Chapter 8 Forces acting at a point 8.1 Representation of a force A force has the following chamucteristics: (a) magnitude (b) direction (line of action and sense) (ce) point of application, A quantity which possesses both magnitude and direction is referred to asa vector quantity, Hence, force is a vector quantity end can be represented by a straight line drawn to scale from the point of apptica- tion along the linc of action of the force, An arrowhead is used to indicate the direction of the force, $2 Terms used In problams Involving a number of forces ecting at 8 point In dealing with problems involving a number of forces acting at a point, the following terms are frequently used. Equilibrium When two or more forces act at a point and are so arranged to balance each other, the forces are said to be in equilibrium. ‘Scanned with CamScanneelor Resultant The reswtrans of a number of forces acting at 4 point is that single force which would have the same effect if it replaced those forces, Equilibrant The equilitrant is a single force which, if added to a system of forces acting at a point, would produce equilibrium, In other words, the equilibrant will neutralize the other forces. It follows, therefore, that the equilibrant is equal in magnitude and direction, bul opposite in Sense to the resultant. Coplanar forces These are forces which are all acting In the same plane, Concurrent forces ‘These are forces whose Lines of action mect at the same point, Note: When a number of coplanar forces acting on a body are in equilibrium, their lines of action must pass throu gh a common point, i.e, the forces must be concurrent. 8.2 Parallelogram of forces Lf two forces acting ata Point are represented in magnitude and direc- lion by the adjacent sides of o parallelogram, then their resultant will be represented in both magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from that point. The above statement is known as the parallelogram of forces ntle, which |¢ a graphical means of determining the resultant of two forces acting at a point, The method is illustrated by the following example, ee Example 8.1 Two forces of 300'N and S00.N act at a point © and are inclined at 60° to tach other. Determine, graphically, the magnitude and direction of the resultant force. Solution The dingram showing the magnitude and direction of the forces acting Ot the point O is given in Fig. 8.1(a). This diagram is referred to-as the space diagram. The resultant of these forces is determined by construct- ing the parailetogram of forces shown in Fig. 8,1(b). This is drawn to 0 scale of Icom = SON as described below, Draw OA 10cm long to represent the $00 N force. Set off OB at un angle of 60° with OA, making it 6cm long to represent the 300 N force. With centre A and radius OB draw an arc. With centre B and ‘Scanned with CamScannee(n) Space cage ° 500 N (2) Fores dingren Seale: tom © SDN Figure 8.1 Parallelogram of forces — Example 6.1 radius OA draw another arc to intersect the first one at C, Join AC and BC to complete the parallelogram OACH, as shown, Now draw the diagonal OC. This represents the resultant force acting mt O, its direction belng from O towards (C. Two arrowheads are inserted on OC to indicate that this vector is or a force, ‘but is a single force that can replace the other twa forces. By measurement, OC = 14cm. Hence, sinwe (he scale used is tem = SON, then: Resultant force = 14 x 50 = 700N making on angle of 22° with OA ft should be noted that the same construction gives the equilibrant which has the same magnitudes and direction a4 the resaliant, bet is of opposite sense, Le, acting from C towards O. 8.4 Triangle of forces Wf three coplanar forces acting at # point are in equilibrium, they can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle taken in order. ‘Scanned with CamScanner‘The above statement is known as the triangle af forces rule. It should be noted that the words ‘taken in order’ mean that the direction ‘of the forces follow cach other round each side of the triangle in cither a clockwise or an anticlockwise order, Suppose three forces, Fi, Fi and Fi, acting at @ point Q, are in equilibrium and suppose the lines of action of these three forces ta be as shown in the space diagram, Fig. 8.2(a}. a Fy a (ad Space diagram fb) Forze diagram (Tiree farce In eguilityrlumnd (Closae ranglep Figure 8.2) Triangle of forces The corresponding force frector) diag ravi: is shown in Fig. 8.2{b) which must be drawn accurately to a suitable scale so that the sides of the triangle represent the magnitude and direction of the three forces. The sense of direction of each force ix indicated by the arrowhead placed on the respective vector. Notice particularly that the foree diagram has been drawn by taking the forces in a clockwise cyclic order around the point O, £5 Bow’s notation This convenient method of lettering the forces for reference purposes is particularly useful when there are three or more forces ta be considered. Capital letters are inserted in the spaces between the forces in the space diagram in a clockwise (or anti-clockwise) direction, a5 shown in Fig. 8.3(a). Each force can then be referred to by the letters in its adjacent spaces. In other words, force F; can be referred to os force AB, force Fy as force DC, and force Fi as force CA. The vector of each force in the force dingram is labelled with its corresponding small letiers on the two ends of the vector in the direc- tion of the arrows. Thus forces AB, HC and CA are denoted by vectors ad, be and ca respectively, as shown in Fig. 8.3(b). ‘Scanned with CamScannerChl Fal A= F;) BO[s Fy 4) Soace diagram bi Force Gagan Figure 8.3) Bow's notation Example 8.2 A load of 2000N is suspended by two ropes, OX and OY, attached to a horizontal beam at X and Y, 1.8m apart. If the ropes OX and OF muke angles of 30° and 45° respectively with the beam, find graphically the tension in cach rope when the system is in equilibrium. Solutlon (at Sgace cagrain (bi Force diagram Scales tem = 02m Sosa: tom = 200M Figure 8.4) Triangle of forces — Example 8.2 ‘The space diagram showing the load and the directions of the unknown forces (tensions) in the ropes it given in Fig. §,4(a), This is drawn to a ‘Scanned with CamScannerscale of Lom = 0.2m, and the spaces between the forces around the junction Q ore lettered in accordance with Bow's notation. = wor The force diagram, Fie. 8.4(b), is drawn to a scale of }em = is constructed as follows: . aa Draw vector af vertically and 10em long to represent the magni- tude and direction of the force AB of 2000 N exerted by the load, Since the system is in equilibrium, the vector triangle of forces must close. Hence, from # draw a line parallel to the line of action of force BC, and from a draw another line parallel to the line of action of foree CA ‘so that the two lines meet at ¢. Insert arrowheads In order round the triangle, as shown, | | The magnitude of the forces BC and CA (i.e. the tensions in the ropes OX and OY) can be found by measuring the sides be and ca, respectively, of the vector triangle of forces and multiplying by the scale factor. By measurement, bc = 73cm and ca = 9,0cm. Thus: ‘Tension in rope OX = 7.3 x 200 = 1460N Tension in rope OV = 9.0 & 200 = 18006 Example 8.3 The pressure in an engine cylinder is 955 kPa when the crankshaft has rotated 45° from the top dead centre position. The bore and stroke are 80mm cach and the connecting rod length between centres is 120mm. Construct the space and force dingrams to determine: (@) the angle between the axis of the cylinder bore and the centre line of the connecting rod (5) the force acting along the connecting rod (2) the fore between the thrust face of the piston and the cylinder wall, Solution The configuration diagram for the engine mechanism when the crank OA has turned 45° from the top dead centre position is drawn to scale in Fig. B.5(@). The force P on the piston crown nets vertically down wards along the line of stroke; the thrust 8 in the connecting rod AB @ppears ns an upward resisting force at its small end Hy @ is the force between the thrust face of the piston and the cylinder wall, acting hor izontally fie, at right angles 10 the line of strake). The angle OBA Is the inclination of the connecting rad to the eylinder bore centre line. By measurement, this angle is found to be approximately 134°, Before constructing the foree dingram, Fig, B.5(b), it is first necessary to calculate the magnitude of the force i - crown, P acting on the piston Force P » Pressure x Aren of cylinder bore = 955 x 10" [N/m?] x ti 0.08" [m? =e + [m'] ‘Scanned with CamScannerP= aon o : aut — OA = 49 min AB © 120mm wt Pm 400M " A aa) (a) Space ciagrin 6] Perea diagram ‘Seale; lem = 400 Figure 8.5) Trinngle of forces — Example 8,3 Mow draw a vertical line xy in Fig. 8.5(b) to represent P to a sealo of, say, lem = 400M. The directions of yr and cx are known, and it is only necessary (0 draw lines parnilel to @ and R from y and x, respec. tively, 10 meet at z to complete the force triangle xyz. By measurement, Jz = 2.9em and cy = 12.3$em. Thus: Foree QO = 2.9 x 400 = I160N Foree R = 12.35 * 400 = 4940N Example 8.4 A uniform trap-door, 2m long and weighing 450-N, is shown in Fis. 8.6. Itis hinged at one end and is supported when open by a rope aver a pulley. When the door makes an angle of 30° to the floor, determine graphically the tension in (he rope and the reaction at the hinge. Solution Draw the space diagram to # suitable scale, as shown in Fig. 8.7(0). ‘The forces acting on the trapdoor ore: ‘Scanned with CamScannerFigure 8.6 Trap-door — Example 8.4 Tenelon In ma rope "Paint of Peaction al hinge & fa) Space diagran (0) Force diagram Scale: 1 cm © 028m Scala: tem = SON Figure 6.7 Triangle of forces — Example 8.4 (4) the weight 450 N vertically downwards at its mid-point (i) the tension in the supporting rope (iii) the reaction ay the hinge. These three forces are in equilibrium and are concurrent (see Section 8.2). The point of concurrency, O, 1s determined by the inter- Section of the lines of action of forces (/) and (i/). Hence, the direction ‘Scanned with CamScannerof the hinge reaction is obtained by drawing a line from the hinge to the point O, Now, using Bow's notation, letter the spaces between the forces. Next draw to a suitnble scale the force diagram, as shown in Fig. 8.7(b). By measurement be = 8.7 em and ca = $.1 cm, Since the scale used here ls J cm = $0 N, then: Reaction at hinge = 8.7 x 50 = 435. at $7" to the floor Tension in the rope = 5.1 x $0 = 255N Example 8.5 A wheel and tyre assembly was balanced by having three small lead masses attached to the wheel rim, Two of the balances have masses of 55g and 85¢ respectively, and the angle between them is 120°, Assuming that radial force is proportional 10 the mass, determine, by the triangle of forces method, the magnitude and position of the third balance mass. Solution wap Bag 4) Forea gragram (s) Boece diag Scale; tom = 109 Figure 8.8 Wheel balancing — Example 8.5 ‘The space diagram is shown in Fig. 8.6{a), Using a senle of, say, lem = 10g, draw the force diagram of Fig. 8.8(b), as described in the previous examples. The magnitude of the third balance mass is represented by ihe dotted vector. This is found to be 75 g. [ts position should be 100° from the 35g mass and 140° from the 85g mass, as shown in the space diagram, Fig. 8.8(a}. ‘Scanned with CamScanner6.6 Polygon of forces a 6 t a ta Space OWGTaT sg bi Force diagram (Four ler Beting at n point ly ‘ eran equilibrium) Figure 8.9 Polygon of forces The polygon of forces rule is an extension of the (tlongle of forces rule and can be expressed thus: If four or more coplanar forees acting ata point are in equilibrium, they can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of 9 polygon taken in order (see Fig. 8.9). Tf a system of several coplanar forces meets at a point and that system is not in equilibrium, then the polygon does not close and the force required to produce equilibrium in the system is represented by the vector which joins the open ends of the Incomplete polygon. Thus, in Fig, 8.10(b), the cquilibrant is represented by the vector ‘a (chown dotted), its direction being inken from a* to @. Note that the resultant of the force system is represented by the same vector, but its direction is from o toa’, tai Space diagram tb Force diagram Figure 8.10) System of concurrent forces not in equilibrium ‘Scanned with CamScannerExample 8.6 Four coplanar forces act at a point as shown In Fig. 8.11{a). Determine their resultant in magnitude and direction, (NWRAC/ULCI ~ 5H ~ i ¢ ~ ~ ‘ tN T. \_, —l, EW [Space diagram ) Fors diagram Seals; fom © TN Figure 8.11 Polygon of forces — Example 8.6 Solution Using Bow's notation, put capital letters in the spaces between the forces in the space diagram, Fig. B.11(o). Referring to the force diagram, Fig. §.11(b), Jet Lem represent 1. Start by drawing vector ab 4cm long, parallel to and in the same direction ns force AB in the space diagram, Fig. &.1 I{a). Continue by drawing, in the same order, vectors he (Bem long), cd em long) and da* (Scr long) parallel to forces BC, CD and DA respectively, as shown. Join aa". Thien the veetor au", taken in the sense from @ to a", represents the resultant force, By measurement, this is found to be 8.5N acting {n the direction <§* to the vertical, as shown in the force diagram, Fig. #.11(b). Example 8.7 Four members of n frame structure meet ata joint, as shown in Fig. 8.12{(a). Of the joint is in equilibrium, determine graphically he mngnitude of the forces X and Y in the members shown. (SWRAC/ULCH Solution Fig. 8.12(a) is the space diagram lettered in accordance with Bow's notation. Sinee the joint is in equilibrium, the force diagram, Fig. B.12(b), must be a closed! polygon, Using a seale of, say, } mm to 10N, draw vector ab 90mm long parallel to and in the same direction as the 900 .N force in the space ‘Scanned with CamScanner‘00H a (x) Spree ciagran won {b) Foe diagram Scale: 1 mn = 10M Figure 8.12 Polygon of forces — Example 8.7 diagram, Next draw vector be 22mm long parallel to and in the same direction as the 220N farce. From c, draw o line parallel to the direc tion of foree ¥ and From a draw another line parallel to the direction of foree ¥ so that the two lines meet at d. Then, vectors ed and da will represent the magnitude and direction of forces Xand ¥ respectively. Ry measurement, cd = 30mm and da = 82mm. ‘Thus: Force ¥ = 30 x 10 = 300N Force ¥ = 82 x [0 = 820N 8.7 Resolution of a force into two components A force acting at # point cnt be resolved inte two components, these being two forces that could replace the given foree ond hove the same effect on the point. It will be appreciated that ta find the two compo- nents of o piven force is the reverse process of finding the resultant of two given forces. Although compancnts in any two directions can be fond, the most useful are usually the rectargttfar compenents, Le. those which are at riplit angles to each other. ‘Scanned with CamScannerFigure 8.13 Resolution of a foree into two rectangular components To find the rectangular component forces ? and Q of a given force Facting at an angle @to a line X=X (Fig. 8.13): By elementary trigonometry, F = cose, P= Feo and a = sin B, o. O= Fasin8 Fos Gis the component of force F parallel to X—X, and F sin @ is the component of force Fat right angles to XX. It should he noted thar when the line X=N is horizontal, as in Fig. B.1}a), the components P and @ are referred Co ms the horirontal and vertical components of the force F. Example 8.8 Ata certain instant a horizontal rope towing a vehicle makes an angle of 70° with the front axle. If the foree in the tow rope is 1300 N, calculate: (a) the effective force pulling the vehicle forward (®) the force pulling the vehicle sideways, (CGLI Solution Force in tow rope, F = 1300 N From Fig. 8.14: (a) Effective force pulling whe vehicle forward = Fcos 20° ® 1300 » 0.9397 = 1222N ‘Scanned with CamScannerEffective forward free Side tore Figure 8.14 Example 8.8 (4) Force pulling the vehicle tideways = Fain 20° [or F eos 70°] = 1300 » 0.342 = 444,.6N Answer: (2) 1222N (0) 444.6N 8.8 Body resting on 6 smooth inclined plane Figure 8.15 Body resting on n smooth inclined plane When a body is resting on a smooth inclined plane, Fig. 8.15, the weight Hof the body which acts vertically downwards under the influence of gravity can be resolved! into two components at right angles. One of these components, W'sin 8 acts parallel to and down the plane. The other component, FP cos 6, acts at right angles to the plane, as shown, Ti should be noted thal the force parallel to the plane required to prevent the body sliding down the plane will be equal to W’sin @, and the normal reaction of the plane to the weight of the body will be equal to H'cos 8. ‘Scanned with CamScannerExamp!e 8.9 A motor vehicle has a mass of 1200kg and stands on sn incline of } in 8. Caleulate; (a) the force parallel to the road surface required to hold the vehicle stationary (6) the normal reaction between the wheels and the rond surface. (Take the gravitational force on a mass of 1 ke to ‘be 1ON,) Soluthon ate E (a) Space diagram po Peres aiagewm Figure #16 Vehicle resting on on inclined road — Exomple 8.9 Since the gravitational force exerted on a mass of | kg is 10N, then: Weight of vehicle, HW = 1200 x 10 120008 = 12kN An incline (or a gradient) of 1 in 8 means that the road rises vertically by Im for every 8m measured along the road surface. From Fig. &.16(a), = 0.1250 TISS non sin & . @ (#) Poree F parallel to the road surface required to hold the vehicle stationnry = Ws 7.18" = 12 & 0.1250 = 1L.SkN (6) Normal reaction & between the wheels and the road surface Weos 7.18" 12 0.9920 = 1L.9EN Answer: (a) LSKN: (6) 11.9kN ‘Scanned with CamScannerExercise 8.1 — Review questions 1 (a) To define @ force completely, three factors must be known, Name them. tb , How are these factors represented by a vector? (6) How are ep EME 2 Explain what is meant by the resultant of a number of forces acting at a poi : 3. Explain what is meant by the equilibrant of a number of forces acting at 4 point. . | 4 Complete the following statements by inserting the missing word: (a) When three or more forces are all acting in the same plane, they are called .......65 forces. . (b) When forces act at the same time and at the same point, they ure called .....,.., Forces. (e} When a system of coplanar forces is balanced so that there is no resultant force, it is sald ta beim ......... 5 Describe how the resultant of two non-parallel forces acting a1 0 point may be determined graphically, What altcralion is required to be made to the resultant in order that it may become the equilibrant of the two forces? State the principle of the triangle of forecs, State the principle of the polygon of forces. What is Bow"s notation? Explain what is meant by the resolution of a force into two components at right angles to each other. eas Exercine 8.2 — Problems 1 Two connecting rods of a vee-engine are attached to the same erankpin, Ata certnin instant the angle between the two connecting rods, A and B, is 60°. The thrust along rod A is 22.5 kN and that along Bis 8 KN. Determine, graphically, the magnitude and diree- tion of the resultant force relative to rod A, Use a seale of fem = 2.3kN, (WMAC/UEI) An accident-damnged vehicle is trapped in a confined space making it necessary for it 1o be drapeed out bodily. Two independent winches are required, pulling at right angles to cach other, One acting from north to south exerts a pull of 27001, while the other fcling from enst to west exerts a pull of 1500.N. Find, Eraphically, bid pigtail and direction of the resuliant pull on the damaged vwehicte, (NWRAC/ULCIS 3 A load of 2000 N is suspended in the air by two steel rapes, If the ‘Scanned with CamScanner