FAILURE ANALYSIS OF SEA WATER HEAT EXCHANGER

ABSTRACT

This review paper analyzes different degradation mechanisms in Seawater coolers and
Heat exchangers working in marine environment, with aim of providing important
suggestions for future research and design requirements. It highlights different
challenges posed by marine environment to heat exchangers, discusses materials
commonly used, their susceptibility to various forms of corrosion, and provides insights
into failure analysis techniques. Preventive measures and mitigation strategies are
discussed, emphasizing the significance of material compatibility with corrosive
surroundings. The review concludes by identifying research gaps and future directions
in this field, serving as a valuable resource for professionals and researchers in the
domain of sea water cooling and heat exchange systems.

1. INTRODUCTION

The main objective of this paper is to study various failures prospects in sea water
coolers emphasizing more on corrosion and material selection. Corrosion is the gradual
degradation of materials due to chemical reactions with the surrounding environment.
The marine environment is very hostile to the material surfaces and provides formidable
challenges in terms of corrosion, fouling and material selection. The continuous
exposure to saltwater, with its high chloride content and varying temperature and
salinity, makes it very dangerous for use in marine equipment. Over time, this exposure
can lead to a range of corrosion mechanisms, jeopardizing the structural integrity and
effectiveness of machinery crucial for system’s operation (Azadi, 2016).

Sea water Coolers, employed in various industrial systems processes, including marine
ships, offshore oil and gas production plants, power generation etc, is responsible for
the heat transfer between different fluids for maintaining temperatures, working under
highly corrosive environment at sea. The reliable performance of sea water coolers and
heat exchangers is essential for the uninterrupted operation of these industries,
ensuring safety, efficiency, and compliance with environmental regulations (Ian, 2018).

Heat exchangers used in the marine applications such as oil and gas rigs,
thermoelectricity and ship industry are mostly of shell and tube type in which sea water
is used as cooling medium, where tubes’ stacks are made from copper-based materials
for their thermal conducting and anti-corrosive properties (Collini, 2012). In these
coolers/ heat exchangers there is a shell, which is generally a large pressure vessel,
with tubes bundle inside it. Heat transfer occurs between the fluid through tubes and the
fluid outside the tube in the shell, through the tube walls.

In the subsequent sections, we will analyze challenges faced in a marine environment

for a sea water cooler, discuss best suitable materials, their corrosion resistive
properties, and other challenges. Also, we will be exploring various failure analysis
techniques. Preventive measures and mitigation strategies will also be discussed,
highlighting the significance of material compatibility with sea water.

2. FAILURE MECHANISMS

The three most frequently seen failure modes are tensile fracturing, stress corrosion-
cracking (SCC), and corrosion exhaustion. The mechanical deterioration of the heat
exchanger material surface caused by the aggressive flow of fluids and the corrosive
environment is reflected in corrosion (Liu, 2016). Additional applied mechanical
processes, like corrosion formation on contacting surfaces between slipping and
vibrating metals under load, are also crucial (Marvin, 1982).

2.1 Erosion

The process of mechanical abrasion a material surface which create total

dissolved solids (TDS) in the fluid and in result causes material degradation.
Erosion can occasionally happen when corrosion deteriorates the tube's
shielding layer, leaving the newly exposed surface vulnerable to chemical
reactions. Optimal velocity in the pipes and intake nozzle is typically
recommended by designers based on factors such as tube size, treated fluid,
and needed heat treatment (Kuźnicka, 2009). Higher tube speeds can be
handled by materials like titanium, stainless steel, and aluminum-nickel
compared to copper. The areas that are most susceptible to erosion are the duct
apertures and the U-curve of U-type heat-exchangers.

2.2 Vibration

Vibration is a failure mechanism that leads to crack formation and propagation as

the component is unable to withstand the stress acting on it and leads to the
removal of the material . For example, destroying the protective film, that keeps
the material from corrosion, triggers localised corrosion. Vibration triggers
problems between elements that are next to each other and are localized in
assembly zones such as tube sheets or baffles (Sri Addepalli, 2015).
Tube damages from stress strain crack or tube degradation at the contact site
with the baffle plates, may be caused by excessive friction from equipment like
air compressors or cooling machines. Such movements ought to be kept apart
from heat exchangers (Blake, 1986). Any liquid velocity above 4 fps on the shell
side will result in damaging tubular vibrations. slicing through baffles on
assistance points. When acting to harden the piping at confusing multiple
touchpoints or in U-bend locations before a fatigue fracture develops, pace-
related vibrations can frequently cause fatigue failures.
A particular complicating issue with flow-induced vibration in tube bundles is that
past experience of design and operation is not necessarily a guide for future
performance. Small changes in flow rates, or mechanical design, can lead to
conditions that result in the dramatic failure of a unit. This suggests that
designers and operators need a good understanding of the engineering issues
associated with flow-induced vibration. (GOYDER, 2002)

2.3 Thermal fatigue

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Fatigue brought on by the cumulative stresses of repeated heat treatment,
particularly in the U-bend area, can cause tubing failure. The question becomes
significant as the temperature variation decreases along the U-bend conduit. The
change in temperature results in tube-bending and induce stresses that works
optimally before the material’s compressive properties are surpassed (Addepalli,
2015).

Fig i. Thermal fatigue as failure (Al-Hadhrami, 2012)

Typically, the crack travels radially across the pipeline, resulting in multiple
complete breakages. In other instances, the fracture just happens halfway
through the pipeline, and then continues through it lengthwise.

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 Fig ii. Heat exchanger showing thermal fatigue (SCHWARTZ, 1982)

2.4 Corrosion

The corrosion of materials in sea water environments is a complex and persistent

challenge that has significant implications for the performance and reliability of
heat exchangers. Understanding the unique corrosion mechanisms at play is
essential for effective failure analysis and mitigation strategies (Ibrahim M
Ghayad, 2015). Chloride ions, abundant in sea water, are a primary catalyst for
corrosion. They penetrate the passive film on metals, leading to the breakdown
of protective layers and accelerating corrosion rates. Also, Sea water
temperatures and salinity can vary significantly, impacting the corrosion rate of
materials. Higher temperatures and greater salinity can intensify corrosion
processes. Corrosion in marine environment can grow in various forms:

2.4.1 Pitting Corrosion

The most destructive form of corrosion among others is pitting. It is

insidious and devastating than general corrosion because it occurs in
small areas (pit) having much difficulties to be detected with great effect
on structural integrity. Stainless steel is particularly susceptible to pitting
corrosion in chloride-rich sea water.
Copper pitting occurs in the hottest part with soft water and in the coldest
part with hard water of water system. Pitting can be initiated by dust or dirt
particles in copper pipes carrying seawater. Pitting is not easily detected
because of it microscopic nature. Through perforation, equipment fails by
pitting actions with very little effect of weight loss. There is difficulty in
measuring pit because its depth and distribution varies greatly under
similar conditions (Akpanyung, 2019).

2.4.2 Crevice Corrosion

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 Those materials having gaps, crevices, or areas where sea-water
stagnation can occur, such as gasketed joints and bolts, are at risk of
crevice corrosion (Wan, 2023). This type of corrosion is very difficult to
detect because of its location.
Tube-sheet and baffles are susceptible zones for crevice corrosion in
shell-and-tube exchangers. These parts have holes which tubes inserted
through them and have probable remained gaps after the expansion
process (H. Panahi, 2020).

2.4.3 Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion results, when dissimilar metals are in contact in sea

water. The noble metals are not affected with this type of corrosion
(Francis, 2001).

2.4.4 Uniform Corrosion

This type of corrosion occurs across the entire exposed surface resulting
in material loss. This phenomenon is accelerated by factors like
temperature and salinity. Understanding these corrosion types and their
underlying factors is crucial for assessing the condition of sea water
coolers and heat exchangers. Each corrosion type may require distinct
preventive measures and mitigation strategies (Hosni Ezuber, 2022).

2.5 Fouling

The deposition and accumlation of undesirable elements, such as scale, algae,

suspended particles, and insoluble salts, on the inside or outside surfaces of
processing equipment, such as boilers and heat exchangers, is sometimes
referred to as fouling. (Khalid, 2016).

Figure iii. Fouling of heat exchangers (Ibrahim, 2012).

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 The operational efficiency of a system can be significantly impacted negatively by
fouling on the surfaces of process equipment. Fouling can cause major economic
drain which will be a huge economic impact for most industries today. It is
estimated that the combined annual costs of major industrialized nations spent
due to fouling failures exceed US$4.4 million. The losses incurred by
industrialized countries because of heat exchanger fouling are estimated to be
between 0.25% and 30% of their GDP. Pritchard and Thackery (Harwell
Laboratories) estimate that heat exchangers and boilers account for 15% of
process plant maintenance costs, of which half are likely the result of fouling.
Production losses because of declining efficiency and production losses during
scheduled or unplanned maintenance are expenses related to heat exchanger
fouling. The chief fouling mechanisms or stages include:
(1) Delay or initial period This is the time before dirt builds up on a clean
surface. In comparison to a clean surface, the buildup of comparatively
modest amounts of deposit can even improve heat transmission and
create the impression of "negative" fouling rates and overall fouling
amounts.
(2) Particulate fouling and particle formation, aggregation and
flocculation.
(3) Foulant movement and mass transit to the fouling locations.
(4) Phase separation and deposition, which includes attaching to the
fouling sites and nucleating them to produce deposits.
(5) Growth, aging and hardening and the increase of deposits strength
or auto-retardation, erosion and removal.

3. FAILURE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Failure analysis is a critical aspect of understanding and mitigating the problems

associated with sea water coolers and heat exchangers. It involves a comprehensive
examination of failed components to determine the root causes of failure. Several
techniques are employed to carry out this analysis, each offering unique insights into
the failure mechanisms (Khalil Ranjbar, 2011). This section outlines some of the key
techniques commonly used in failure analysis for sea water cooler/heat exchanger
systems:

3.1 Metallurgical Analysis

Metallurgical analysis is a fundamental technique that involves examining the

microstructure of materials to identify signs of degradation, including corrosion,
cracking, and material defects. This analysis often includes Microscopy; Optical
microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to visualize microstructural
features and identify corrosion products, such as pitting or stress corrosion
cracks (Ullah, 2021).

3.2 Chemical Analysis

Elemental composition analysis to detect impurities, alloying elements, or signs

of material degradation (Grgur, 2021).

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3.3 Corrosion Testing

Corrosion testing is essential for assessing the extent of material degradation

due to exposure to sea water. Common corrosion tests include:

3.4 Salt Spray Testing

To simulate the effects of sea water exposure by subjecting samples to a

controlled salt spray environment and monitoring corrosion development.

3.5 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Non-Destructive Tests (NDT) are a wide group of analytic techniques used in

science and industry to evaluate the characteristics of a material or component
without causing damage to it. Common NDT techniques include (Thekkuden,
2022):

3.5.1 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

UT uses high-frequency sound waves to detect defects, corrosion, and
material thickness variations within the components. The reflectance of
ultrasonic waves from corroded uneven surface is accompanied by a
significant distraction and interference of waves, leading to attenuated and
highly deformed echoes (MIRCHEV, 2016).

3.5.2 Radiographic Testing (RT)

X-rays or gamma rays are used to produce images of the interior of

components, revealing cracks, corrosion, and other defects
(C.Rathinasuriyan, 2014).

3.5.3 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

This technique is particularly effective in detecting surface and near-

surface defects in ferromagnetic materials, which are commonly used in
heat exchangers.

3.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

SEM is a powerful technique that provides high-resolution images of the surface

and sub-surface features of materials. It is particularly useful for studying
microstructural changes, corrosion products, and the extent of surface damage in
failed components.

3.7 Material Characterization

Characterization of materials is crucial in failure analysis to understand their

mechanical properties, chemical composition, and structural integrity. Each of
these failure analysis techniques provides valuable information to determine the
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 causes of failure in sea water heat exchangers. By employing a combination of
these techniques, engineers and researchers can better understand the failure
mechanisms, enabling the development of effective strategies for material
selection, maintenance, and system improvement. The selection of the
appropriate technique depends on the specific failure mode and the nature of the
components under investigation.Techniques include:

3.7.1 X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

XRD helps identify crystalline phases within the material, aiding in the
assessment of its structural integrity.

3.7.2 Mechanical Testing

Tensile testing, hardness testing, and impact testing to evaluate the

mechanical properties of materials, such as tensile strength, hardness,
and impact resistance.

4. PREVENTIVE MEASURES AND MITIGATION

Resilient measures and mitigation methods are critical for preventing failures in
seawater heat exchanger systems. These tactics are essential for guaranteeing these
vital components' long-term dependability and functionality. A great deal of effort is put
into preventing corrosion and reducing fouling, with several new solutions being
developed recently (Willem Faes, 2018). These include treating feed beforehand, using
anti-foulants, applying mechanical on-line mitigation techniques, and avoiding feed
contact with air or oxygen by nitrogen blanketing. Corrosion fouling will be reduced by
cathodic protection and surface treatments like passivation of stainless steel. (Ibrahim,
2012).

4.1 Anti-Foulants and Chemical Inhibitors

Chemical fouling inhibitors, also known as antifoulants, can be used to minimize

or interfere with the various steps of the fouling process, including crystallization,
agglomeration of small insoluble polymeric or coke-like particles, sticking or
attachment of particles to tube walls, and deposit consolidation. These actions
can be taken to reduce fouling in many systems. These antifoulants include
dispersion agents, corrosion inhibitors, antioxidation additives that block
polymerization reactions, and metal coordinators that react with the trace
elements to stop them from acting as fouling catalysts. (Cowan, 1976).

4.2 Physical Water Treatment

The term "physical water treatment" (PWT) refers to a non-chemical technique of

treating water that is applied to prevent or mitigate scale. The utilization of
magnetic and electric fields, changes in the surface charges of water, and
mechanical disturbances such vortex flow devices, ultrasound, and abrupt
pressure changes are examples of physical water treatment (PWT) techniques.
The dissolved solids can be removed under concentrating conditions, like
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blowdown in cooling towers, or conveyed with the process water thanks to the
apparent PWT effect of preventing scale formation on surfaces. (Young, 2003).
4.3 Corrosion-Resistant Coatings

Applying corrosion-resistant coatings to critical components is a widely used

preventive measure. These coatings act as a barrier, protecting the underlying
materials from direct contact with sea water (Holberg, 2020). Key coating
materials include:

4.3.1 Epoxy-based coatings

These coatings provide excellent resistance to sea water corrosion and

are often used on heat exchanger tubes and surfaces exposed to
aggressive environments (Wilhelm, 2004).

4.3.2 Polyurethane coatings

Polyurethane coatings offer good adhesion and resistance to abrasion,

making them suitable for protecting surfaces subjected to mechanical
wear.

4.3.3 Inorganic coatings

Zinc-rich and aluminum-rich coatings can be used as sacrificial coatings to

provide cathodic protection, preventing corrosion of the base material.

4.4 Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection (CP) has been successfully used, in combination with

organic coatings, to prevent ship hulls, tanks, pipes, heat exchangers and other
equipments from sea water corrosion. Cathodic protection systems are employed
to mitigate corrosion by shifting the electrochemical potential of the component to
a more cathodic state.
For this, impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) and sacrificial anode
cathodic protection (SACP) can both be employed. Small boats are generally
better off with SACP, while large marine ships are better off with ICCP systems.
This is because ICCP systems can discharge large current output, have a long
service lifetime, automatically control the hull potential under varying conditions,
and produce little drag force with only a few anodes flushmounted on the hull.
SACP is still required to defend isolated places with current shields, such as sea
chests, even though ICCP is used to protect ship hulls. (Likun Xu, 2021).

4.4.1 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection

Sacrificial anodes, typically made of zinc or aluminum, are connected to

the structure, sacrificing themselves to corrode instead of the critical
components. This technique is particularly effective in preventing corrosion of
heat exchanger tubes and other submerged components.

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 4.4.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection

In this method, an external power source is used to drive a cathodic

reaction on the structure, which protects it from corrosion. This approach
is more controllable and adaptable to varying conditions (Allahkaram,
2011).

4.5 Regular Inspection and Maintenance

The mitigation of fouling and particle deposition in heat exchangers is the utmost
essential and indispensable requirement (Shaiful Rizam Shamsudin, 2015).
Routine inspection and maintenance play a pivotal role in identifying corrosion
and material degradation early, allowing for timely corrective action. Key aspects
include:

4.5.1 Visual inspections

Regular visual inspections can reveal surface corrosion, pitting, or coating

degradation.

4.5.2 Non-destructive testing (NDT)

Periodic NDT techniques, such as ultrasonic testing or radiographic

testing, can identify subsurface defects and corrosion.

4.5.3 Cleaning and fouling control

Periodic cleaning of heat exchanger surfaces to remove fouling and

biofilm can help maintain heat transfer efficiency and prevent localized
corrosion (Muhammad, 2019). In order to clean HX mechanically,
brushes, balls, coils, or wire inserts techniques are used. Also online
cleaning can be done by adding them to the cleaning fluid or working fluid.
Other off-line cleaning methods that don't need to be disassembled are
pulsating cleaning water and ice pigging. Disassembly is necessary for
more thorough jet washing, sandblasting, drilling, or manual brushing,
which can take days. (Brooks, 2022).

4.6 Material Compatibility and Design

Selecting materials with excellent sea water resistance and designing systems
with consideration for corrosion-prone areas are essential preventive measures.
Choose materials that exhibit high corrosion resistance, such as copper-nickel
alloys or titanium, for critical components exposed to sea water (Klenam, 2014).
Design heat exchanger systems to minimize crevices and stagnant areas where
corrosion can occur. Ensure adequate flow and mixing to minimize the risk of
localized corrosion (Alapati, 2022).
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 4.7 Water Treatment and Monitoring

To maintain or enhance its function, the heat exchangers must be cleaned. Two
categories of cleaning strategies are offline and in-service cleaning. In some
situations, cleaning can be done while the system is in operation to maintain a
decent level of efficiency without causing a disruption to service. One can
undertake offline washing in a variety of circumstances. (Patil, 2022).

5. MATERIAL SELECTION

Material Selection for sea water coolers is the most important part of its design, for
ensuring high efficiency through utmost heat transfer rate, without compromising on
reliability and corrosion resistance properties. The choice of materials depends on
various factors, including the specific operational conditions, exposure to sea water, and
the desired mechanical properties (Careri, 2023). This section provides an overview of
materials commonly used in these applications and compares their properties.

5.1 Copper-Nickel Alloys (Cu-Ni)

Copper-nickel alloys are favored for their excellent corrosion resistance and anti-
fouling properties in sea water environments. Commonly used Cu-Ni alloys
include Cu-Ni 90/10 and Cu-Ni 70/30(Jasner, 2002) i. Cu-Ni alloys are known for
their exceptional resistance to chloride-induced corrosion, pitting, and crevice
corrosion. Also, they are effective in preventing biofouling which reduces heat
transfer efficiency of Heat Exchanger. Cu-Ni alloys offers high thermal
conductivity which makes them suitable for use in marine environment
(Beckmann, 1998).

5.2 Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is widely utilized in sea water coolers and heat exchangers,
primarily due to its corrosion resistance and mechanical strength. Common
grades include 316L and 2205. Stainless steel grades may be resistant to
general corrosion but highly susceptible to pitting corrosion in chloride-rich
marine environments. It provides good mechanical properties, making it suitable
for applications where higher strength is required. Stainless steel is readily
available and can be easily fabricated (Schleich, 2004) .

5.3 Aluminum Brass

Aluminum brass is another material used in sea water cooling systems, offering a
balance between corrosion resistance and thermal conductivity. Aluminum brass
demonstrates good resistance to sea water corrosion, making it suitable for heat
exchanger applications. it has high thermal conductivity so results in efficient
heat transfer between fluids. Aluminum brass is relatively easy to fabricate and
install (Ifezue, 2015).

5.4 Titanium
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 Titanium is known for exceptional corrosion resistance properties in sea water
environment, making it suitable for high-performance heat exchangers. Titanium
is lightweight and has a high strength-to-weight ratio, making it advantageous for
certain applications (Nicolas, 2019).

5.5 Material Property Comparison

A comparative analysis of properties for these commonly used materials is

crucial in material selection. The choice of material depends on the specific
requirements of the application, considering factors such as:

5.5.1 Corrosion Resistance

Copper-nickel alloys and titanium provide the best corrosion resistance,

while stainless steel offers moderate resistance. Aluminum brass also
exhibits good corrosion resistance (Kain, 2012).

5.5.2 Mechanical Properties

Stainless steel and titanium provide high mechanical strength (Zhang,

2014), while copper-nickel alloys offer good mechanical properties.
Aluminum brass has acceptable strength for many applications (Rongchai,
2022).

5.5.3 Thermal Conductivity

Copper-nickel alloys and aluminum brass have favorable thermal

conductivity for efficient heat transfer. Titanium and stainless vsteel have
moderate thermal conductivity (Cho, 2023).

5.5.4 Cost

Material cost varies, with stainless steel generally being more cost-
effective than titanium, while copper-nickel alloys and aluminum brass fall
within a moderate cost range.

6. CONCLUSION

Through this review paper we have analyzed the challenges faced in the marine
environment, including different types of failures, their reasons and ways for tackling
them. We explored the properties and suitability of commonly used materials, including
copper-nickel alloys, stainless steel, aluminum brass, and titanium, in addressing these
challenges.
The selection of appropriate materials for sea water coolers and heat exchangers is a
complex decision, often requiring a trade-off between corrosion resistance, mechanical
properties, thermal conductivity, and cost. Each material offers distinct advantages and
limitations, and the choice should be guided by the specific requirements of the
application and the severity of the sea water environment (Usman, 2016).
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Moreover, the paper highlighted the significance of employing failure analysis
techniques, such as metallurgical analysis, corrosion testing, non-destructive testing,
scanning electron microscopy, and material characterization, in understanding the root
causes of failures. Preventive measures and mitigation strategies, including coating
systems and cathodic protection, were also discussed to minimize the risks associated
with sea water corrosion. These strategies play a crucial role in prolonging the
operational life of sea water coolers and heat exchangers.
Looking forward, it is evident that ongoing research and innovation are essential to
further enhance the performance of these systems. Future research should focus on
developing advanced materials, corrosion-resistant coatings, and improved failure
analysis techniques to address the unique challenges of sea water environments
(Marrow, 2006)ii.
In conclusion, the comprehensive review provided in this paper serves as a valuable
resource for engineers, researchers, and professionals in the field of heat transfer
systems. By addressing the issues of corrosion, material selection, and failure analysis,
we can better equip ourselves to meet the demanding requirements of marine industry
ensuring the long-term reliability and efficiency of our systems.

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