Taxonomy and Animal Classification

Class
Character
Example
What is Protozoa?
Protozoa are unicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms.
They are either free-living or parasites.
There are around 65000 species of protozoans categorised in different groups.
They lack a cell wall.
There are many different cell organelles, that perform various tasks performed by
different organs in higher animals, e.g. mouth, anus, intestinal tract, etc.

There are many protozoa, that cause various diseases in animals and humans, e.g.
Plasmodium (malarial parasite),
Trypanosoma (sleeping sickness),
Trichomonas (trichomoniasis), etc.
Plasmodium (malarial parasite),
Trichomonas (trichomoniasis)

A sexually Transmitted Diseases

The protozoa have many stages in their life cycle. Some of the stages of the life cycle
are infectious.

The cyst stage is dormant and resistant to environmental stress,

The trophozoite stage is reproductive and causes disease.
General Characteristics of Protozoa
Habitat- Protozoa are found in the aquatic environment. They live in freshwater or
oceans. Some are free-living and some are parasitic in plants and animals. Mostly they
are aerobic but some are anaerobic and present in the rumen or human intestine.
Some of the species are found in extreme environments like hot springs. Some of them
form resting cyst to overcome dry environments.

Size and Shape- The size and shape of Protozoa vary greatly, from microbial (1µm) to
large enough and can be seen by the naked eye. The shell of unicellular foraminifera
can have a diameter of 20 cm.
They lack a rigid cell wall, so they are flexible and found in various shapes. Cells are
enclosed in a thin plasma membrane. Some of the species have a hard shell on the outer
surface. In some of the protozoans especially in ciliates, the cell is supported
by Pellicle, which may be flexible or rigid and give organisms the definite shape and
help in locomotion.
Cellular Structure-
They are unicellular having a eukaryotic cell.
The metabolic functions are performed by some specialized internal structures.
They mostly have one membrane-bound nucleus in the cell.
The nucleus has diffused appearance due to scattered chromatin, the vesicular nucleus
contains a central body called endosome or nucleoli.
Nucleoli of apicomplexans have DNA, whereas amoeboids lack DNA in their
endosome.
Ciliates have micronucleus and macronucleus.
The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm and other locomotory projections like
flagella, pseudopodia and cilia.
Some of the genera have a membranous envelope called pellicle, which gives a
definite shape to the cell.
In some of the protozoans, epibiotic bacteria attach to the pellicle by their fimbriae.
The cytoplasm is differentiated into outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm,
ectoplasm is transparent and endoplasm contains cell organelles.
Some of the protozoa have cytostome for ingesting food.
Food vacuoles are present, where ingested food comes.
Ciliates have a gullet, a body cavity which opens outside.
The central vacuole is present for osmoregulation, that removes excess water.
Membrane-bound cell organelles, like mitochondria, Golgi bodies, lysosomes and
other specialised structures are present.

Nutrition;
Protozoa are heterotrophic and have holozoic nutrition. They ingest their food by
phagocytosis.
Some of the protozoan groups have a specialised structure called cytostome for
phagocytosis.
The pseudopodia of amoeboids help in catching the prey.
Thousands of cilia present in ciliates drive the food-laden water into the gullet.
The ingested food comes to the food vacuole and gets acted on by lysosomal
enzymes. The digested food gets distributed throughout the cell.
Locomotion
Most of the protozoa species have flagella, cilia or pseudopodia.
Sporozoa, which don’t have any locomotory structure, have subpellicular
microtubules, which help in the slow movement.

Life Cycle
The life cycle of most of the protozoa alternates between dormant cyst stage and
proliferating vegetative stage, e.g. trophozoites.
The cyst stage can survive harsh conditions without water and nutrients.
It can remain outside the host for a longer duration and get transmitted.
The trophozoite stage is infectious, and they feed and multiply during this stage.

Reproduction
Mostly they reproduce by asexual means.
They multiply by binary fission, longitudinal fission, transverse fission or budding.
In some of the species, sexual reproduction is present.
The sexual reproduction is by conjugation, syngamy or by gametocytes formation.
Protozoa Classification and Examples
Protozoa is a phylum having unicellular heterotrophs.
It comes under Kingdom Protista.

Protozoa are divided into four major groups based on the structure and the part
involved in the locomotion:

Mastigophora or Flagellated protozoans:

They are parasites or free-living.
They have flagella for locomotion
Their body is covered by a cuticle or pellicle
Freshwater forms have a contractile vacuole
Reproduction is by binary fission (longitudinal
division)

Examples: Trypanosoma, Trichomonas, Giardia,

Leishmania, etc
Sarcodina or Amoeboids:
They live in the freshwater, sea or moist soil.
The movement is by pseudopodia and they capture their prey by pseudopodia
There is no definite shape and pellicle is absent.
The contractile vacuole is present in the amoeboids living in freshwater.
Reproduction is by binary fission and cyst formation.
Examples: Amoeba, Entamoeba, etc.
Sporozoa or Sporozoans:
They are endoparasitic.
They don’t have any specialised organ for locomotion.
The pellicle is present, which has subpellicular microtubules, that help in movement
Reproduction is by sporozoite formation.
Examples: Plasmodium, Myxidium, Nosema, Globidium, etc.
Ciliophora or Ciliated protozoans:
They are aquatic and move actively
with the help of thousands of cilia.
They have fixed shape due to covering
of pellicle.
They may have tentacles, e.g. in the
sub-class Suctoria.
Contractile vacuoles are present.
Some species have an organ for
defence called trichocysts.
They move with the help of cilia and
the movement of cilia also helps in
taking food inside the gullet.
They reproduce by transverse division
and also form cysts.
Examples: Paramecium, Vorticella,
Balantidium, etc.
Examples of Diseases caused by Protozoa
Many of the protozoans are parasites and are disease causing pathogens.

List of diseases caused by protozoans

Name of the Causal Vector Pathogenesis Disease
Disease organism symptoms
Malaria Plasmodium Female The parasite attacks the Fever, headache,
falciparum, Anopheles liver and RBCs. It multiplies vomiting,
P. vivax, P. mosquito within liver cells, enters the abdominal pain
malariae, P. blood stream and ruptures and it may lead
ovale RBCs. It releases a toxic to fatal
substance called conditions if not
‘hemozoin’, which causes treated like
fever. organ failure and
The sporozoite is the convulsions.
infectious stage
Name of the Causal Vector Pathogenesis Disease symptoms
Disease organism

Amoebiasis or Entamoeba None. It gets Invades Abdominal

Amoebic histolytica transmitted by intestinal pain, loose
dysentery contaminated food mucosa and bowel
or water spreads to other movement,
parts like liver. bloody stool,
Causes loss of appetite,
dysentery and nausea, fever
liver abscesses.
The infected
stage is
trophozoites
Name of the Causal Vector Pathogenesis Disease
Disease organism symptoms

African Sleeping Trypanosoma Tsetse fly B-lymphocyte High fever,

sickness or brucei proliferation muscle and
Trypanosomiasis gambiense, T. leading to joint pain,
brucei tissue damage irritability,
rhodesiense swollen lymph
nodes, skin
rashes. If left
untreated,
neurological
problems
develop, which
become fatal
Name of the Causal Vector Pathogenesis Disease
Disease organism symptoms

Trichomoniasis Trichomoniasis Sexually Destroys epithelial Itching and

vaginalis transmitted cells and cytotoxic burning in genital
disease (STD) substances are organs and
released. Vaginal discharge.
pH increases and Mostly
the number of asymptomatic in
leukocytes also males, but in
increases in females it may
response to the lead to many
toxic substance complications
released by the such as
pathogen complication
during pregnancy
and after birth.
Name of the Causal Vector Pathogenesis Disease
Disease organism symptoms

Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma Transmission Sporozoites Redness of eye,

gondii by penetrate the blurred vision,
contaminated intestinal cells flu-like
water and soil and multiply in symptoms
or get attached the intestine. It
to fur of invades the
animals lymphatic
system and
blood and
damages the
tissue leading
to necrosis
Name of the Causal Vector Pathogenesis Disease
Disease organism symptoms

Balantidiasis Balantidium coli Pigs Excystation occurs in Ulcer due to lesion

the small intestine. in the colon,
Sporozoites migrate colitis, blood and
to the colon mucus in the stool,

Giardiasis Giardia lamblia or None. It gets Mucosal damage is The parasite is

duodenalis transmitted by related to the mucosal present in the
contaminated inflammation and duodenum.
food or water release of lectin or Watery or foul-
proteinases. smelling
Malabsorption may diarrhoea, nausea,
also be due to flatulence, weight
inhibition of loss
pancreatic enzymes
and depletion of bile
concentration
Name of the Causal Vector Pathogenesis Disease
Disease organism symptoms

Leishmaniasis Leishmania Female The flagellated Enlarged liver

or Kala-azar donovani Sandflies (of promastigotes of and spleen,
the genus the parasite bind to fever, skin turns
Phlebotomus macrophages dark
) present in the skin.
There is marked
suppression of cell-
mediated immunity
Protozoan Diseases in Humans
Most of the protest diseases in humans are attributed to protozoa.
Protozoa induces sickness in humans when it turns into human parasites.
A majority of the prevalent and fatal diseases are caused by protozoan infections in
humans such as Malaria, amoebic dysentery and African Sleeping Sickness.
These are capable of multiplying in humans, contributing to their survival, enabling
the development of dangerous infections from one entity only.
The transmission of protozoa found in the intestine of humans to another human
usually takes place via the fecal-oral path, such as, through contaminated water or food
or person-to-person contact.
Those protozoa found in the tissue or blood of humans are passed to other humans by
an arthropod vector.
Diseases Caused by Bacteria
Any type of sickness caused by bacteria is a bacterial disease.
These bacteria are known to cause diseases by excreting or secreting toxins by
releasing toxins internally that gets released with the disintegration of the bacteria or by
the induction of sensitivity to its antigenic attributes.
Examples
Some of the dangerous diseases which are caused by bacteria are
Bacterial meningitis,
Diphtheria,
Tetanus,
Cholera,
Syphilis,
Gonorrhoea,
Tuberculosis,
Bubonic plague and
 Lyme disease.
Diseases Caused by Fungi
Fungi are microbes, distinguished by chitin seen in their cell walls.
Infections caused by fungi are referred to as mycosis.
There are different fungi known to cause different types of diseases.
These could be contagious, spreading from one to another person.
They can also spread from contaminated surfaces or soil and even infected animals.
Fungi usually reproduce by the release of spores.
Since these spores can be picked by inhaling or direct contact, this infection usually
affects nails, skin etc.
It can get through the skin, affecting organs and can affect the whole organism.

Examples
A few diseases caused by fungi are –
Ringworm
Jock itch
Athlete’s foot
Aspergillosis
Candidiasis
 Coelenterata
Phylum Coelenterata is a group of aquatic, or marine
organisms and a member of the Animal kingdom. They are
usually found attached to the rocks at the bottom of the
sea. These are the multicellular and simplest group of
invertebrate animals, found in colonies or solitarily.

Characteristics of Coelenterata
These are mostly aquatic or marine habitat animals.
These species exhibit a tissue-level organization.
The mouth is enclosed by thin and short tentacles.
They are diploblastic animals, in which, the body is
made up of two layers of cells:
Ectoderm – One layer makes up the cells outside the
body
Endoderm – the other forms the inner lining of the body.
They have cavities in their body.
The body is radially symmetrical.
The digestion is both intracellular
and extracellular.
The nervous system and the
circulatory system is absent.
They excrete and respire through
simple diffusion.
The mode of reproduction is
asexual, which is through budding.
The sexual mode of reproduction is
seen only in a few Coelenterates.

E.g., Hydra, Rhizostoma, Xenia,

etc.
 Classification of Coelenterata
Coelenterates are classified into three different
classes:
Anthozoa
Hydrozoa
Scyphozoa

Anthozoa

They are found exclusively in the marine

environment.
Mesogloea contains fibrous connective tissues
and amoeboid cells.
Medusa is not present.
E.g., Metridium, Xenia.
Hydrozoa

These are mostly marine species, found exclusively in freshwater.

Few are found in colonies and few are found solitarily.
Asexual Polyps is the dominant form.
Mesogloea is acellular.
E.g., Hydra, Obelia

Scyphozoa

They are found exclusively in the marine environment.

Medusa is dominant and umbrella-shaped.
Polyps are not present.
Mesogloea is cellular.
E.g., Aurelia aurita, Rhizostoma.
 PLATYHELMINTHES
Phylum Platyhelminthes belongs to kingdom Animalia.
This phylum includes 13,000 species.
The organisms are also known as flatworms.
These are acoelomates and they include many free-living and parasitic
life forms.
Members of this phylum range in size from a single-celled organism to
around 2-3 feet long.
 Characteristics of Platyhelminthes

Platyhelminthes have the following important characteristics:

They are triploblastic, acoelomate, and bilaterally symmetrical.

They may be free-living or parasites.
The body has a soft covering with or without cilia.
Their body is dorsoventrally flattened without any segments and
appears like a leaf.
They are devoid of the anus and circulatory system but have a mouth.
They respire by simple diffusion through the body surface.
They have an organ level of organization.
They do not have a digestive tract.
The space between the body wall and organs is filled with connective
tissue parenchyma which helps in transporting the food material.
They are hermaphrodites, i.e., both male and female organs are present
in the same body.
They reproduce sexually by fusion of gametes and asexually by
regeneration by fission and regeneration. Fertilization is internal.
The life cycle is complicated with one or more larval stages.
They possess the quality of regeneration.
The flame cells help in excretion and osmoregulation.
The nervous system comprises the brain and two longitudinal nerve
cords arranged in a ladder-like fashion.
 Unique Characteristics of Platyhelminthes
Some of the characteristics that distinguish the organisms belonging to
phylum Platyhelminthes from others are:

Presence of flame cells.

Ladder-like nervous system.
Presence of parenchyma in the body cavity.
Self-fertilization
 Classification of Platyhelminthes
The classification of Platyhelminthes are given below:

Turbellaria
Trematoda
Cestoda
Turbellaria
These are free-living organisms found mostly in fresh water.
The body is dorsoventrally flattened.
Hooks and suckers are not present.
For eg., Planaria, Otoplana
Trematoda

These are mostly parasitic.

Hooks and suckers are usually present.
Eg., Fasciola hepatica, Diplozoon
Cestoda
These are exclusively parasitic.
They have hooks and suckers.

Eg., Taenia spp., Convoluta

 Disease does
Platyhelminthes cause..?
The flatworms that cause
the tropical disease
schistosomiasis can live and reproduce
inside infected humans for decades.

Cestodes (tapeworms)
and Digenes (flukes) cause diseases in
humans and their livestock,
whilst monogeneans can cause serious
losses of stocks in fish farms.
Schistosomiasis, also known as
bilharzia or snail fever, is the second-
most devastating parasitic disease in
tropical countries, behind malaria.
 Nemathehelminthes (Nematoda)
The nematodes or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called
Nemathelminthes), The word "nematode" comes from a Greek word nema that means
"thread". with plant-parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse
animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments.
The organisms belonging to the phylum Nematoda are also known as “roundworms”.
There are 28000 species of Nematoda identified till date.
They are unsegmented vermiform animals.
The epidermis has dorsal and ventral nerve cords.
The Nematodes present in the soil feed on the bacteria, fungi, and other nematodes,
and play an important role in nutrient recycling.
They also attack the insects and control the pests.
However, they cause severe damage to plants.
They feed on the plant roots and reduce the nutrient uptake and stress tolerance of the
plant.
A spadeful of soil contains numerous Nematodes.
They cause diseases such as Ascariasis, Trichuriasis, Hookworm, Enterobiasis,
Filariasis, and Angiostrongyliasis in humans.
 Characteristics of Nematoda
Following are the important characteristics of Nematoda:
Their body is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
They are cylindrical in shape.
They exhibit tissue level organization.
Their body has a cavity or pseudocoelom.
The alimentary canal is distinct, with the mouth and the anus.
They are sexually dimorphic.
They are devoid of the circulatory system and respiratory system.
They are free-living or parasitic.
Parasitic nematodes cause diseases in the host.
Fertilization is internal and reproduction is sexual.
Their cuticle moults periodically.
The epidermis is synctical and contains dorsal or ventral nerve cords.
The body-wall muscles are longitudinal.
They possess amoeboid sperm cells.
They consist of chemosensory organs called aphids situated on the lips.
 Classification of Nematodes

Nematodes are classified into the following classes:

Phasmidia or Secernentea
These are mostly parasitic.
Caudal glands are absent.

Unicellular, pouch-like sense organs called plasmids are present.

The excretory system has paired lateral canals.

Eg., Ascaris, Enterobius

The class Phasmidia is divided into the following orders:

Rhabditida
They have smooth and ringed cuticle.
There is a posterior lobe at the pharynx.
They are free-living and parasitic.
Males have copulatory spicules.
Eg., Rhabditis

Strongylida
They are vertebrate parasites devoid of lips.
The pharynx has no bulb.
They have a well-developed buccal capsule.
They possess a true copulatory bursa.
For eg., Strongylus

Oxyurida
They can be small or moderate in size.
Males have copulatory spicules.
Caudal alae are present.
They can be invertebrates or vertebrates.
The mouth consists of 3-4 simple lips.
For eg., Oxyuris
Ascaridida
These are oviparous, large stout nematodes
living as parasites in the intestine of the
vertebrates.
The pharynx may or may not contain a
posterior bulb.
Mouth possess 3 prominent lips.
There is no buccal capsule.
For eg., Ascaris

Spirurida
These are thread-like organisms that vary in
size from moderate to large.
The pharynx is devoid of bulb.
The females are larger than males and can be
oviparous or viviparous.
The mouth contains two prominent lips.
For eg., Spirura
Trichuroida
These are commonly known as whip-
worms.
They possess a slender pharynx.
The mouth is devoid of lips.
For eg., Trichuris

Camallanida
These are oviparous, thread-like
organisms.
The males have no bursa.
The bursa of adult females is
degenerated.
For eg., Camallanus
Aphasmidia or Adenophorea
They are free-living organisms.
The excretory system has no lateral canals.
Caudal glands are present.
Phasmids are absent.
Eg., Capillaria, Trichinella

The class Aphasmidia or adenophorea is

divided into the following orders:

Enoplida
They are mostly marine.
The cuticle contains bristles.
These are Cyanthiform amphids.
For eg., Anticoma
Dorylaimida
The cuticle is smooth without any bristles.
These are mostly terrestrial.
The buccal cavity consists of a protrusible
spear.
It consists of 6-10 labial papillae.
For eg., Trichodoris

Mermithida
The cuticle is smooth.
Amphids are reduced.
In the larval stage, they live as parasites,
whereas, the adult stage is free-living.
For eg., Mermis, Agamermis
Chromedorida
The cuticle is smooth or ringed.
The cuticle is devoid of any bristles.
There is a posterior bulb at the
pharynx.
They are free-living or marine.
For eg., Paracanthonchus

Desmoscolecida
The cuticle is ringed with prominent
bristles.
There are four sensory bristles at the
anterior end.
They are marine or free-living.
For eg., Desmoscolex
Araeolaimida
The cuticle is smooth and might or
might not contain bristles.
The amphids are spiral.
They possess labial papillae.
For eg., Plectus

Monohysterida
The cuticle is smooth, ringed and
contains bristles.
They possess circular amphids.
They can be marine, freshwater, or
terrestrial.
For eg., Monohystera
Worms in Humans
 Plasmodium Life Cycle
Plasmodium is a genus of parasitic protozoans that fall under the family
Apicomplexa, the class Aconoidasida and the sporozoan subclass Coccidia.

Plasmodium is known to infect the red blood cells in mammals like humans, birds,
reptiles and so on.

P. knowlesi is the species of plasmodium that causes the infectious disease known as
Malaria.

Malaria occurs when the infected female Anopheles mosquito bites human beings or
any other mammal.

Some other species of plasmodium known to spread Malaria are P. vivax, P. ovale, P.
malariae, and P. knowlesi.

The plasmodium parasite displays a complex life cycle as it uses an insect (mosquito)
as a catalyst to carry and transmit the disease.
Life Cycle of Plasmodium:
Plasmodium parasites have a complex life cycle that includes three stages namely
Gametocytes, Sporozoites and Merozoites.

1) Gametocytes – Stage 1
The male gametocytes called microgametocytes and female gametocytes called
macrogametocytes are transmitted through an anopheles mosquito during a blood
meal.
The gametocytes within the mosquito develop into a sporozoite.
The male and female gametocytes mate inside the gut of the mosquito, and after 15 to
18 days, they form a parasite called sporozoite.

2) Sporozoites – Stage 2
When the infected mosquito feeds on humans, the sporozoites are transmitted
through the saliva into the bloodstream.
After that, the sporozoites enter the liver cells and here they mature into schizonts.
Later, these sporozoites rupture and release merozoites.
3) Merozoites – Stage 3
Over the next one or two weeks, each schizont multiplies in order to form several
other forms known as merozoites.
The merozoites exit from the lever, entering the bloodstream again and here they
attack the red blood cells.
The merozoites grow and multiply more while destroying all blood cells in that
process.
Certain merozoites develop into gametocytes, which is later ingested into the
bloodstream by a mosquito and the whole cycle starts again.
When the red blood cells are destroyed by the merozoites, it releases a toxin that
causes bone-shaking chills and fever.
Extreme cold chills and fever are classic symptoms of malaria in human beings.
Conclusion:
The evolution of plasmodium evolved in parallel with the vertebrate evolution for the
past 120 million years.
Therefore, the plasmodium has gone through new hosts, which is followed by
adaptation to those hosts, which shows the primary reason for the evolution of the
plasmodium.
Several species of plasmodium have been isolated from the chimpanzees that include,
P. gaboni, P. falciparum, P. ovale and P. reichenowi.
The other species are isolated from gorillas.
Plasmodium parasites found in reptiles are P. mexicanum and P. floridense and
plasmodium in birds include P. relictum and P. juxtanucleare.
Male mosquitoes have plumose
(bushy) antennae and the palpi are as
long as the proboscis and clubbed at the
end.

Female mosquitoes have antennae

with fewer, shorter hairs. In female
Anopheles, the palpi are as long and
straight as the proboscis, while palpi of
female Culicine are considerably
shorter.
 Entamoeba histolytica Life Cycle
Entamoeba histolytica are pathogenic amoeba that are widely known for causing
intestinal and extra intestinal infections in human beings.
E. histolytica falls under the phylum- Protozoa,
Class- Sarcodina
Order- Lobosa.
E. histolytica causes dysentery by invading the mucosa and submucosa layers of the
large intestine in human beings.
E. histolytica are commonly found in tropical and subtropical countries.
The life cycle of E. histolytica begins and ends inside one single host, i.e., an
individual human being.
Life Cycle of Entamoeba histolytica:

1) Cyst – Stage 1
Infection occurs by ingestion of mature cysts through fecally contaminated water or
food.
Due to protection from walls, cysts survive several days and sometimes weeks.
They are responsible for transmission.

2) Excystation – Stage 2
Excystation is the process by which cysts transform into trophozoites.
When the cysts enter the ileum of the small intestine of the host, the process of
excystation begins.
Trophozoites are released in the small intestine and from here they migrate to the
large intestine.
3) Trophozoite – Stage 3
Trophozoites are unicellular parasites that measure from 14 to 18 mm in diameter.
They multiply in the small intestine by binary fission to produce cysts that exit via
human stool.
Several trophozoites remain inside the lumen of the small intestine.
The rest attach themselves to the intestinal mucosa, enter the bloodstream and further
grow in the extraintestinal regions of the host like lungs, liver, brain.

Conclusion:
Entamoeba histolytica invasion in human hosts vary from showing zero symptoms to
being fatal.
This parasite, discovered in 1859 by Lambl. S. Chaudin, showed the difference
between pathogenic and non-pathogenic forms of amoeba.
 Liver Fluke Life Cycle
Liver flukes, also known as Fasciola hepatica, are parasites that cause the liver fluke
disease known as Fascioliasis in the liver of human beings.
The liver fluke parasite falls under the phylum Platyhelminthes.
The liver fluke disease is caused when immature liver fluke parasites migrate through
the liver and are sometimes caused by the presence in bile ducts, or sometimes both.
 Liver fluke infects all grazing animals like sheep, cattle and mammals like human
beings.
Liver fluke parasites occur in regions around water bodies like river banks, slow
streaming rivers, irrigation channels, as all these areas are suitable for hatching eggs of
the liver fluke.
The infestation of these parasites in animals like sheep, cattle have greatly impacted
the agricultural industry.
Life Cycle of Liver Fluke

1) The Egg – Stage 1

The adult female liver fluke parasite passes immature eggs in the bile duct and comes out into
the environment through the faeces.
If and when the eggs come in contact with water, the eggs become embryonated and form into
a larva called miracidia.

2) The Intermediate Host – Stage 2

A miracidia larva infects a snail and the miracidia larva transforms into cercaria larvae.
Here, the snail acts as an intermediate host and the cercaria larvae has a long tail that helps
them swim in the water.
The cercaria larva grows, leaves the snail host and looks for vegetation, where it forms cysts
called metacercariae.
Metacercariae is the infective stage in animals like sheep and cattle and in human beings.
 Metacercariae have a rigid hard outer layer, which helps them live for longer periods of time.
When human beings consume the contaminated water or fish contaminated with the cysts, the
cysts release immature eggs into the small intestine of the human host.
3) The Young Fluke – Stage 3
The fluke parasite penetrates the small intestinal wall and enters the peritoneal cavity.
After this, it enters the liver and the parasite starts feeding on liver cells.
This occurs a few days after the host comes in contact with the parasite.
After eating plenty of liver cells, the young flukes migrate to the bile duct and
transform into adult liver flukes.

4) The Adult – Stage 4

The metacercariae transform into an adult liver fluke parasite after around three
months.
An adult liver fluke measures up to 3 cm in length.
A gravid adult female liver fluke can produce 20,000 to 25,000 eggs per day.

Conclusion
Liver flukes are primarily large, flat parasitic worms that are found in the liver,
causing a disease known as fascioliasis.
Liver fluke parasites are most prominent in parts of Australia as well as in the regions
with several water bodies like irrigation channels, slow-streaming rivers and so on.
Economic Importance of Sponges
Why are sponges important?

Sponge grounds add structural complexity to those areas in the deep-sea where they
occur, providing habitat and refugia to commercially important species, supporting food
webs, and maintaining deep-sea biodiversity.

They play key roles in important biogeochemical cycles (silicon, carbon, and
nitrogen) and in bentho-pelagic coupling (i.e., in connecting ecological processes
occurring within the water column, or pelagic ‘realm’, with those taking place at (and
within) the seabed, the benthic ‘realm’).

Sponges are believed to constitute an impressive sink for silicon and grazed carbon,
and to act as a net source of particulate matter and nitrogen compounds, which may fuel
deep-sea microbial and invertebrate communities.
Sponges and their associated microorganisms have also been identified as having
significant biotechnological potential.

They are the single richest and most prolific source of marine natural products with
human health (i.e. pharmaceutical) applications.

Thousands of ‘sponge ground’ compounds have been discovered to date, with many
showing potent bioactivity and some, like barettin and ianthelline, possessing useful
anti-fouling and anti-cancer properties.

One of the most interesting potential applications is the use of the intricate silica-
based skeletons of sponges in novel approaches to tissue engineering and regenerative
medicine.

A few chemical substances secreted by sponges have anti-inflammatory, anti-tumoral

activities and antibiotic and they are used in the production of medicines, Since ancient
times the endoskeleton of some sponges has had commercial value they are used as
cleansing implements for baths (bath sponges), to wash animals, objects etc.