Abstract

This research work is focused on the need for domestic overhead and
underground water storage to be constantly monitored and regulated
electronically in order to protect the environment, avoid wastage and high
electricity bills etc. resulting from over flowing water tank and to ensure
conservation of water for use when the need arises. The construction is
microcontroller based interfaced with ultrasonic sensor to measure water
levels. The ultrasonic sensor gives real-time water level status to the
microcontroller which then converts it into 4-bit data. The 4-bit data
containing information of water level status is then encoded transmitted,
received and decoded and the information realized is then used in the
transmitter circuitry to monitor and automate the system whose operation
is interfaced with the water pump switch. The system has manual and
automatic modes designed to checkmate the electricity supply situation in
the country. In manual mode, low water level is noticed when the buzzer is
activated, while in automatic mode low water level turns on the pump
switch and water level status is seen on a seven-segment display. Both
manual and automatic modes switch OFF the water pump at maximum
level. The construction was completed and worked according to its
specification and purpose. This research work could be adapted for use in
domestic and industrial water supply system.
 Chapter one

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background of Study

Control system manages commands, directs, or regulates the behavior of

other devices, hardwires or systems using control loops. a control system
could be a single thermostat in a domestic boiler, or in a more advanced
form in large industrial control systems, which is basically computerized. In
this project, electronic circuit consisting of logic loops is taken into
consideration to achieve effective control of water level in water storage
tank.

In a country like Nigeria, water supply is never a thing of concern to the

government of the day and as such individuals and households’ sort to
provide their own water. The supply of water in households and business
places involve installation of water pump and overhead water storage; the
water pump being manually controlled by mechanical switch. In this setup,
one would only notice low water level when running water pressure is low
or when water does not run at all. On the other hand, when water is being
pumped into the tank one would only notice that tank is full when water
over flows.

Considering how vital water is to human existence, a good number of

problems are presented by this system of water supply. Water tank may
run dry when it is virtually impossible to pump water immediately,
especially in the middle of the night; when the water pump is left running
unattended to, the tank fills up and over flows. Also consider a scenario
where you fall asleep while the water pump is running, or there was power
outage during process and you forgot to turn of the pump switch and
eventually you travelled afterward. Flooded environment, slippery floors,
growth of algae around the environment because of wetness, increased
electricity bill, to mention a few are the possible damages we can incur if
our domestic and work place water supply systems are not under
automated control system.

This project work involves providing a means for monitoring and controlling
water level basically in domestic water storage with little or no human
interference. In order to achieve this fit, we have designed an electronic
circuit which consist of several sub circuits that operate in stages, from
detection to encoding and then transmission of data obtained from an
ultrasonic sensor interfaced with a microcontroller through a 433MH
transmitter module. On the other side of reception, data is received and
decoded and the information realized is then manipulated by the
microcontroller to monitor and automate the system via interface with the
water pump switch.

Transmission and reception of data is achieved via Radio Frequency (RF).

this is considered a better alternative to the use of direct link six-core flex
wire which is rather more efficient than RF but its disadvantages make it
less preferable to Radio Frequency. The choice of RF transmitter and
receiver is to do away with the cumbersome and bulky nature of lengthy
multicore flex-wire.

Controlling water level is always part of any water treatment or supply

system. Mechanisms are put in place for controlling water levels in order to
ensure smooth operation. Since water is an essential commodity it is very
important to ensure that every water management system is equipped with
control system. Over the years different types of water level control
systems have been developed and were very useful in their times.

Nowadays, there are various advanced methods of water level control, this
is so be because of the type of water level detector employed in the system.
Water level sensors have been around for decades, in markets such as
food and beverage, industrial, medical and domestic, printing, agriculture,
automotive and white goods for leak detection or level measurement. We
often wonder why customers choose one technology over the other and it
is a common question we are asked. Some equipment manufacturers may
also be surprised at both the variety and intelligence of level sensing
alternatives available on the market.

Here we have a number of water level detection devices that have been
used effectively to detect and control water and liquid levels as designed by
different industries who always take into consideration the level of
competition and the need to remain in market by consistently wanting to
improve quality, reduce costs, inefficiencies and waste kind of mentality.

The following are various types of water/liquid level detection methods that
are mostly used.

 Optical

 Ultrasonic

 Float

 Capacitance

 Radar

 Conductivity or resistance

Meanwhile, water level controller can be classified into two, 1) the contact
and 2) no contact water level controller.

The Contact Water Level Controller:

Here a simple circuit to control the Water pumps. When the water level in
the overhead tank exceeds the required level, the pump automatically turns
off and stops the pumping process thus preventing the over flow of water.
It uses a relay to cut off the power supply to the water pump. Example are
Optical, float, Capacitance and conductance.
The No Contact Level Controller:

Apart from the technique discussed above, there can be another way to
control water level in the tank by sensing it using Ultrasonic technique.
Unlike the previous method, this does not require any contact with the
water tank. Example are ultrasonic and radar.

Processes that used to involve expensive pieces of equipment can now be

achieved using creative, innovative and intelligent technologies that can be
cost effective, reliable, robust, highly accurate and simple to install. Fluids
that have historically been known to be extremely challenging to detect
such as soap containing bubbles/foam, milk, and sticky substances such
as glue and ink are now proving possible and easier to detect with the
variety of level sensing technologies available.

In this research work, we have adopted the use of ultrasonic sensor which
appears to be versatile in its use and can easily be interfaced with the
Arduino board in order to achieve the purpose of the study.

1.2 Statement of The Problem

Water as mentioned earlier is an essential commodity and all around us
especially in the southern part of Nigeria there is abundance of water but
shortage in supply of usable water. Meanwhile, the supply of water for use
in homes, schools, businesses and public places has become the
responsibility of private individuals as the government has long abandoned
the sector to the detriment of the people.

It is worthy of note that providing water especially for domestic use has a
lot of challenges as the requirements are quite exorbitant. The installation
of home water supply system would require at a minimum, drilling of
borehole, a water pump, a tank stand, a water reservoir and electricity.
Electricity which is a major factor in the business of water supply, is in
short supply and as such necessitates the use of generator set which is an
added cost to the system. It therefore, becomes very important for usable
water to be efficiently managed in order to get value for its cost.

There are basic challenges we experience in domestic water supply when

the system is not automatically operated. There are cases were water
storage runs dry without being noticed. This could be devastating
especially in the wee hours. Sometimes there could be power failure during
pumping process, and out of forgetfulness or carelessness the water pump
is left ON, power may be restored when everyone may have left home.
When this happens, it results in flooding, increased electricity bill, rusting of
ferro metals, slippery floors, growth of algae etc.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

This research work was carried out for the purpose of filling gaps identified
in water supply systems especially in homes, schools, work places and
other areas where such facilities for water supply is installed. The gaps
identified so far are as follows:

Costa of electricity: This could mean directly or indirectly ensuring

increased electricity bill as a result of not monitoring or controlling the
water supply system. Overhead water storage fills up and over flows each
time the switch is turned on to start the pumping process. No matter how
long it takes to turn OFF the water pump switch the truth remains that
water will overflow before the operator would be sure that the water
storage is full. Sometimes the water pump is turned ON and left
unattended to, it fills up and continue to overflow for a long time before
human intervention. This will definitely add extra cost to electricity bills or
depletes the megawatts on the prepaid meter more than usual.

Water Scarcity: There are times when unforeseen circumstances will occur
and people are meant to suffer because there was no prior information
preceding the incident. Running out of water during crucial times or at wee
hours has a regular occurrence. It becomes more devastating when there is
power outage and an option for secondary power supply is not available.
Forecasting and Planning: knowing the level or quantity of water available
in the water storage is a good information for forecasting and planning.
One would either be able to determine when water will runout and how to
go about pumping water at the right time especially in a period when there
is long time power outage.

Keeping Clean and Hazard Free Environment: A water supply systems that
is not under any form of automation is bound to cause flooding and poses
hazard in the premises. Slippery floors and inconvenience in movement
sets in and sometimes adjacent street or some areas in the neighborhood
become flooded as well.

Equipment Protection: Turning OFF/ON water pump switch is not as save

as hitting an electronic button to get water pumping. Mechanical switches
produce arc and breaks down over a period of time.

1.4 Scope of the Study

Operating principle: - this device is microcontroller based. It uses an

ultrasonic sensor to determine the distance of water in the water storage
tank and converts the distance into 4bit which is then encoded and
transmitted to the Rx, decoded and the bits realized is used to automate
and monitor water level.

Transmission range: - the transmission range of the device is determined

by the transmission range of the TX and Rx module pair which is between
30m to 100m.

Level display: - the device is configured to monitor and record water levels
from 0 to 8 predetermined levels.

Set points: - the maximum and minimum setpoints at which the system
starts and stops the water pumping process is 5cm and 150cm
respectively.

Power source: - the Tx circuit is powered by a solar a 6V solar panel and

4.5V battery.
Power ratting: - the device can switch 240V and 30A AC mains. Any water
pump that operates on 240VAC and does not sink more than 80% of 30A is
suitable.

Area of Application: - The wireless automatic water level controller was

conducted basically for domestic use. It could be deployed to other areas
such as schools, farms, hospitals and virtually everywhere water is
extracted from the ground using low power equipment.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research work has a number of significances stated as follows:

 Automation: Every single person must have been caught up by

forgetfulness as a result of preoccupation of the mind. This could
also happen when the water pump switch is turned ON and the user
goes back to attend to other things. If the water supply system
happens to be automated like what we have in this project work there
will be absolutely nothing to worry about.

 Saves Power: Using a water level controller saves power. This is

because water levels are controlled automatically, which limits the
amount of electricity used. As a result, less water and power are used
to regulate a water supply. In an age where energy conservation is of
utmost importance, using one of these devices is very beneficial. The
microcontroller based automatic wireless water level controller is
equipped with a display unit that shows predetermined water levels in
the over-head water storage. This allows users to know the level of
water available in the water storage and be able to plan ahead [10].

 Automated water supply system takes away the risks or hazards

associated with flooding and allows people to live in a dry and
convenient environment.

 One of the main advantages of water level control devices includes

the ability to control power fluctuations when the motor is switched
 on. Most of these devices ensures uninterrupted water supply by
filling the overhead tank once it is below level. The motor power is
switched on when the overhead tank becomes empty and switches
off automatically when the underground tank is empty or the
overhead tank becomes full. In this way it becomes easy to ensure 24
hours water supply without any kind of interruption [8].

 Saves Money: Since a water level controller conserves power, it saves

money, as well. Basically, water regulation is optimized through these
devices, which means that wasted electricity and wasted water is
kept at a minimum. That saves a substantial amount of money over
time.

1.6 Limitation of the Study (to be collected from system)

This project has the following limitations:

 The high inflation rate we have recorded in Nigeria in recent times

has further heightened the high cost of components.

 There has been an increase in the price of PMS coupled with other
factors that has led to increase in transportation fair.

 Sourcing for certain component is difficult. Some of the components

had to be purchased online from as far as Laos.

 There are actually limited materials on handwash water dispenser to

explore for this project and this constituted a major problem for this
work

 Given the current economic situation and high cost of goods and
services in Nigeria, sourcing for funds for this project happened to be
the mother of all challenges faced with in the course of this project
work.
1.7 Definition of Terms

Microcontroller: A microcontroller is an integrated circuit (IC) device used

for controlling other portions of an electronic system, usually via a
microprocessor unit (MPU), memory, and some peripherals.

RF Module: An RF module is a small electronic device used to transmit

and/or receive radio signals between two devices.

Arduino: Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-

use hardware and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light
on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter message - and turn it into an
output - activating a motor, turning on an LED, publishing something online.

Bit: A bit is a binary digit, the smallest increment of data on a computer. A

bit can hold only one of two values: 0 or 1, corresponding to the electrical
values of off or on, respectively.

Electromagnetic relay: Definition: Electromagnetic relays are those relays

which operates on the principle of electromagnetic attraction. It is a type of
a magnetic switch which uses the magnet for creating a magnetic field.
The magnetic field then uses for opening and closing the switch and for
performing the mechanical operation.
 Chapter two

2.0 Related Literature Review

Water level controller is an essential part of a water supply system in order

to provide reliability in the system as well as saving cost, water and
removing various degrees of anomalies associated with a water supply
system that is without a controller.

In this work, we have taken into consideration the construction of an

automatic wireless water level controller using ultrasonic sensor which
creates a no contact means of measuring and controlling water levels in
the water storage. The use of an RF frequency to transmit water level
information instead of a connecting cable is one feature that makes the
device compact and less cumbersome.

2.1 Automatic Water Level Controller

2.1.1 Definition

A water level controller is a device that manages water levels on a variety

of systems such as water tanks, pumps and swimming pools. The basic
function of a water level controller is to regulate water flow and optimize
system performance [5].

The automatic water/liquid level controller is a complete automated

system that does not require human intervention in its operation.

Liquid Level Sensor

[12] Liquid level sensors are termed as the sensors used for detecting
liquid levels or interfaces between liquids such as water and oil or solids
and liquids. These sensors can also be defined as transducers or as
integrated systems with instrumentation and control capabilities. This type
of liquid level sensor is one of the most important sensors and plays a vital
role in variety of industrial and consumer applications.

Industrial applications include liquid-level sensing in transport tanks,

storage tanks and water treatment tanks, and also in the petrochemical
industries for sensing liquids such as petrol, diesel and other fuels. Liquid
level measurement is significant in household applications including
electronic devices such as, water dispensers, water evaporators, steamers,
monitoring system of boilers, heating systems, washing machines, steam
irons, juice squeezers, automated-coffee machines, etc. Level sensors are
designed for specific applications compared to general applications.

Review of Different types of Water/Liquid Level Sensor

Liquid level sensors are classified under 'point' or 'continuous' level

measurement.
Point/ Liquid Level Switch Measurement and Detection Systems

Point level measurement sensors are used for the purpose of marking a
single liquid height or for presetting a level condition. Usually, this sensor
works as a high alarm that measures the overflow conditions in tanks
through liquid level sensors, or works as a marker to note down the low
alarm conditions. The different types of sensors are given below:

 Float Sensor

 Capacitance Sensors

 Conductivity Probes

Principle of Operation of Float Sensor A liquid level control system by using

a float sensor works on the principle of buoyancy, which states, “A float
immersed in a liquid is buoyed towards upward direction by an applied
equal force to the weight of the displaced liquid”. As a result, the body
drives partially and gets submerged upon the liquid surface and covers the
same distance the liquid level moves [14].

Principle of Operation of Capacitance Sensor:

As it says in the name suggests, capacitance level transmitters operate as

a capacitor. The probe acts as one of the capacitor plates and the metallic
vessel wall as the second one. We call the medium that separates these
plates the insulating material (dielectric constant, K). The capacitance, or
storage capability, of the capacitor (C) depends on the plate areas (A), their
distance apart (d), and the dielectric constant (E).

C= E(K A/d)

C = capacitance in picofarads (pF)

E= constant

K = relative dielectric constant

A= effective area of the plates

d= distance between the plates

When you have a tank with the level at zero percent, then you have only air
as your insulating material. As the product begins to fill the vessel, that
material will change to a liquid or solid, thus changing the capacitance. So
the capacitance measured by the sensor is directly proportional to the level
of the tan [15].

Principle of Operation of a Conductivity Probes

A Conductive probe is used as a liquid level indicator for measuring the

level of electrically conductive products in a metal water tank, or other
container, which can be obtained by means of a probe isolated from the
container and a conductivity amplifier. When the product is not in
connection with the probe, the electrical resistance is relatively high or
infinite between the probe and the metal tank wall. If the level of the liquid
rises completely between the probe and the tank wall, then the resistance
gradually decreases [2].
 source: www.watelectronics.com

Continuous Level Measurement and Detection Systems

A continuous level sensor is most sophisticated and also provides liquid

level monitoring of an entire system. This liquid level sensor is used to
measure the fluid level within a specified range, moderately than at a one
point, which produces an analog output and directly correlates to the level
in the vessel. To create a liquid level management system, the output
signal is interconnected to process a control loop and linked as a visual
liquid level indicator. This measurement system consists of variety of
sensors such as

 Ultrasonic Sensor

 Radar level sensor

 Optical Sensor

Level Detection and Measurement by Using Ultrasonic Sensor

[4] The principle is very simple, sound waves is sent from sensor towards
the liquid surface, the waves hits the surface and comes back to sensor, by
measuring the time taken for the waves to hit the sensor we can calculate
the distance between liquid surface and sensor.

Level Detection and Measurement by Using Radar Level Sensor

[7] The working principle of radar fluid lever transmitters is a function of

Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR). It is also known as the Time of Flight
(TOF) radar measuring principle. However, the step-by-step description of
the radar level detector’s working principle is as follows.

 Since these transmitters are used as level sensors itself, it can be

said that the electromagnetic signals are sent from the sensor. The
solid-state oscillator that is installed in radar level sensor setup
oscillates electromagnetic waves to the fluid surface. The distance
can be measured considering oscillator as a reference point and fluid
surface as the destination.
  Once electromagnetic waves hit a fluid surface, the surface itself
reflects a pulsating signal to the radar antenna. The antenna
transmits the signal to the receiver. As the receiver collects the signal
returning pulse reflection, the time taken for reflection is calculated.

 The time to level calculation is performed by the signal processor.

Once the signal processor translates reflection time into distance
traveled that is considered as the depth of the fluid according to Time
Domain Reflectometry.

Level Detection Using Radar Level Sensor

source: Watelectronics.com

Level Detection and Measurement by Using Optical Sensors

The optical sensor consists of an infrared LED and a light receiver. The
light emitted from the LED is directed towards a prism which forms the tip
of the level sensor. If there is no liquid present in the tank, then the light
from the LED is reflected within the prism and the receiver.

When the liquid level raises and immerses the sensing prism, the light gets
refracted out into the liquid, leaving little amount of light or no light to reach
the receiver. Sensing this change, the receiver activates electronic
switching within the level unit for operating external alarm or control circuit
[9].

Level Detection Using Optical Sensors

source: www.watelectronics.com

Review of different Types of Water Level Controller

[1] Emphasizes on the need of water level controller in irrigation in

agriculture. It says that every crop requires require different amount of
water and this can be done by using automatic water level controller which
will also help in reducing wastage of water. Here they use a technique to
measure flow of rate of water in irrigation pipelines. It uses a Hall Effect
Sensor to measure the rate flow. G1/2 Hall Effect water flow sensor is used
as a sensing unit with a turbine rotor inside it whose speed of rotation
changes with the different rate of flow of water.

[6] This research paper presents a system of an automatic water level

controller with SMS notification. SMS notification was added to automatic
controller system so that water can be managed by user during load
shedding. Two systems work synergistically; automatic level controller
system and SMS system. The program was developed in Arduino program
developing environment and uploaded to the Microcontroller. Water level in
the system is controlled automatically. The controller operates on a battery
power. Whenever the system encounters empty level and the status of load
shedding, the SMS notification is sent to the user. The system will
automate the process by placing a single sensor unit in the tank that will
periodically take measurements of the water level and will control the
motor automatically. This system eliminates the efforts of people for daily
filling of the tank and checks for overflow.

[3] This research paper involves designing and development of automatic

water level control system had exposed a better way of software and
hardware architecture that blends together for the interfacing purposes.
The system employs the use of advance sensing technology to detect the
water level. It uses Arduino and uses relay to control motor. Different wires
are attached at different Junctions of the Beaker. When we pour water in
the beaker. The water comes in contact with the wire and tells the level of
water in the tank. Accordingly, they have displayed the level of water on
LCD display. And uses relay to turn ON and OFF the motor.

2.5 Review of Related Components

Bridge Rectifier

[25] Bridge Rectifiers are circuits that convert alternating current (AC) into
direct current (DC) using diodes arranged in the bridge circuit configuration.
Bridge rectifiers typically comprise of four or more diodes. The output wave
generated is of the same polarity irrespective of the polarity at the input.
 Bridge rectifier. Source: www.electronics-tutorials.

Bridge rectifiers are in the same class of electronics as half-wave rectifiers

and full-wave rectifiers. Figure 1 shows such a bridge rectifier composed of
four diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4 in which the input is supplied across two
terminals A and B in the figure while the output is collected across the load
resistor RL connected between the terminals C and D.

Seven Segment Display

It is an electronic display device for displaying decimal numerals.

It is widely used in digital clocks, electronic meters, basic calculators, etc.

It is also known as “seven-segment indicator”

It consists of 8 LEDs connected in parallel that can be lit in different

combinations to display the numbers (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, A, b, C, d, E, F,
etc.).

Each segment (LED) is denoted by letters A to G.

The eighth segment called “Decimal Point” is denoted by DP and is used for
the display of non-integer numbers.

Types of Seven Segment Display and its Internal Connections:

Depending on how the terminals are connected, the SSDs can be classified
as:

Common Cathode Type

Common Anode Type
If Anodes of all the 8 LEDs are connected together and all the Cathode are
left alone, then we refer to the SSD as “Common Anode Type”.

If Cathodes of all the 8 LEDs are connected together and all the Anodes are
left alone, then we refer to the SSD as “Common Cathode Type”.

Output Pins

Output pins of a seven segment display

It consists of 10 pins, of which 8 pins are connected to LEDs (A, B, C, D, E,

F, G, and DP).

Depending on the type of the SSD, the two middle pins denoted by COM are
either common anodes or common cathodes of all the LEDs [21].

Antenna

An antenna is basically a transducer and a conductor of current which

converts input electrical current into electromagnetic waves or produce
electrical current in response to an electromagnetic wave. Though any
conductor of electricity can be used as an antenna, there are many types of
antennas and their functionality as transmitter or receiver of
electromagnetic waves is governed by well established theories.The
distance to which an antenna can transmit or receive signal from, can be
increased by increasing the power applied to the antenna. This technique
increases the strength of the carrier wave and the radio signal becomes
capable of transmitting to greater distance before fading away. Another
method is to use standard height of the antenna as formulated by
established antenna theory. Using the standard height of the antenna
depending upon the frequency of the carrier wave can increase the range of
operation up to two or three times. According to the antenna theory, the
height of the antenna should be half or quarter of the wavelength of the
carrier signal.

Transformer

A transformer is a device that uses the principles of electromagnetism to

convert one voltage or current to another. It consists of a pair of insulated
wire wound around a magnetic core. The winding to which we connect the
voltage or current to be converted is called the primary winding and the
output winding is called the secondary winding.
fig. 4a step down transformer source: www.electronicshub.org

Transformers come in two varieties – step up, which increase the voltage
or current, and steps down, which decreases the voltage or current input.
For example, the transformers in your microwave Oven is a secondary
transformer that is used to supply around 2200Volts to the vacuum tube in
the Microwave Oven.

fig. 4b transformer schematic symbol source: www.electronicshub.org

One thing to note is that transformers work only with changing or AC

voltages and do not work with DC. We shall now learn why.
Stepdown Transformer for DC power supply

A Step-up Transformer is a device which converts the low primary voltage

to a high secondary voltage i.e. it steps up the input voltage. A Step-down
Transformer on the other hand, steps down the input voltage i.e. the
secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage. If we speak in terms of
the coil windings, the primary winding of a Step-down Transformer has
more turns than the secondary winding. The following image shows a
typical step-down transformer.

1fig. 4c step down transformer winding source: www.electronicshub.org

Example of Step-Down Transformer

For example, consider the following situation. The number of turns in the
primary winding of a transformer is 3000 and that in the secondary winding
is 150. If the alternating voltage at the primary of the transformer is 240V,
then the voltage at the secondary of the transformer can be calculated
using the following equation.

VP/VS = NP/NS
Here, NP is primary winding turns = 30000

NS is secondary winding turns = 150

VP is voltage at the primary winding of the transformer = 240V

VS is the voltage at the secondary of the transformer =?

Using the above equation, VS = (VP * NS)/NP = 240*150/3000 = 12V

Filter Capacitor

Filtering is a fundamental part of many circuits and has wide-ranging

applications, including audio processing, radio reception, and power circuit
conditioning. A basic understanding of capacitors as a filtering component
begins with understanding the types of filters and what they do.

Fig 5a filter capacitor source: www.arrow.com

In general, filters are used to remove unwanted parts of a signal. They may
be used, for instance, to block undesirable frequencies emitted near a radio
receiver (i.e. to reduce radiated radio frequency interference). Because
signal processing filters respond to frequency, there are different types of
filters, determined by the frequency they affect.

Filter Capacitor

Filtering is a fundamental part of many circuits and has wide-ranging

applications, including audio processing, radio reception, and power circuit
conditioning. A basic understanding of capacitors as a filtering component
begins with understanding the types of filters and what they do.
Fig 5a filter capacitor source: www.arrow.com

In general, filters are used to remove unwanted parts of a signal. They may
be used, for instance, to block undesirable frequencies emitted near a radio
receiver (i.e. to reduce radiated radio frequency interference). Because
signal processing filters respond to frequency, there are different types of
filters, determined by the frequency they affect.

The Different Types of Signal Processing Filters

Low-Pass Filters

Fig 5b filter capacitor source: www.arrow.comAs

their name suggests, low-pass filters
block high frequencies while allowing low frequencies through the circuit.
High-Pass Filters
Fig 5c filter capacitor source: www.arrow.com

High-pass filters perform the opposite function, permitting high

frequencies and blocking low ones.

Band-Pass Filters

Fig 5d filter capacitor source: www.arrow.com

Band-pass filters respond to a particular bounded frequency range and

allow only frequencies in that range to pass through the circuit.

Band-stop filters do the opposite of band-pass filters by blocking a

bounded range of frequencies and allowing all other frequencies through.
Fig 5e filter capacitor source: www.arrow.com

Beyond their functional differences, filters can be divided into active and
passive types: active filters require an external power source while passive
filters do not.

Regulated Power Supply

A regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that is designed to provide

a constant dc voltage of predetermined value across load terminals
irrespective of ac mains fluctuations or load variations. It converts
unregulated AC (Alternating Current) to a constant DC (Direct Current). A
regulated power supply is used to ensure that the output remains constant
even if the input changes [16, 30].

A regulated DC power supply is also known as a linear power supply, it is an

embedded circuit and consists of various blocks.

The regulated power supply will accept an AC input and give a constant DC
output. The figure below shows the block diagram of a typical regulated DC
power supply.

12V and 5V Dual regulated power supply

Power supply form the basic building block of any electronic circuits and
therefore it’s important to familiarize the DC power supply circuit
construction. The above given circuit illustrates a simple approach to
construct a dual DC power supply of 5V and 12V from the 230V AC mains
supply. The Voltage ranges 5V and 12V are widely used in all kinds of
simple electronic circuits, so its meaningful to learn this simple
construction

Fig 6. source: www.electrical4u.com

LM78XX regulator

LM7805

Definition: Voltage regulator like IC7805 belongs to the 78xx series ICs. In
the 78xx series, xx represents the fixed output voltage value and 7805 is a
fixed linear voltage regulator. Batteries provide a voltage of 1.2V, 3.7V, 9V,
and 12V. This voltage is good for the circuits which voltage requirements
are in that range. The regulated power supply in this regulator is +5V DC.

The 7805-voltage regulator is a three-terminal voltage regulator IC. In

various applications, a 7805-voltage regulator with a fixed output voltage is
used. The availability of this is through various packages like SOT-223, TO-
263, TO-220, and TO-3. Among this, TO-220 is the most used one. There are
many important features in the 7805 IC [20].

LM7812

7812 voltage regulators is a type of self-contained fixed linear voltage

regulator integrated circuit. The IC belongs to ic 78xx voltage regulator
family.

The 7812-voltage regulator IC is ease-of-use and available in very low cost.

The last two digits of 7812 indicates the output voltage that is 12 V.
The ic 7812 is a positive voltage regulator which means that it generates
the positive voltage with respect to the common ground.

In case if both the positive and negative voltage supply is needed in the
same circuit. The voltage regulator ic 7812 is combined with its
corresponding 79XX family IC that is 7912 IC.

The voltage regulator 7812 is available most commonly in TO-220

packageas well as TO-3, TO-92 and surface mount Packages.

The ic 7812 Voltage regulators do operate at their optimal capability, if the

input voltage is at least 2.5 volt greater than the output voltage (i.e 14.5 V
min.) and the current is 1 or 1.5 Amperes more. Though the voltage and
current difference is different for other IC Packages.

Relay

Relays are electric switches that use electromagnetism to convert small

electrical stimuli into larger currents [17]. These conversions occur when
electrical inputs activate electromagnets to either form or break existing
circuits.

Types of Relays

Electromagnetic Relays: are those relays which are operated by

electromagnetic action. Modern electrical protection relays are mainly
microprocessor based, but still electromagnetic relay holds its place. It will
take much longer time to replace all electromagnetic relays by
microprocessor based static relays [22].

Working Principle of Electromagnetic Relays

Fig 7. Working principle of electromagnetic relay source: www.electrical4u.com

Electromagnetic relays are generally composed of iron core, coil, armature,

contact reed, etc. When a certain voltage is added to the two ends of the
coil, a certain current will be generated in the coil, which will produce
electromagnetic effect. The armature will overcome the pulling force of the
return spring to attract the iron core under the action of electromagnetic
force, and the moving contact and the static contact (normally open
contact) of the armature are closed. When the coil is de-energized, the
electromagnetic attraction force disappears, and the armature returns to its
original position by the reaction force of the spring, so that the moving
contact and the original static contact (normally closed contact) are closed.
In addition, the "normally open, normally closed" contacts of the relay can
be distinguished as follows: the static contact that is in the off state when
the relay coil is not energized is called "normally open contact(NO contact)";
the static contact that is in the on state The points are called "normally
closed contact(NC contact)"[23].

Voltage Relay

Single-phase voltage monitoring relays can be used on single-phase AC or

on DC voltages. Their primary purpose is to protect motors and connected
equipment from either an under- or an over-voltage condition, although
some are designed to ensure the voltage remains within a predetermined
bandwidth, with both high and low voltage limits, While three-phase voltage
monitoring relays, or phase monitoring relays, monitor additional phase
parameters along with over- and under-voltage conditions: namely, phase
imbalances, phase loss, and phase sequence (also referred to as phase
reversal)[16].

In three-phase systems, over- and under-voltage conditions occur when the

voltages in all three of the phases increase or decrease simultaneously. To
determine whether there is an over- and under-voltage condition, the relay
measures the average voltage of all three lines and compares this to the
voltage set point.
Fig 8. Voltage monitoring relay wiring source: www.motioncontroltips.com

Current Relay

A current relay is a type of electromagnetic switch used as part of the

control systems for electrical equipment. These relays are commonly used
as sensors (current sensor/monitoring relays) to monitor current flow
within industrial and other safety-sensitive equipment. Such equipment
utilizes current relays to prevent malfunctions due to excessive or
insufficient amounts of electrical current (“overcurrent” and “undercurrent,”
respectively).

Voltage Latching Relay

A relay is a type of electromechanical switch used in power supplies,

counting systems and many other applications. It is used to control a large
current with a small current. Most relays require a small continuous voltage
to stay on. A latching relay is different. It uses a pulse to move the switch,
then stays in position, slightly reducing the electric power requirement.

Latching Relay Definition

A relay is a type of electromechanical switch used in power supplies,

counting systems and many other applications. It is used to control a large
current with a small current. Most relays require a small continuous voltage
to stay on. A latching relay is different. It uses a pulse to move the switch,
then stays in position, slightly reducing the electric power requirement.

Latching Relay Structure

The latching relay has a small metal strip which can pivot between two
terminals. The switch is magnetized, or attached to a small magnet. On
either side of that magnet are small coils of wire called solenoids. The
switch has an input and two outputs at the terminals. It can be used to turn
one circuit on and off, or to switch power between two different circuits.

Electrical relays, in one form or another, have been around for over 100
years. It wasn’t until 1971 when Crydom invented the solid-state relay that
we had our next big step in relay technology.
Fig 9. SSR source: www.engineering.com

Whether you’re switching something from on to off, managing signal lights,

or controlling inductive or resistive loads; SSRs can be used in a variety of
applications while maintaining a relatively simple design. We figured it was
time to shed some light on the humble solid-state relay.

Advantages of SSR

Fig 9.1 SSR DC control source: www.engineering.com

SSR has the following advantages:

Design simplicity, long life, low power consumption, fast switching, quiet
operation, minimum EMITTER noise, Ideal for hash environment [13].
Thermal Relays

Fig 10. Thermal relay source: www.engineering.com

Fig 10.1 thermal relay source: www.engineering.com

Thermal overload relays are wired in series with the motor, so the current
flowing to the motor also flows through the overload relay. When the
current reaches or exceeds a predetermined limit for a certain amount of
time, the relay activates a mechanism that opens one or more contacts to
interrupt current flow to the motor. Thermal overload relays are rated by
their trip class, which defines the amount of time for which the overload
can occur before the relay responds, or trips. Common trip classes are 5,
10, 20, and 30 seconds.

Time Delay Relay

Time delay relays are simply control relays with a time delay function built
in. They control an event, by energizing the secondary circuit, after a certain
amount of time or for a certain amount of time, some can even do both.

Fig 11 time delay relay source: www.engineering.com

In a standard normally open control relay, the contacts on the secondary

side close immediately when voltage is applied to the coil on the primary
side. When the electricity is cut on the primary side, the contacts on the
secondary side will open and cut the power to the load.

Microcontroller

A microcontroller is an integrated circuit (IC) device used for controlling

other portions of an electronic system, usually via a microprocessor unit
(MPU), memory, and some peripherals. These devices are optimized for
embedded applications that require both processing functionality and agile,
responsive interaction with digital, analog, or electromechanical
components.

fig 12. microcontroller processor source: www.components101.com

The most common way to refer to this category of integrated circuits is

“microcontroller" but the abbreviation “MCU” is used interchangeably as it
stands for “microcontroller unit”. You may also occasionally see “µC”
(where the Greek letter mu replaces “micro”).

Atmega328P Microcontroller: - is high performance, low power controller

from Microchip. ATMEGA328P is an 8-bit microcontroller based on AVR
RISC architecture. It is the most popular of all AVR controllers as it is used
in ARDUINO boards.

Introduction to ATmega328.
ATmega-328 is basically an Advanced Virtual RISC (AVR) micro-controller.
It supports the data up to eight (8) bits. ATmega-328 has 32KB internal
builtin memory. This micro-controller has a lot of other characteristics. This
property shows if the electric supply supplied to the micro-controller is
removed, even then it can store the data and can provide results after
providing it with the electric supply. Moreover, ATmega-328 has 2KB Static
Random Access Memory (SRAM). Other characteristics will be explained
later. ATmega 328 has several different features which make it the most
popular device in today's market. These features consist of advanced RISC
architecture, good performance, low power consumption, real timer counter
having separate oscillator, 6 PWM pins, programmable Serial USART
programming lock for software security, throughput up to 20 MIPS etc.
ATmega-328 is mostly used in Arduino

ATMEGA328P pinouts:
Fig 13. Atmega328P pinouts Source: www.components101.com

Minimum Circuit of Atmega328P

fig 14. minimum circuit of atmega328P source: components101.com

Arduino

Arduino is an open source microcontroller which can be easily

programmed, erased and reprogrammed at any instant of time. Introduced
in 2005 the Arduino platform was designed] Leo L, (2018). Working
Principle of Arduino and Using It as a Tool for Study and Research
Conference: International Journal of Control Automation, Communication
and System (IJCACS), 7 (18)
To provide an inexpensive and easy way for hobbyists, students and
professionals to create devices that interact with their environment using
sensors and actuators. Based on simple microcontroller boards, it is an
open source computing platform that is used for constructing and
programming electronic devices. It is also capable of acting as a mini
computer just like other microcontrollers by taking inputs and controlling
the outputs for a variety of electronics devices [11].

Arduino UNO Board

Components Overview

The PCB design of the Arduino UNO uses SMD (Surface Mount Device)
components. I entered the SMD world years ago when I dug into Arduino
PCB design while I was a part of a team redesigning a DIY clone for Arduino
UNO.
Integrated circuits use standardized packages, and there are families for
packages.

The dimensions of many SMD resistors, capacitors, and LEDs are indicated
by package codes such as the following:

SMD package code for discrete components such as resistors, capacitors,

and inductors. Image courtesy of Wikimedia.
Most packages are generic and can be used for different parts with
different functionality. The SOT-223 package, for example, can contain a
transistor or a regulator.

The major components of Arduino UNO board are as follows:

USB connector

Power port

Microcontroller

Analog input pins

Digital pins

Reset switch

Crystal oscillator

USB interface chip

TX RX LEDs
USB connector:

USB connector on Arduino UNO board

USB connector

This is a printer USB port used to load a program from the Arduino IDE onto
the Arduino board. The board can also be powered through this port.

Power port:

Power port of Arduino UNO board

Power port
The Arduino board can be powered through an AC-to-DC adapter or a
battery. The power source can be connected by plugging in a 2.1mm center
-positive plug into the power jack of the board.

2.1mm center-positive plug

2.1mm center-positive plug

The Arduino UNO board operates at a voltage of 5 volts, but it can

withstand a maximum voltage of 20 volts. If the board is supplied with a
higher voltage, there is a voltage regulator (it sits between the power port
and USB connector) that protects the board from burning out.

Arduino IDE

Arduino IDE stands for “Integrated Development Environment”: it is an

official software introduced by Arduino.cc, that is mainly used for editing,
compiling and uploading the code in the Arduino Device. Almost all Arduino
modules are compatible with this software that is an open source and is
readily available to install and start compiling the code on the go. In this
article, we will introduce the Software, how we can install it, and make it
ready for developing applications using Arduino modules.

Introduction to Arduino IDE

Arduino IDE is an open source software that is mainly used for writing and
compiling the code into the Arduino Module.

It is an official Arduino software, making code compilation too easy that

even a common person with no prior technical knowledge can get their feet
wet with the learning process.

It is easily available for operating systems like MAC, Windows, Linux and
runs on the Java Platform that comes with inbuilt functions and commands
that play a vital role for debugging, editing and compiling the code in the
environment [26].

Arduino IDE Definition

1. Arduino IDE is an open source software that is mainly used for writing
and compiling the code into the Arduino Module. 2. It is an official Arduino
software, making code compilation too easy that even a common person
with no prior technical knowledge can get their feet wet with the learning
process. 3. It is easily available for operating systems like MAC, Windows,
Linux and runs on the Java Platform that comes with inbuilt functions and
commands that play a vital role for debugging, editing and compiling the
code in the environment. 4. A range of Arduino modules available including
Arduino Uno, Arduino Mega, Arduino Leonardo, Arduino Micro and many
more. 5. Each of them contains a microcontroller on the board that is
actually programmed and accepts the information in the form of code. 6.
The main code, also known as a sketch, created on the IDE platform will
ultimately generate a Hex File which is then transferred and uploaded in the
controller on the board. 7. The IDE environment mainly contains two basic
parts: Editor and Compiler where former is used for writing the required
code and later is used for compiling and uploading the code into the
given Arduino Module. 8. This environment supports both C and C++
language.

C and C++ Languages

What is C?

C was developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972 for making utilities capable of

running on Unix. C is a system programming language, meaning it works in
the lowest level of abstraction. It is a low-level procedural language. C
programs are high speed, so they let developers handle the computer
hardware manually.

The strength of C programming language lies in performance and has the

ability to be used for coding for a wide variety of platforms. It’s used
commonly for operating systems, interpreters, compilers, and
microcontrollers.

What is C++?

C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 while working at Bell Labs.
He wanted an extension of C that was both flexible and efficient. C++ is
object-oriented, but like C can be used for development on a diverse range
of platforms. It also supports manual memory management. C++ is great
for networks, server-side, and gaming applications [28].

The programming language is lightweight, compiled, and can be used for

wide range of platforms. In fact, the C++ programming language has
almost everything as C, but it extends its functionality.

Ultrasonic Sensor

[29] Ultrasonic refers to signals that are above the human hearing span
(>20 kHz), and usually in the 40- to 70-kHz range. These signals are used
like radar—they’re radiated toward a target and reflected back to the source.
They are low cost, flexible, and especially useful in shorter-range
applications, especially automotive, home, and industrial robotic designs.

Ultrasonic sensors are sometimes joined by microwave/mmWave radar

and video cameras to provide different but complementary views of their
surroundings in automotive and industrial applications. If you’re looking for
a sensor that can not only detect the presence of a target, but also tell you
how far away it is, ultrasonics may be a good choice for you.
Altrasonic sensor pin configuration

Source: microcontrollerslab.com

RF Transmitter (TX) and Receiver (RX) Module

The RF module, as the name suggests, operates at Radio Frequency. The

corresponding frequency range varies between 30 kHz & 300 GHz. In this
RF system, the digital data is represented as variations in the amplitude of
carrier wave. This kind of modulation is known as Amplitude Shift Keying
(ASK).

Hardware Overview

Let’s have a closer look at the 433MHz RF Transmitter and Receiver

Modules.

433MHz RF Transmitter Working Block Diagram

This little module is a transmitter among two. It is really simple as it looks.

The heart of the module is the SAW resonator which is tuned for 433.xx
MHz operation. There is a switching transistor and a few passive
components, that’s it.

When a logic HIGH is applied to the DATA input, the oscillator runs
producing a constant RF output carrier wave at 433.xx MHz and when the
DATA input is taken to logic LOW, the oscillator stops. This technique is
known as Amplitude Shift Keying, which we will discuss in detail shortly.
 433MHz RF Receiver Working Block Diagram

This one is a receiver module. Though it looks complex, it is as simple as

the transmitter module. It consists of a RF tuned circuit and a couple of OP
Amps to amplify the received carrier wave from the transmitter. The
amplified signal is further fed to a PLL (Phase Lock Loop) which enables
the decoder to “lock” onto a stream of digital bits which gives better
decoded output and noise immunity.

433 MHz RF Transmitter and Receiver module pinout, features & working

The RF module comprises of an RF Transmitter and an RF Receiver. The

transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency of 434 MHz. An
RF transmitter receives serial data and transmits it wirelessly through RF
through its antenna connected at pin4. The transmission occurs at the rate
of 1Kbps – 10Kbps.The transmitted data is received by an RF receiver
operating at the same frequency as that of the transmitter [27].

The RF module is often used alongwith a pair of encoder/decoder. The

encoder is used for encoding parallel data for transmission feed while
reception is decoded by a decoder. HT12E–HT12D, HT640-HT648, etc. are
some commonly used encoder/decoder pair ICs.

HT12E and HT12D

[19] These devices are made by HOLTEK and have common applications in
car and garage door controllers, smoke and fire alarms, burglar and car
alarms, security systems etc .

The encoder (HT12E) is capable of encoding information comprising 12

bits in total; 8 address bits and 4 data bits. Each address/data bit can be
set to either High or Low logic states. The output from the encoder can be
used in various ways; for example to feed a Radio Frequency or infrared
transmitter , or it could be directly connected to a decoding processor.
Eight address bits allows for one encoder / transmitter combination to use
1 of 256 addresses, each one capable of sending 1 of 16 different data
values. This address/data combination allows the possibilities of using one
encoder to control many remote receivers with HT12D decoders. The
outputs from the HT12D decoder can be used to switch connected logic
circuitry or other attached devices via suitable interfaces.

HT12 Encoder pin configuration and minimum circuit

Source: www.components101.com
HT12 Decoder pin configuration and minimum circuit

Source: www.components101.com

Lit-ion battery charger module. Source: www.components101.com

Module Specifications:

This module can charge and discharge Lithium batteries safely

Suitable for 18650 cells and other 3.7V batteries

Charging current – 1A (adjustable )

Input Voltage: 4.5V to 5.5V

Full charge voltage 4.2V

Protects battery from over charging and over discharging

No reverse polarity protection.

In this research we have combined subcircuits with functionalities that

transits from different stages to arrive at a circuit that carries out
monitoring, wireless transmission and reception and recording of real time
water status in overhead and underground water storage tanks, as well as
automation of water pump using the altrasonic sensor.

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International Journal of Computer Science Engineering and Applications
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