a leader is fully accepted and supported by the members of the
group because he deserves it, and he is capable of his responsibilities.
Three Types of Authority
For Max Weber, there are three types of authority in accordance with the
legitimacy of a person as a belief system1:
1. Traditional - It is the inherited power from the previous leader out of
affinal privileged.
2. Charismatic - It is the capacity of a person to lead the members of the
group by virtue to inspire them to willingly follow and obey.

3. Rational - It is an exercise authority based on a system of rules set by the

group. Members have the right to choose leaders who can represent them in
fighting for justice, fairness, and equality. The rules serve as the guiding
principle of the leader in exercising his/her roles and responsibilities to the
group. Most of the time, the members will use their proper reasoning in voting
for their supported leaders. In today’s developing era, people are now rational
in electing a leader on their behalf.
The leader of the group serves as the head of the state/society that he/she
leads. The head of the group delegates the power to sub- heads he/she has
appointed in order to maintain the effectiveness of his functions and
responsibility.

Economic Institutions and State (Weber.1963)

Economic Institutions refers to the production and distribution of goods and

services in order to supplicate the needs of the members of the society.
Economic agreement through an exchange of functioning economy is
significant for it widens the capacity of the state to improve its resources in
both ends receiving and selling towards the other state.

Reciprocity is defined as the capacity to give out generosity/volunteerism

without money involvement and that in the future, it can be reciprocated. This
concept of reciprocity can be closely described as barter, hospitality, gift-giving
and sharing of resources. The purpose of this act of giving is to build and
strengthen social relationships and positively foster good favors to the
recipient.
In the previous lesson, it is important to create good relationship towards the
other group for it is essential for the development of the community. A good
example of the concept of reciprocity is the Filipino value of “Utang na Loob”.
This value enables the group to acknowledge the important contributions
extended by the other group and it is through sincere indebtedness that
equates the impact of it.

1
Blau, P. M. (1963). "Critical remarks on Weber’s theory of authority". The American Political Science Review, 57 (2): 305-316.
Forms of Reciprocity
1. Generalized Reciprocity - refers to the exchange of goods and services
with no time-bound frame is followed. This is a kind of reciprocity that a
person is giving without expecting something in return.
2. Balanced Reciprocity - means the exchange between groups or
individuals with something to expect to receive out of similar or equally the
same in value given. This concept somewhat creates pressure in either both
parties for it demands to reciprocate the given resources within the period of
time. 3. Negative Reciprocity - described as unequal process for which the
groups try to maximize their advantage while giving as little as possible. This
is inspired by the desire to acquire a large portion of goods using minimal
resources.
Transfer and the Government
Government transfer or transfer of payments is used for the redistribution
of resources specifically wealth and income where no goods or services are
given to the donor in return. In a State scenario, transfers are evident for
payments that can be through the collection of taxes, social services,
pensions, housing, and health care plans. In the Philippine context, the
government is providing various programs and activities intended for the
citizens. The commonly identified allocations are retirement, disability
benefits, medical, unemployment insurance, and education.

Redistribution
The process of redistribution of goods or services is observed when the
collection of goods from individual in a community is kept by the central
authority. These goods are collected to be used for future transactions. The
main goal of redistribution is to allocate such goods back to the people for
common welfare. The process requires reversal dynamism – from the storage
area of the central authority then given back to the common people.

Understanding Market Transactions

In a developing state, it is important to familiarize the capitalist economy
where the market principle dominates. The principle implies that the
market is tasked for the sale and distribution of goods and services in the
society. In the market arena, money plays a vital role for it is the main
means in all transactions. Market in economic definitions refers to a wider
setting where buyers or sellers simultaneously trade or exchange
goods/services. Market also implies how the state competitively exchange
transactions towards the other state. In a market exchange, at least two
parties are involved: one who has a product and the other who has the
money. Both parties can extend agreement using bargaining or in barter
system.

Elements of Market Transactions

1. Money - It consists of the objects that serve as way of exchange for
goods or services.
2. Prices – These refer the amount required or agreed upon by both
exchanging parties.
3. Supply – It is defined as the quantity of goods or services that are
available to sell at a given price in a period of time.
4. Demand – It refers to the quantity of goods or services that the
consumer is willing to purchase or take at a given price in a period of time.

Interaction of State and Markets

It is important for a state to acquire economic growth and development in
order to provide a good standard of living to its constituents. Market existed
because of the on-going transactions made by the state towards the others
state. This concept is significant for it opens-up the field of international
political economy or commonly known as the economic relations towards
the other states. The market-based concerns continuously develop societal
and economic growth in the areas of people’s communes, state-owned
enterprise, decentralization, price reform and capital market development.

Conflicts between Market and State Functions

Despite the call of every state to link with socio-economic markets in order to
boost the financial stability, there are disputes arises due to the liberal
perspective that since majority of the state deals with the citizens, it has to
delegate the power. This aspect serves to be a challenge on what to do in the
world of economic markets. Thus, both the state and citizens must work
together to solve the dispute and to go on for the development and
improvement.

Types of State According to Market Roles

1. Laissez-Faire State – is a French word that means “to leave alone”. This
principle is described as the participation of the government in the regulations,
subsidies, privileges, and other ways of development. Therefore, this type of
state completely does not have any role in managing the market. 2.
Interventionist or Developmental State - describes as the intervention of the
state in the market and sets direction towards economic development. In this
concept, the state implements policies, subsidies, protection of tariffs and local
industries.
3. Welfare State - refers to a vital role in the achievement and protection of the
economic and social readiness of its citizens. This concept is centered in the
idea of a good quality life for all the people instead of prioritizing the economic
development.

Today, our government maximize the different branches with specific

areas of concentration in response to the basic needs of the society. Aside from
the state-related branches, the birth of non-state institutions significantly
creates a positive effect to the society. The non- state institutions are
compositions of private companies that foster the same vision/mission with the
government/state that is to help/respond the needs of the people in the society.