Agriculture

Comparison between flat and rugged lands suitability for agriculture

Flat Land Rugged Land

Extensive land size Limited surface to cultivate

Easier to mechanize/use machines on level land Difficult to mechanize
allows more surface area for the machines to
work on
Encourages infiltration of water as water lies in Difficult to irrigate – water becomes victim to
one space surface runoff
Easy to cultivate Hard to install tube wells/ develop canals
Easy to inundate – water doesn’t flow away May need to terrace to facilitate irrigation
Water flows gently High surface runoff – not water retentive
Easy to bring electricity Difficult to construct pylons or underground
canals
Irrigation has some impact – soil retains water Irrigation is effect less- water not retained
and becomes moist

Causes of surface runoff

1. Glacier melting (natural)
2. Excessive Rainfall (natural)
3. Over cultivation (human)
4. Over grazing (human)
5. Deforestation (human)
6. Slope with cultivation (human)

Natural inputs into the agricultural system

Climate

Temperature
• Different crops require different temperature – however not less than 6 degree as then land is
covered with frost.
• Rabi crops are sown in November and harvested in April with other processes in between. Need
mild temperature (10-20)
• Kharif crops are sown in May and harvested in October with other processes in between. Need
high temperature(20-35)
• Determining growing period:
1. The growing period in the mountain is short
2. In the mountains the Rabi crops are grown in summer due to the mild/cool
temperatures
 3. Winter in the mountains doesn’t allow cultivation – heavy rainfall, low temperature
4. Deserts are too hot to cultivate, also they lack water needed for growth
5. Indus plain allow cultivation all year around due to irrigation and fertile soil

Rainfall

Different crops need different amount of water. They take it from the ground water. Which when
exhausted must be replenished via any water source

It is ideal for the soil to be moist with air spaces in between

• Some bear drought – millet

• Some need moderate amounts of water – wheat (1200-1500mm)
• Some need intense irrigation – rice (2500mm)

Soil type

It is ideal for soil to be moist with air spaces in between. It should be well drained and water retentive.
There are different types of soil prevailing in Pakistan:
• Clayey soil- - water retentive, needed by crops that require excessive amounts of water like rice
• Loamy soil – same as clayey
• Alluvial soils – in active plains
• Soil rich in humus/organic matter- provides nutrients to crops, less need for fertilizers or soils
enriching materials
• Sandy soil – utilized by drought resistant crops or by crops that don’t need excessive amount of
soil nutrients such as millet
• Dry soil – same as sandy soil
• Soil lacking organic matter
• Saline/ waterlogged soil – utilized only by mangroves and eucalyptus trees
• Soil damaged by toxic substances – no crop is able to utilize such soil
• Eroded/ leeched soil – damaged – can’t be utilized as same as waterlogged and saline soil
• Hard/ rocky soil ( don’t encourage high yields) – as rocks don’t have any water content nor
organic matter
• Moist soil – well drained soil

Relief

Highland

1. Steep sloped
2. Gentle sloped
3. Rugged plateaus
Lowland

Lowland

1. Desert
2. Floodplains
 Human Inputs into the agriculture system

1. Capital (depends on the scale of farming)

2. Machines (depends on the process he is carrying out and the crop/ animal he is working with)
3. Fertilizer ( can be natural/chemical depending on the money of capital he has to invest)
4. Labor (depends on crop - some are labor intensive crops at harvest (cotton), some labor
intensive at sowing (rice). Labor may be skilled/unskilled or paid/ unpaid- family member)
5. Knowledge of methods he is employing
6. Land ownership
• Large absentee land lord
• Small landlord – inherited land which is small fragmented, scattered in different areas
and of varying qualities if soil
• Landless laborer (working on other people’s farm)
• Tenant farmers( working on rent)
7. Irrigation
• Traditional: Shaduf, charsa, Persian wheel, inundation canal and well
• Modern: tube well, perennial canal, sprinkle/spray system, drip canal
8. Pesticides
• Traditional: stones, burning coconut husk, scarecrow
• Modern: helicopter, sprays available
9. Seeds
• Remaining from previous harvest
• High yielding variety seeds
• Normal market bought seeds

EXPLAIN WHY THE USE OF MACHINERY IS LIMITED ON SOME FARMS. DESCRIBE THE ADVANTAGES
AND DISADVANTAGES FOR FARMERS BY THE USE OF MACHINERY?
Advantages Disadvantages
• More jobs in machine production • Unemployment
• Increased production • Increase in oil consumption
• Replacement of labor force • Burden on economy
• Crops can be exported and foreign • Loans need to be taken
exchange can be earned • Negative balance of payment

Process for the farming industry

1. Ploughing: Done by tractor, or wooden plough pulled by bullock

You prepare the land by mixing the soil, adding air space to it. You break up lumps of hard soil,
bring unused sub soil to the top (this soil is fresh and alluvial). You make furrows – softer soil
and a good seed bed
2. Sowing
Seeds are sown in the fields. In the case of rice you transplant – small crops which are grown in
nursery and in the meanwhile the fields are prepared/irrigated
3. Irrigating
The method he employs depends on his proximity to a water source and the irrigation facilities.
Also the more efficient the irrigation, the higher the yield.
4. Fertilizing
 You mix the fertilizers into the soil to replenish its nutrients
5. Weeding
You pull out unwanted crops as they take up your crops nutrients and space and also their water
6. Harvesting
When you pick the needed part of the crop (grains, cotton balls) and are either stored or send
for them to be used. Rice/wheat and other grain crops are cut away with stickles while cotton
balls are plucked out.

7. Threshing
This is done to grain crops: here you separate the grain from the stalk. You may do it in a
combine harvester or a thresher. Or you could bang the crops on a barrel, roll them in one too.
8. Winnowing
Here you separate the cover of the grain from the grain itself. Done by throwing the seed into
the air

Market price: the price at which a farmer sells his output in the main market
Support prices: is when even if the farmer’s output isn’t sold the government still buys the
produce at a certain reasonable price.
The market price is always a little higher than the support price.

Comparison between subsistence and commercial farmers

Subsistence farmer – Small Commercial farmer – large

Grows crop for his own use – surplus is sold (in
limited quantity to eat)
Small size of land – less than 5 acres (due to Laws of
Inheritance: land gets divided up among all sons, they
get equal quantity of good and bad soil)
This causes output to remain low and thus no
surplus. No money for the farmer. The little profit is
used to buy necessities for the family.
Grows crop for sale – to make profits – selected on
policy of demand and support price
Large size of land – Absentee land lords - They rent
out their land to tenant farmers and if the farmers
improves the yield of the farm, the rent is increased
or he is kicked out. The tenants are kept under
oppression by the absent landlord. Profit gained is
invested back into the farm to increase quality of
inputs
 Inputs are generally natural
1. Fertilizer: cow dung
2. Tool: stickle, clod crusher
3. Seeds: desi seeds from old harvest
4. Knowledge: inherited
5. Irrigation: convectional
6. Labor: unpaid, family members who
work at low wage
7. Capital: low investment. Farmer has no
access to loan facilities except loan
sharks offering loan at high interest rate.
8. Pesticides: traditional like scarecrow
CASH CROPS
Grown on large scale
Modern methods and machinery are used
Ploughing is done with tractors and sowing is
done with machine
HYV’s are used which gives more output
Water is used from canals or tube wells
Chemical fertilizers are used to enrich the soil
Harvesting and threshing is done by machines
Pesticides are used and crop production is more
Cropping season with examples
There are two cropping season “Rabi” which is sown before the beginning of October – November and
harvested in early summer April – May
Examples: wheat, barley, gram, oil seeds and pulses
The other season is called “Kharif” which is sown in summer April and May and harvested in winter
October and November
Examples: rice, sugar cane, millets, maize and cotton
Inputs are generally man made:
1. Fertilizer: chemical ones containing
nitrates and phosphates
2. Machines: high tech ones like the
combine harvester
3. Seeds: HYV’s produced for nearly every
crop
4. Knowledge: advanced knowledge of how
to operate modern tolls and use
chemicals
5. Irrigation: modern methods
6. Labor: tenant farmers or skilled highly
paid employees
7. Capital: high investment the profit from
the sale of the output is invested in the
input. They have high contact due to
which they have access to all loan
facilities.
8. Pesticides: modern chemicals sprayed
using helicopters
SUBSISTENCE CROPS
Grown on small scale
Traditional methods and equipment’s are used
Ploughing and seeding are done manually
Desi seeds are used which gives less output
Water from well is used
Animal dung is used to enrich the soil
Harvesting and threshing is done manually or by
animal power
No pesticides are used and crop production is low
There are some crops which are grown in summers and others in winter due to requirement of these
cops because some crops need cool and some hot climate at the time of sowing and they are also
harvested according to specific condition. Most of the crops grown in water require less water than the
crops grown in summer. This is why we grow some crops as Rabi and some as Kharif.

Wheat
It is an important food crop. The canal irrigated areas of Punjab and Sindh meet the requirements of
wheat.
Cultivation of wheat
After ploughing the fields in October and November, seeds are sown. The first irrigation is done after a
month of sowing and the second irrigation is done one month before harvesting. After harvesting,
threshing is done sometimes with Combine Harvesters in which grains are separated from the stalk. In
case of subsistence farming, it is done manually. The production of wheat has increased due to the use
of fertilizers and HYV’s (maxi pak, Shah Khan), but still we are not self-sufficient in its production due to
the increase in population and decrease in land area due to water logging and salinity and law of
inheritance.
Temperature: 10-20°C (growing) 25-30°C (harvesting)
Rainfall: moderate rainfall. At the time of harvesting, light rain can increase the size of the wheat due to
swelling
Main Areas: Multan, Bahawalpur, Swat, Attock

DESCRIBE HOW THE NATURAL INPUT FAVOR THE CULTIVATION OF WHEAT IN PUNJAB?
Due to the presence of favorable climate, topography, doab, bar uplands, inflow of five rivers, moderate
rainfall.
HOW AND WHY MAY THE PRODUCTION OF WHEAT IN THE PUNJAB SOMETIMES BE AFFECTED BY
NATURAL HAZARDS?
Due to strong winds in May and June, windstorms in February and March, floods during monsoon
season and pests and diseases.
DESRCRIBE SOME OF THE PROBLEMS FOR PAKISTAN FROM HAVING TO IMPORT LARGE QUANTITIES
OF WHEAT
• Lose of foreign exchange
• Inflation increases
• Burden increases
• Developments projects to be stopped
• Loans to be taken
Cotton
It is an important export orientated crop grown in various regions of Pakistan due to favorable climatic
and soil conditions.
Cultivation of Cotton
Seeds (Nayab-78, Sarmast Qalander) are sown in April. The plant reaches a height up to 135-150cm.
after picking the LINT from the cotton ball, it is sent to mills, where the first process of Ginning takes
place, in which seeds are separated from the lint, thus, the process of spinning takes place in which
cotton yarn is manufactured. Seeds of cotton are used as animal feed and oil is also extracted from the
seed
Temperature: 25-30°C for cultivation and harvesting in bright sunshine
Rainfall: ample rainfall is preferred but rain at picking spoils the ball
Major region: Nawabshah, Rahimyar Khan, Multan, Bahawalpur
Baluchistan, Lasbela has become a major region due to the fine production of cotton. Quetta is market
orientated because of the sale and purchase takes place in this area in spite the fact the cotton is not
grown in Quetta.

WHAT HARMS THE COTTON?

Leaf curl virus and fruit shedding are the main problems. Due to the use of chemical fertilizers,
pesticides and HYV’S, the production of cotton has improved much.

Rice
It is an important export orientated crop. The best quality of rice is grown in various regions of Pakistan
due to favorable requirements of rice.
Cultivation of rice:
It is grown on a large scale in Punjab and Sindh. Rice seeds (Basmati, Irri-6, and Rechna) are grown into
beds or nurseries. When the plant is about 9 inches high, it is transplanted into fields which have been
flooded with water. The rice fields are kept full of water until the rice is ripe. The water is then drained
before harvesting. Threshing of rice is either done with the help of animals or machines. After threshing,
rice is sent to rice mulls for polishing and packaging. Rice husk is used for making cardboard or covering
of roof.
Temperature: 20-30°C (growing) and warm dry temperature for harvesting
Rainfall: Heavy rainfall (growing). Requires much water for 4-6months growing period.
Major regions: Larkana, Sialkot, Gujranwala

Sugarcane
It is an important RATOON crop from which sugar, brown sugar and Gur are made.
Cultivation of sugarcane:
Sugarcane stalks to 30cm high. Are planted in April-May. A distance of 30m is kept between each stalk.
The quantity and height of the sugarcane depends on the frequency of irrigation and application of
fertilizers, especially potash. If the land is well irrigated, then the plant can rise up to 7m and can be
harvested 2-3 times a year. HYV’s (Thatta-10)
Temperature: 25-30°C (growing). Tolerant to frost for a short period
Rainfall: requires plenty of rainfall, up to 1520mm.
Soil: can be grown in variety of soils. Loam and clayey soils with silt are most suitable as they retain
water. Consumes a lot of nutrients from the soil. Application of manure and fertilizers containing
nitrogen, phosphorus and potash is needed every year.

DESCRIBE WHY SUGAR MILLS SHOULD BE NEAR THE SUGARCANE FIELDS?

Cutting the sugarcane requires manual labor. After cutting the crop, it is immediately transported to
sugar mills located near fields, if the transportation is slightly delayed, the juice content of sugarcane is
reduced and it starts losing weight. The sugar mill crop is scrubbed with chalk to remove the smell and
dirt. After the extraction of juice by crushing the cane through heavy rollers, it is further processed into
white sugar. In villages Gur and brown sugar are also prepared from sugar juice.

WHAT ARE THE TWO MAIN BY-PRODUCTS OF SUGARCANE?

Bagasse and molasses are the two main by-products. Bagasse is used to make paper, chipboard and
animal feed. Molasses are used in chemical industry.
THE PERIOD OF EMPLOYMENT ASSOCIATED TO THE SUGARCANE INDUSTRY IS VERY SHORT. HOW CAN
THE PROBLEM OF EMPLOYMENT BE SOLVED?
We know that there are two by-products of sugarcane. They are molasses, which can be used for the
preparation of acids and in chemical industry. Bagasse that can be used as a raw material in the
chipboard industry. So with the help of these two sectors, employment can be provided to the people
associated with the sugarcane industry.

Minor crops
Tobacco:
It is mainly grown in NWFP which accounts for about 65% of the production. Peshawar and Mardan are
the main tobacco growing regions. The balance is cultivated in Sialkot, Gujranwala and Multan. It can be
grown in various climatic conditions but its export varieties are grown on fertile land with irrigation
facilities. When the crop reaches to its certain height, its leaves are dried in sunshine and then it is ready
to use. HYV is VERGENIA.
Maize
It is a Kharif crop. It is a food grain as well as a raw material for edible oil production. It is used in the
manufacture of corn flour, custard powder and other processed foods. It is also used a fodder for
animals and birds. Require high temperature up to 35°C. Swat, Mardan, Swabi.
Millets
Jawar and Bajra are two typed of millet produced. They are fodder for animals and birds and also used
as a food crop. Millets are coarser cereals when ground into flour. Grown in 30-55°C. Doesn’t require
much rain; it is drought resistant.
Oilseeds
Oil seeds like sunflower, soya bean are used to extract edible oil. Some of the varieties of oil seeds like
rapeseed are cultivated. Linseed and castor have industrial uses. However, the production of oilseeds is
insufficient for the growing population. The domestic requirement has almost doubled with an increase
in population. About 32% of the demand is met through local production with remaining imported
from Malaysia. Attock, Chakwal and Sialkot are the major regions.

Fruit Farming
1) Citrus fruits: Humid climate, dry temperature (Central and East Punjab)
2) Apple, apricot, almonds (Swat, Kalam): Cool, humid climate
3) Bananas (Sindh, Hyderabad): cool sea breezes, tropical temperature
4) Dates (Khairpur, Makran); Arid, oasis climate

Importance:
1) Source of food
2) Meet local demand
3) Have export value; packing, processing and preserving facilities must be improved (to stop rotting)
4) They are eatable; perishable items
5) Vulnerable to pest and diseases
6) Used for processing
7) Used in cosmetic products
 Causes of low yield for a farmer
Low rainfall – we are a semi-arid area with few rainy days and unreliable rainfall occurring in uneven
distribution. We also have lack of irrigation facilities and many farmers are using traditional methods.
We also suffered from the Canal Water dispute
Problem of poor soil – lacking organic matter or eroded saline soil
Land tenure – Large land holding – absentee land lords, not interested in cultivating ands or improving
yields.
• Tenant farmers have no interest in improving yields as they don’t have profits from improved
yields, instead they have to pay more to landlords
• Lack incentive due to insecurity of tenure
• Small fragmented – small scale subsistence farmers stuck in cycle of poverty. Therefore they
generally over cultivate and decrease yields.
Use of desi seeds
Use of mainly natural fertilizers, insufficient in amount
Lack of use pesticides – lack of awareness of pests and diseases ‘use of traditional methods and tools
Poor distributive system of irrigation
Use of traditional methods and tools

Livestock
Shamillat: A piece of land where cattle goats and sheep are allowed to graze.

Subsistence Commercial
• Nomadic herding • Dairy farms
• Transhumance • Inland fisheries
• Mixed subsistence farmers/settled • Poultry farm
farmers

Nomadic herding
• Migratory in nature
• Subsistence farming – for his own use
• In hilly areas – Baluchistan/ east Sindh and Punjab
• Semi-arid areas with low rainfall, sparse vegetation. Lower slopes where dry forest exists
• Depends on animal for food/livelihood/income
• Animal loses it productivity – slaughtered for meat
• As they look for pasture – responsible for overgrazing

Transhumance
• Semi-nomadic in nature
• System of livestock farming in which animals are kept on pastures high up in the summer and
brought down to lower pastures in winter
• This is due to severe cold in winters
• Takes place in Northern and Western mountains
• Mainly sheep/goat and cattle are reared
• Vegetation is sparse due to short growing season
• Nimble footed animals are reared as they can survive tough/ coarse grass
• The products are milk, ghee, cheese and butter animal are reared for their own use
Settled farmers
• Occurs in villages of Punjab/Sindh
• Cattle/ chicken eggs
• Excess milk and meat is sold to fulfill the animal needs
• They are also kept for draft power – pulling carts
Commercial farmers
• Mainly small scale private or large scale military farms
• Most of these farms are close to urban centers
• Fed with fodder – stall fed
• Cow dung is dried in circular cakes, sold to make money via manure or fuel
• Lack appropriate drainage
• Old traditional methods are used
• Incompatible with modern hygienic lines
Uses of livestock
• Source of food
• Used as a draft animal
• Takes away dependency on crop yields
• Source of raw material for industries – skin of cow / goat is used to make leather
• Pakistanis overseas are a major market as they prefer to eat mutton
• Middle Eastern countries are therefore major markets
• Generates employment
• If we are self-sufficient – need not import
• Substantial income for farmers
WHY ARE DAIRY FARMS LOCATED NEAR URBAN SETTLMENTS?
Perishable
Quick transport to consumers

Problems of livestock sector

• Few veterinary hospitals and vaccination facilities
• Grazing unirrigated land causes wind erosion when the land dries out
• Lack of grazing land for cattle and sheep – overgrazing
• Unhygienic conditions lead to unhealthy animals
• Primitive breeding methods – low quality animals
• The inefficient marketing system – low profit – low investment
• Inadequate facilities for storage of meat
Solution
• Use of electronic media to disseminate the information to create an awareness of better
methods of breeding
• Have programs to fatten cows for milk and meat
• Create awareness for better animal husbandry practices
• More farms should be developed, which aim at researching modern and scientific method
• More medical facilities should be provided
• Cultivation of fodder crops to turn agricultural land into grazing land
• Irrigation facilities can be improved by programs like SCARP
• Crop rotation can be practiced
Sheep and goats
1) Nimble and sure footed
2) Do not need large grazing land
3) Nibble thin, tough and coarse grass
4) Found in mountainous and rugged landscape
5) Found in Northern areas, NWFP, Baluchistan
6) Used by nomads and herders practicing transhumance
7) Discouraged due to the overgrazing of land – desertification
8) Don’t need much water
9) Stall fed goats are encouraged
10) Main products are meat wool skin and milk

Cattle
1) Draft animals, carry people and cargo over short distance
2) Supply meat and milk, though in small quantities
3) Matter of pride and prestige for families
4) Well distributed all over the country
5) Not found in Baluchistan and Thar Desert
6) Losing value as draft animals due to mechanization

Buffalo
1) Milk producer
2) Slaughtered for meat when they become unproductive
3) Found in canal irrigated areas of Punjab and Sindh due to their love of water
4) Buffalo milk is preferred throughout the country
5) Not important drat animal – dehydrates them
6) Male buffaloes are few and kept only for breeding and raft purpose
7) Kept in humid areas or sheds as they dislike strong heat

Poultry
1) Products include egg and meat
2) Demand has increased with increase in population
3) White meat is preferred as it is more healthy

FACTORS EFFECTING ARABLE FARMING

1. Water logging and salinity: Destroys acre of lands.
Solution (Scarp project)
2. Traditional farming methods: Done by subsistence farmers using the traditional methods
Solution (mechanization, scientific method)
3. Pests and diseases: leaf curl virus and fruit shedding destroys the crop
Solution (Plant protective program, subsidy given by the government on chemical fertilizers and
machines)
4. Small land holding: rapid increase in population and law of inheritance
Solution (breaking the power of the strong feudal system, equal distribution of land, land consolidation)
5. Capital: money needed by the farmer to mechanize his agriculture
Solutions (loans from ADBP (agriculture development bank of Pakistan), invest money in scientific
machinery)
Desertification: Removal of the fertile soil due to the surface runoff
Solution (reclamation of desert, small dams, karez system, small water schemes)

Land reforms
Aims
• Breaking power of large landlords
• Equal distribution of land
• Protecting the right of tenants
• Land consolidation

Plant protection department

• Held vigilant surveys of farms
• Aerial spraying of grounds with pesticides
• Advisory services for farmers
• Use specially treated/ diseases resistant HYV’s

Disadvantages of small farms

• Machinery can’t be used
• Supervising activity can be difficult
• Loans are difficult to obtain
• Irrigation is difficult
• Difficult to carry out experiments to improve yields

Farming and the environment

• Crops use up the nutrient in the soil
• Farmers adds nitrate fertilizers to increase crop yields. It is expensive to buy
• Rain washes the nitrates
• Water used for domestic supply affects human health
• Pesticides also drain into river water and causes pollution
• Nitrates in rivers encourage the growth of algae and large oxygen. They use up oxygen
• Fish die out due to lack of oxygen
• Aerial spraying leads to air pollution

Government efforts to make agriculture sustainable

• Steps to solve water logging and salinity
• Loans for farmers to produce HYV’s
• Provision of chemical fertilizers on subsidized rate
• Setting research institutes to produce new variety of seeds
• Construction of f=dams, barrages, canals and small water schemes
• Reclamation of desert
• Tax exemptions on the imports of agriculture machinery