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Gilstrap 1998
Gilstrap 1998
Note: The composite properties vary with the manufacture quality control and FRP con®guration. The above values are repre-
sentative of industry products. However, speci®c properties must be ascertained prior to initiation of design. The composite values
assume a volume fraction of approximately 0.65.
Out-of-plane bending of FRP-reinforced masonry walls 1279
stressed to 80±90% of its static strength will fail in ten- under dead load and after cracking if they are within the
sion at some ®nite time. This behavior, called creep- speci®ed height-to-thickness ratio. If the slenderness
rupture, results in a limitation of the maximum sus- ratio is exceeded, the wall needs bracing by either a
tained load that may be applied to FRP reinforcement. horizontal brace or vertical columns. Parapets, chim-
Rostasy and other researchers suggest that the max- neys, and similar elements extending above the topmost
imum sustained load applied to FRP reinforcement line of restraint are most vulnerable to out-of-plane
must be less than 50 percent of the static tensile forces.
strength.9 The primary implication of creep-rupture is in
structural applications where the FRP is subjected to 3.3 Connections
sustained high loads. These included prestressing instal- Earthquake forces cause walls to push against and pull
lations. Bonded reinforcement for seismic retro®t is not away from the ¯oors that they are connected to. Failure
aected by creep-rupture phenomenon. to have a secure connection between the two elements
In addition, high performance ®bers may be pre- can cause failure by falling brick as well as ¯oor col-
fabricated into fabrics and tapes without resins. The lapse. This type of problem can be corrected and work
fabrics and tapes are designed to favor the high perfor- can be performed while the building is occupied.
mance ®ber physical properties in one direction, or they Restraint of out-of-plane bending and tension ties
may be symmetric with equal properties in both direc- between the walls and the ¯oors are required to reduce
tions. Calculation of fabric and tape strength is based the risk of collapse. For these applications, a sheet or
on the actual ®ber area. This approach is used because fabric reinforcement is the most eective.
fabrics are laid-up and resin-impregnated in place. No
®eld control is exercised on the resin volume. Conse-
quently, there are no usable de®nitions of volume 4 STRUCTURAL REINFORCEMENT
fraction.
4.1 Fabric reinforcement
The reinforcement of masonry structures, especially for
3 FAILURE ZONES FOR MASONRY retro®t, entails placement of the reinforcement on the
BUILDINGS surface of the structure. This raises numerous technical
issues. These issues include the de®nition of the fabric
The design approach to successfully retro®tting an con®guration, the bonding agent, adhesion to the
under-reinforced masonry building is to analyze the masonry, in-plane strengthening, and out-of-plane
seismic response of the structure and then ®nd ways to strengthening. These topics are examined in the follow-
strengthen the weak links in the existing system without ing sections.
drastically changing the building or creating collapse
mechanisms. Typical weak links include in-plane failure 4.2 Fabric con®guration
of the masonry, out-of-plane wall failure, and connec- Numerous fabric con®gurations are available for exter-
tions between the walls and the ¯ooring. nally reinforcing masonry. These include a chopped
®ber mat, a woven fabric, and individual tapes. Chop-
3.1 In-plane failure ped ®ber mats provide a random orientation of the
In-plane resistance of unreinforced masonry walls is ®bers and are useful for transferring in-plane shear
based on mortar strength and brick proportions. If the stresses. Provided there is sucient overlap of the ®bers,
forces are strong enough to exceed the in-plane strength the chopped mats can also provide out-of-plane ¯exural
capacity of the wall, a shear failure will occur. This capacity. Woven fabrics provide two directional orien-
failure mode is characterized by brittle tensile cracking tation of the ®bers. The weaving gives the fabric con-
through the mortar and the masonry unit and a sudden struction integrity that is useful for ®eld handling and
loss of lateral load capacity.10 The most common type application. Tapes allow narrower bands of sections to
of strengthening for in-plane resistance is the ®lling of be wrapped or surfaces to be discretely reinforced.
the voids in the blocks. This procedure is time consum- In all cases, the designer must give some attention to
ing and often not feasible. Other proven techniques the surface being reinforced. Large smooth surfaces are
include the addition of shotcrete or steel bracing or FRP equally adaptable to all fabric types. Surfaces requiring
diagonal bracing. substantial smoothing or removal of mortar ®ns may
consider tape solutions to minimize ®eld work. The
3.2 Out-of-plane failure presence of corners or tight bends further complicates
Seismic loadings induce out-of-plane bending of walls the selection of ®ber type because glass and carbon
between the restraining ¯oors. Analysis of the failure ®bers are less moldable than aramid ®bers. Woven
modes must take into account many dierent factors, fabrics or unprocessed unidirectional sheets are required
such as boundary conditions, wall compressive for these conditions. Cured FRP laminates generally do
strengths, joint tensile strengths, wall stiness, and not have sucient ¯exibility to conform to corner
applied loadings. Walls will typically remain stable geometry.
1280 J. M. Gilstrap, C. W. Dolan
based on the tensile capacity of the reinforcement. This lines for sheet spacing or reinforcement ratios are needed
dramatically aects the strength/prediction ratios. for most ecient use of these composite materials. Sim-
Development of design guidelines for the maximum ply blanketing the wall is not their most eective use.
reinforcement ratios are needed to prevent over-predic- Samples 5 and 6 (Kevlar tapes) under-estimated the
tion of retro®tting capacity. wall strength. This is partly because of the conservative
estimation of the actual tape strength based on indivi-
4.5 Flexural Results dual tape tests. The Kevlar tape properties were
It should be noted that dierent sample sizes, loadings, obtained by bonding an aluminum tab to the end of a
and end constraints were used during these pilot tests. bare fabric. The tape was then tested in uniaxial tension.
Hence, the testing of walls was dierent, with some Tapes impregnated with resin should have better load
walls being supported on all sides and some simply carrying properties than bare fabric. The original logic
supported. The carbon strap wall was tested using a line to testing bare fabric was that the tapes would not be
load rather than a uniform load owing to the avail- well-aligned on the wall and, consequently, the bare
ability of lab equipment. Predicted values are found fabric test would provide a lower bound result. The wet
using yield line analysis or simple bending theory based on lay-up process aligned the tapes better than anticipated.
the tensile strength capacity of the composite used. The This is re¯ected in the under-prediction of strength.
test results do not include the dead weight of the wall.
Samples 2 and 3 (Kevlar Fabric) failed by gross dela-
mination of the fabric. Therefore the predicted values
signi®cantly overstate the capacity of the reinforcement.
This is expected for this failure mode. Sample 4 (Tonen±
Forca tow sheet) failed by crushing the masonry. The
predicted strength is based on the tensile capacity of the
tow sheet. The over-prediction of strength is expected
and suggests that the tow sheet is very eective. Guide- Fig. 4. Masonry beam test setup.
Out-of-plane bending of FRP-reinforced masonry walls 1283
Sample 7 (Sika strap) has two predictions. The ®rst of Wyoming research. Signi®cant architectural and
prediction is based on a ¯exural failure using the full structural issues remain to be resolved. These issues
tensile capacity of the strap. Since the specimen failed include substrate preparation, ®re resistance of the fab-
because of shear delamination of the brick, this predic- ric and adhesive, durability of bonded systems that form
tion over-estimated the capacity. The second prediction impermeable barriers on masonry walls, ®nish treat-
is based on the Sika recommendation for shear capacity ment on exposed surfaces, and shear resistance of
in concrete. This is much closer to the actual behavior. strengthened walls at intersection edges. These issues
For a longer wall, the full development length of the were discussed in detail in a paper by Christensen.14
strap could be mobilized. For the shorter wall, determi- Because the use of composite materials is new to the
nation of a shear capacity is needed. building industry, there is little precedent for approval
in the major building codes (Uniform Building Code,
4.6 Adhesive results Standard Building Code, and the National Building
Selection of adhesives for strengthening or retro®tting Code). Presently UBC has a draft speci®cation for FRP-
of masonry walls requires very careful attention as seen based rehabilitation out for peer review.
from the tables. A brick beam test is recommended to One issue that must be addressed is the ®re resistance
qualify any installation process. The beam test validates of the FRP materials. ASTM E 84 addresses ®re resis-
adhesive compatibility and bond development. The tance on interior applications. If the interior is pro-
beam should be at least 1 m long. The masonry may be tected, e.g. supported by a masonry wall, then a bonded
perpendicular to the reinforcement or may be in a run- fabric may be acceptable for a thin fabric overlay.
ning bond alignment. A successful test should result in Initial ®re research at EMPA in Switzerland suggests
tension failure of the composite reinforcement. that the Carbon tapes did survive a one hour ®re. The
The Sikadur 32 epoxy was found to adequately bond straps tested in Switzerland had ®re protective overlays
the fabric and brick. However, the epoxy's low viscosity at the ends of the straps. The carbon charred but did
allowed the adhesive to ¯ow to the bottom of the wall. The not delaminateÐsimilar to the behavior of a glued
result was good beam tests but erratic coverage on the laminated timber beam.
vertical wall surface. A Dow 8084 vinylester resin was The issue of moisture retention in the concrete or
evaluated because of its lower modulus and its superior masonry must also be addressed when applying bonded
adhesion to Kevlar. Like the low viscosity Sika, the fabric. If the FRP-adhesive system forms a complete
vinylester ¯owed to the bottom of the test sample. The vapor barrier, deterioration of the adhesive bond can
vinylester penetrated the fabric and gave a high gloss occur on the substrate. This deterioration may not be
surface but did not bond well to the clay brick. Sikadur visible and could render the strengthening useless over
Gel was also evaluated. It did not penetrate the fabric but time. Bonding to both sides of a dry wall should provide
provided superior adhesion to the clay brick. The Henkel satisfactory results. A similar deterioration may occur if
product is suggested for use with carbon tow sheets and the wall surface is exposed to large variation in tem-
performed well. Master Builders Concresive adhesive also perature or freeze±thaw conditions when a small moist-
performed well and was easy to use. ure layer is present at the substrate interface. Tapes
Vinylester is a styrene based adhesive. Tests at the provide a signi®cant level of moisture relief in high
University of Wyoming indicated that the styrene moisture situations.
vapors were quite strong and required substantial
ventilation. It is doubtful that retro®tting using styr-
ene based adhesives could be conducted in operating 6 CONCLUSIONS
buildings. The epoxies did not have corresponding
fumes. FRP reinforcement was successfully used to reinforce
The research concluded that a gel or high viscosity masonry walls. Fabrics of high performance ®bers
adhesive is required for vertical and overhead surfaces externally bonded to masonry structures provide sig-
and that the fabric weave should be opened to allow ni®cant increases in in-plane and out-of-plane strength
greater penetration of the adhesive into the fabric. and load carrying capacity. At the present time, these
Initial wall tests at Wyoming failed by delamination of applications are in the demonstration stage. Formal
the fabric from the masonry. This was caused by exces- design guidance for out-of-plane bending is evolving.
sive fabric strength, incomplete penetration of the For under-reinforced conditions, reinforced concrete or
adhesive to the substrate or the fabric, or improper masonry ¯exural theory may be used to predict strength
substrate preparation. gains. Over-reinforcing leads to over-prediction of
strength. Therefore, reinforcement ratio limits need to
be de®ned to limit the reinforcement quantity. Kevlar
5 ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS and carbon tapes and sheets performed satisfactorily.
Critical performance characteristics de®ning the demar-
Architectural implications of composite reinforcing on cation between over and under-reinforcement still need
masonry walls were also evaluated with the University to be de®ned.
1284 J. M. Gilstrap, C. W. Dolan
Architectural considerations have been consigned to pretensioned beams. Advanced Composite Materials in
lesser importance caused by the urgency of providing Civil Engineering Structures, ASCE, 1991, p. 44.
safe structures in seismic areas. Nonetheless, the light 6. Phoenix, S. L., Statistical theory for strength of twisted
®ber bundles with applications to yarns and cables. Tex-
weight of FRP fabrics, the ease of application and the tile Research Journal, 1979, 49(7), 407±423.
adaptability to a number of architectural ®nishes suggests 7. Faza, S. and Gangaroa, H., Bending response of beams
that these materials will be widely used in the future. reinforced with FRP rebars for varying concrete
strengths. Advanced Composite Materials in Civil Engi-
neering Structures, ASCE, 1991, p. 262.
8. El-Badry, M. (ed.), Advanced Composite Materials in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Bridges and Structures, Second International Conference,
Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, Montreal, QUE,
Research at the University of Wyoming was sponsored Canada, 1996.
under a grant from the National Science Foundation 9. Budelmann, H. and Rostasy, F. S., Creep rupture beha-
(MSS 9114592 and Wyoming EPSCoR) with industrial vior of FRP elements for prestressed concrete Ð phe-
nomenon, results and forecast models. International
support from E. I. DuPont, Tonen Corporation, and Symposium on Fiber Reinforced Plastics for Concrete
Sika Chemicals. The opinions, ®ndings and recommen- Structures, SP-138, American Concrete Institute, Detroit
dations of this work are those of the authors and do not MI, 1991, p. 87.
necessarily re¯ect the views of the National Science 10. Avvakumovits, Otto. Seismic evaluation and retro®tting
Foundation and other sponsors. of existing unreinforced masonry buildings. Proceedings
of Structural Congress XIII, Boston MA, 1995, pp. 1821±
1824.
11. Hamid, A., Larralde, J. and Salama, A., Properties of
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