Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375

www.elsevier.com/locate/compscitech

Modeling and evaluation of the filling stage of

injection/compression moulding
S. Bickerton*, M.Z. Abdullah
Centre for Advanced Composite Materials, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand

Received 27 August 2002; received in revised form 8 January 2003; accepted 8 January 2003

Abstract
Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) and Injection/Compression Moulding (I/CM) are closed mould polymer composite manu-
facturing processes. Analytical solutions to simple flow geometries have been utilised to explore the potential benefits of I/CM
relative to RTM. A series of parametric studies are presented, considering the effects of process parameters on mould filling times,
and internal tooling forces. Two modes of compression flow are considered, constant speed, and constant force. While significant
reductions in fill time can be achieved, these gains are balanced by increased clamping force, or increased internal stress applied to
the mould. Constant force compression is shown to minimise fill times, using the full capacity of the clamping device. An experi-
mental study was completed to verify the applied models. Comparisons to predicted fluid pressure histories are very good, verifying
the applied pressure governing equations. Total clamping force predictions have shown important qualitative differences, which
have been related to the use of elastic preform deformation models. Significant viscoelastic stress response was exhibited by the
reinforcement studied, in the absence of any resin. Due to the similar time scales of I/CM filling and preform stress relaxation
behaviour, viscoelastic deformation models are required to improve filling simulations.
# 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: C. Deformation; C. Stress relaxation; E. Resin transfer moulding (RTM); Injection/compression moulding (I/CM)

1. Introduction be introduced using a combination of positive pressure

Fibre reinforced plastics are finding an increasingly
wider range of applications. A vast array of manu-
facturing processes have been devised to produce rein-
forced thermoset polymer products, in a variety of
shapes and sizes. A resurgence of interest has been
expressed in closed mould techniques, primarily due to
the potential to carefully manage hazardous gaseous
emissions during manufacturing. The term Liquid
Composite Moulding (LCM) encompasses this growing
list of mould filling processes, and includes Resin
Transfer Moulding (RTM), Injection/Compression
Moulding (I/CM), and the Seeman Composite Resin
Infusion Moulding Process (SCRIMP). The LCM vari-
ants are distinguishable by the nature of the mould
filling phase. Moulds are either rigid, semi-rigid, or
formed from thin flexible membranes, while resin can
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +64-9-373-7599
8194; fax: +64-9-
373-7479.
E-mail address: s.bickerton@auckland.ac.nz (S. Bickerton).
0266-3538/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0266-3538(03)00022-8
and vacuum driven infusion, and possibly aided by
compression driven flow. All LCM processes involve the
placement of a fibrous reinforcing structure, or preform,
within the closed mould. The preform provides the
structural skeleton of the finished composite product.
The thermoset resin is introduced into the mould cavity,
completely saturating the porous preform. Once the
mould is filled the cure reaction is initiated, the product
being removed from the mould once sufficiently rigid.
I/CM is the focus of this paper, and in particular the
mould filling stage. We will consider the tools to be
completely rigid, the remainder of the process being
identical to RTM once the mould has been filled. The
basic steps in I/CM filling are introduced in Fig. 1. Once
the preform is placed in the mould, an initial compres-
sion stage is performed, the mould remaining partially
open. Resin is introduced into the mould cavity through
injection gates, this process being halted once the
required volume has been injected. At this point all
gates are closed, and the mould platens are brought
together in a controlled manner, driving the resin
1360 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375

Fig. 1. Schematic description of I/CM filling: (a) initial compression, (b) resin injection, (c) compression driven filling, (d) completion of filling.

through the remaining dry areas of the preform, and
compacting the laminate to the final cavity thickness.
The common perception in the literature is that I/CM
offers potential for reductions in fill time as compared to
RTM, and/or a reduction in the clamping force applied
to the mould during filling. By injecting into a partially
open mould the initial flow resistance offered by the
preform is reduced, and the complete shot of resin can
be introduced quickly.
An important parameter that must be specified for
implementation of I/CM is the mould platen separation
at the start of resin injection. Initial separation defines
the resistance a mould cavity offers to filling, and the
nature of filling that predominates. The options for
initial mould separation are described schematically in
Fig. 2. If the mould is closed such that the preform
contacts the entire upper and lower faces, flow will be
predominantly in the plane of the part. Alternatively, a
thin air cavity may be maintained above the preform,
which offers a very low resistance to resin flow. Resin
will fill this cavity preferentially, before being forced to
flow through the thickness of the preform. While the
overall flow resistance may be lower for this option, as
very little load is applied to the preform in the trans-
verse direction, potential exists for significant flow
induced deformation of the reinforcement. For a very
rapid filling process, this may result in a relatively
unstable process. For this reason, and simplicity of
analysis, I/CM involving only in-plane flow will be
considered here.
Significant effort has been placed into numerical
simulation of RTM filling [1–5], for which we have the

Fig. 2. Possible states at the initiation of resin injection: (a) preform contacts both mould faces; (b) an air gap is preserved between a mould face and
the preform.
 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375
luxury of assuming a completely rigid tool, with the
preform compressed to the final dimensions prior to
injection. Such simulations have been used to investi-
gate a wide variety of topics, including injection scheme
optimisation [6,7], and more recently, the application of
sensing and control [8–10]. Recently, a number of
authors have reported filling simulations addressing
popular single-sided moulding techniques, such as
SCRIMP and Resin Infusion under Flexible Tooling
(RIFT) [11–14]. However, limited experimental veri-
fication has been provided. The I/CM process has also
been addressed, simulations presented being extensions
of Finite Element/Control Volume [15–17], and pure
Finite Element [18] methods previously applied to
RTM. The focus of these studies has been the develop-
ment of codes for addressing complex three-dimensional
parts, while again, experimental verification has been
limited [16–18]. A very comprehensive numerical
approach has been initiated by Pillai et al., with two
papers in a series of five being published to date [19,20].
The current study was initiated to explore the claims
made in the literature about I/CM, particularly with
respect to mould filling time, and applied tooling forces.
While several numerical analyses have been presented
previously, the optimization of process parameters such
as closing speed and initial cavity thickness has not been
considered. A one-dimensional consolidation approach
has been implemented, addressing simple mould geo-
metries. Analytical solutions have been utilized, permit-
ting a large number of simulations to be performed very
quickly. Using this approach, a series of parametric
studies have been performed, exploring the influence of
important process variables. An initial experimental
study has been performed to verify the employed mod-
eling procedures. Simple geometries have been addres-
sed to isolate effects due to complex geometry.
2. Theory
Simple analytical models have been developed to per-
form an extensive parametric study of the key I/CM
process variables. By considering one-dimensional flow
situations, a large number of calculations may be per-
formed quickly, and the complex relationships between
variables explored. The two flow geometries considered
are presented schematically in Fig. 3, being rectilinear or
radial injection into a flat rectangular mould cavity. For
rectilinear injection the part is considered to have a
width, W, and length, L, with resin introduced at a line
gate running up the center of the mould. Radial injection
is also performed into a rectangular part, the flow front
being assumed to remain circular to the completion of
the filling process. A circular part of equivalent plan area
is filled, having radius R. This assumption was made to
compare filling of identical parts with two different
1361
injection schemes, and while some error is introduced in
the later stages of filling, it is justified by the simplicity of
calculation. In order to minimize this error, the mould
aspect ratio L/W has been maintained close to 1.0.
Isotropic in-plane preform permeability has been
assumed, maintaining simplicity of analysis, and redu-
cing the number of parameters to be considered. The
mould cavities are assumed flat, cavity thickness being
constant at a particular instant. Two distinct phases of
mould filling have been modeled, being injection and
compression. These are described schematically in Fig. 4.
The preform is initially compacted to a thickness, hi, the
required volume of resin being injected using a constant
gate pressure, Pinj. The gate is then closed and the
compression phase initiated. The mould platens are
brought together in a controlled manner, until the final
part thickness is achieved, hf. Two modes of compres- :
sion have been considered, either constant speed (h is
specified), or constant force (Fclamp is specified). Once
the geometry and material composition of a product are
decided, the important process
: variables that must be
specified include hi, Pinj, h, and Fclamp.
2.1. Governing equations
As is common practice for simulation of LCM filling
processes, resin flow through the fibrous preform has
been modeled as flow through a porous media. Resin
flow is described by Darcy’s Law, assuming all resin
velocities will remain in-plane, and that the entire
preform is fully saturated with resin. Darcy’s Law
states;
1
v¼ KrP; ð1Þ

where v is the superficial velocity vector, K is the pre-
form permeability tensor, P the local fluid pressure, and
 the fluid viscosity. The resin or test fluid is assumed to
be Newtonian. A ‘‘thickness-averaged’’ continuity
equation has been applied,
:
r ðhvÞ ¼ h; ð2Þ
:
where h is the local mould cavity thickness, and h the
instantaneous cavity rate of change (or closing speed).
Eqs. (1) and (2) are combined to give the governing
relationship for fluid pressure,


h :
r KrP ¼ h: ð3Þ

Eq. (3) governs fluid pressure within the: mould during
the compression phase of I/CM, and if h ¼ 0, also dur-
ing the injection phase of both processes. In order to
describe flow for the range of fibre volume fractions
1362 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375

Fig. 3. Schematic of filling geometries studied: (a) rectilinear flow, (b) radial flow.

Fig. 4. Schematic description of important parameters, for injection and compression phases.

encountered during filling, permeability is required as a has been adopted previously for consideration of I/CM
function of Vf. [15–18].
The one-dimensional laminate consolidation
approach suggested by Gutowski and co-workers is 2.1.1. Analytical solutions
adopted here [21,22]. While a three-dimensional flow Solutions for radial flow are developed here, with the
field is permitted, deformation of the reinforcement is results for rectilinear flow being presented in Appendix
assumed to occur in one direction, through the part A. Assuming radial flow, and a constant thickness
thickness. The model relates the total stress applied to mould cavity, the governing equation for fluid pressure
the laminate to the local average resin pressure, P, and reduces to the following;
the compressive stress being carried by the fibrous pre-
 :
form skeleton, . Within the wetted portion of the 1d dP h
r ¼ : ð5Þ
mould cavity the laminate is considered to consist of the r dr dr Kh
preform and the uncured resin. The total stress applied :
across the cavity thickness,  tot, is assumed to be the First we consider the injection phase (h ¼ 0), applying
sum of these two stress components, the following boundary conditions on fluid pressure;

tot ¼ P þ : ð4Þ @r ¼ ri P ¼ Pinj ; ð6Þ

@r ¼ rf P ¼ 0: ð7Þ
Within the portion of the mould devoid of resin, P=0,
and therefore tot ¼ . tot is required if local and total
mould clamping forces are to be calculated. While this Pinj is the fluid pressure specified at the injection gate.
approach has been more commonly applied for rela- Integration of Eq. (5) provides the fluid pressure dis-
tively slow prepreg consolidation processes [21–24], it tribution within the mould cavity;
 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375 1363

lnðr=rf Þ 2.2. Preform material characterization

PðrÞ ¼ Pinj : ð8Þ
lnðri =rf Þ
Two detailed sets of preform characterisation data are
required in order to employ a consolidation based
The force exerted on the mould platens due to fluid approach. Permeability describes the resistance offered
pressure is found by integrating across the wetted por- by a preform to the flow of resin, and is a function of
tion of the mould as follows; the local fibre volume fraction, Vf, and architecture of
ð r¼rf the reinforcement employed. Data is required as a
Ffluid ¼ 2rPðrÞdr; ð9Þ function of Vf, covering the range encountered during a
r¼ri
complete moulding cycle. As the preforms studied here
are assumed to be isotropic, only a scalar value is


  required as a function of Vf.
2Pinj r2i rf 1
Ffluid ¼ ln  r2f  r2i : ð10Þ Due to the loads that are carried by the preform dur-
lnðri =rf Þ 2 ri 4 ing processing, a model is required for the compressive
: deformation behaviour of these materials. During the
During the compression phase h ¼6 0, and Eq. (5) is compression phase the total force applied to the tooling
now solved with respect to the following boundary is balanced by the internally generated resin pressure,
conditions; and the resistance to compaction offered by the pre-
dP form. For constant speed closing, a good knowledge of
@r ¼ ri 0; ð11Þ the stress–strain behavior of the preform is required for
dr
prediction of total clamping force applied to the mould.
@r ¼ rf P ¼ 0: ð12Þ If a constant force closing condition is specified, accu-
rate stress–strain behavior is essential to predict the
evolution of mould filling with time. LCM preforms are
Eq. (11) follows from the fact that no further fluid is commonly assumed to behave as nonlinear elastic
injected at the centre of the mould, and therefore materials, compressive stress, , being a function only of
vr(r=0)=0. As long as ri is small, flow into the preform local strain, or alternatively Vf [22,25–27]. Such models
at r=ri will be very small, and hence the local pressure have been applied successfully to prepreg consolidation
gradient approaches zero. The fluid pressure field gen- techniques, due to their long processing times. Noting a
erated during compression flow is therefore: clear departure from purely elastic behavior, Saunders et
: al. reported stress hysteresis and stress relaxation during
h  2  
compaction experiments on dry reinforcing fabrics [28].
PðrÞ ¼ r  r2f þ 2r2i lnðrf =rÞ : ð13Þ
4Kh Kim et al. noted similar behavior, and have provided a
model for stress relaxation based on a parallel grouping of
The total force generated by fluid pressure is again five Maxwell viscoelastic elements [29]. The observed stress
found by integrating across the wet domain, from r=ri relaxation in both studies occurred over time scales on the
to r=rf: same order as that of a full LCM process, and therefore
:
4  has the potential for significant influence. However, due to
h r 3r4 the lack of a comprehensive viscoelastic model, empirically
Ffluid ¼  f þ 2r2i r2f  i þ 2r4i lnðri =rf Þ : ð14Þ
4Kh 2 2 based elastic models are applied here, time-dependant
deformation being a topic of current study [30].
There is another component of force that must be
supplied by the mould, Ffibre, which is due to compres-
sion of the fibrous preform. As the moulds are con- 3. Sample calculations
stant in thickness, stress carried by the reinforcement is
considered to be equal across the mould, Ffibre being Both constant closing speed, and constant clamping
simply; force versions of I/CM have been considered, exploring
  the process design parameters relevant to each compres-
Ffibre ¼  R 2  r2i : ð15Þ
sion type. A fast numerical scheme has been developed to
allow for large numbers of repeat calculations, utilizing
For this study, fibre reinforcements are assumed to the analytical solutions described above. A constant time
behave as nonlinear elastic materials. The total clamp- step has been applied, flow front position being advanced
ing force that must be supplied to the mould, Fclamp, is through consideration of resin continuity.
considered to be a summation as follows; Sample calculations are provided here, demonstrat-
Fclamp ¼ Ffluid þ Ffibre : ð16Þ ing simulation of the full moulding process for both
compression types. Solutions are provided for radial
1364 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375
injection, the desired part being square with sides of 1.0
m, and a final cavity thickness of 4.0 mm. The resin is
assumed to have a viscosity of 0.2 Pa s. The preform
was assumed to be a chopped strand random mat, with
the final volume fraction of the part being 24%. Both
the permeability and compression stress relationships to
Vf are based on experimental data, the utilized empirical
relations provided below, and illustrated in Fig. 5.
KðVf Þ ¼ 5:42E  08expð18:6Vf Þ; 0:10 4 Vf 4 0:30;
 ðVf Þ ¼ 14 500expð12:0Vf Þ  26420; 0:10 4 Vf 4 0:30:
3.1. Constant speed compression
A constant closing speed can be applied during the
compression phase, a condition considered by several
authors [15–18]. The process parameters to be specified
are the initial cavity thickness at which injection
: is per-
formed, hi, and the applied closing speed, h. For the
sample
: calculation provided here hi =6.0 mm, and
h=0.02 mm/s. During the injection phase a constant
pressure of 600.0 kPa was applied at the gate. The
numerically predicted fluid pressure at the centre of the
mould, and the total mould clamping force are plotted
against time in Fig. 6.
The required resin volume is injected in 44.0 s, and the
final compression stage completed after a total of 144.0 s.
A clear discontinuity in the central fluid pressure is pre-
sent at the onset of compression, which is due to the
Fig. 5. Chopped strand mat characterisation data. Both permeability and required compressive stress are plotted against fibre volume fraction.
change in form of the internal fluid pressure distribution
[see Eqs. (8) and (13)]. This effect is also reflected in a
discontinuity in the total clamping force required, which
is the addition of components due to preform compres-
sion, and the generated fluid pressure field. The clamp-
ing force rises rapidly towards the end of filling, in this
scenario being dominated by the preform compaction
component, Ffibre. The total clamping force rises to
approximately 300 kN (or approximately 30 metric ton)
ð17Þ at the completion of filling, requiring the specification of
a press having at least this capacity.
3.2. Constant force compression
ð18Þ
As an alternative, the compression phase can be
completed utilising a constant clamping force. By
applying the full capacity of the clamping device (or
press) from the initiation of compression, significant
filling time reductions can be made as compared to the
constant speed version.
: Fclamp and ho must be specified,
the closing speed h being a reducing function of time. In
order to avoid excessively short or :long compression
phases, upper and lower bounds on h may be applied.
In this study we have used upper and lower bounds of
1.0 and 1.0E-04 mm/s respectively. The example dis-
cussed above has been readdressed using Fclamp=300.0
kN, the predicted fluid pressure and clamping force
components being provided in Fig. 7.
While evolution of the injection phase is identical to
the previous example, a 58.3% reduction in total mould
filling time is realised, clearly demonstrating the benefit
of utilising the full capacity of the press. Initially the
majority of the clamping force is balanced by the force
 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375 1365

Fig. 6. Simulated histories for sample constant speed compression analysis: (a) central fluid pressure trace, and (b) clamping force component traces.

due to the generated fluid pressure
: distribution. This
force component reduces, as h drops from 1.0 to 0.019
mm/s.
Constant force compression flow is significantly more
difficult to implement numerically, and has not been
addressed in the LCM literature. For the simple geo-
metries studied here, the analytical
: solutions can be
used to determine the evolution of h. For more compli-
cated geometries and parts requiring numerical proce-
dures, an iterative approach is required, guesses being
:
made for h at each time step until the total clamping
force converges to the required value.
4. Parametric study
A parametric study has been performed, exploring: the
effect of process design parameters such as hi, h, and
Fclamp on resulting fill times. For each part studied, fill
times and other key results have been normalized
1366 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375

Fig. 7. Simulated histories for sample constant force compression analysis: (a) central fluid pressure trace, and (b) clamping force component traces.

against values predicted for an RTM cycle. The same
product described earlier is addressed, being 1.0 m
square, with a final thickness of 4.0 mm. The same
reinforcing material and resin were also employed.
4.1. Constant speed compression
: constant pressure of 600 kPa. The applied closing speed
In this mode, hi and h are the most influential design
parameters to be specified, determining the time to fill,
tfill, and the maximum required clamping force, FMax. If
through design of a mould filling cycle tfill is to be
minimised, it must be realised that a trade-off is made
against increasing FMax, determining the size of press
that will be required. A wide range of scenarios are
presented here, normalizing in each case to the fill time
and clamping force required for an RTM cycle, tRTM
and FRTM.
Initially we consider radial injection into the part, at a
has been varied from 1.0 to 0.1 mm/s, and initial cavity
thickness varied from 4.0 to 8.0 mm. For hi=4.0 mm no
further compression is required, the result being an
RTM cycle. For the part concerned, tRTM =314.9 s,
and FRTM =294.0 kN. Results for the full range of
 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375
Fig. 8. tfill/tRTM surface plots for constant speed compression para-
metric studies on a 1.0 m square panel. FMax/FRTM contours have been
overlaid on each plot: (a) radial injection (tRTM =314.9 s, FRTM
=294.0 kN); (b) rectilinear injection (tRTM =52.2 s, FRTM =537.2
kN).
simulations are presented as a surface plot in Fig. 8a,
tfill/tRTM being plotted on the z axis. For the majority of
cases presented, significant reductions in fill time are
achieved, a minimum: of 0.171 being obtained with
hi=7.2 mm, and h=1.0 mm/s. Overlayed on the surface
plot are contours of calculated FMax/FRTM values. It can
be noted that large reductions in fill time are achieved at
the expense of greater clamping force requirements, this
being the trend for parts of varying sizes. However, with
careful selection of design parameters a fill time 48% of
the RTM value can be achieved, using the same press
capacity.
The above analysis has been repeated using the line
gate injection scheme, as demonstrated in Fig. 3. In this
1367
situation tRTM=52.2 s, and FRTM=537.2 kN. As com-
pared to radial injection RTM, a significant reduction in
fill time is achieved at the expense of a greater clamping
force requirement. A surface plot of tfill/tRTM is pre-
sented in Fig. 8b. In this case, the plot has been capped
at 2.0 for clarity, a maximum value of 7.7 being
achieved at the lowest speed, and initial thickness com-
bination. For this filling scheme, clear minimums are
found in fill time for hi values between 4.8 and 5.6 mm.
As the initial cavity thickness is increased further, the
reduced flow resistance provides no additional benefit.
For the compression speeds considered, a minimum tfill/
tRTM value of 0.44 was found. Again, contours of FMax/
FRTM have been applied to Fig. 8b, demonstrating the
trade-off between low fill times and higher clamping
requirements. If the same size press is applied as
required for RTM, a tfill/tRTM value of 0.66 can be
achieved.
Through the studies described above we have not
sought to demonstrate the superiority of either injection
scheme. In each case fill times can be reduced utilising
an I/CM cycle, while a trade-off is made against
increasing clamping force requirements. Radial injec-
tion will be the focus of the constant force studies
described below.
4.2. Constant force compression
As discussed earlier, application of constant force
during the compression phase gives the most efficient
use of equipment, further reducing fill times. For this
mode of operation the magnitude of applied force (or
capacity of press required), Fclamp, replaces closing
speed as the key design parameter. A range of Fclamp
and hi combinations have been modelled, considering
their effect on tfill, and the maximum total stress experi-
enced in the mould,  Max.  Max has been considered due
to the possible importance for structural design of
moulds.
Three part sizes are considered here, being 0.3, 1.0,
and 2.0 m squares. Fill times for the RTM cycle were
21.1, 314.9, and 1444.0 s, and the maximum mould
stress was 837 kPa in each case. For each part size, a
range of press capacities have been considered, covering
the values over which tfill/tRTM is changing most rapidly.
Upper and lower limits have been placed on compres-
sion speed, being 1.0 and 1.0E-04 mm/s. Surface plots of
tfill/tRTM are presented for each part in Fig. 9. These
plots have been capped at 1.0, as it is assumed that
reductions in fill time are being sought. For the worst
case process designs, tfill/tRTM rose to values of 228, 95,
and 7 for the small through large parts. For all three
parts, clear reductions in fill time are achieved once a
certain press capacity is exceeded. Further reductions in
fill time are gradual with increasing press capacity, per-
formance affected by the upper limit placed on press
1368 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375
Fig. 9. tfill/tRTM surface plots for constant force compression para-
metric studies using radial injection.  Max/ RTM contours have been
overlaid on each plot: (a) 0.3 m square part (tRTM =21.1 s,  RTM
=837.0 kPa); (b) 1.0 m square part (tRTM =314.9 s,  RTM =837.0
kPa); (c) 2.0 m square part (tRTM =1444.0 s,  RTM =837.0 kPa).
closing speed. For the parameter ranges studied, tfill/
tRTM minimums of 0.231, 0.068, and 0.066 can be
achieved.
Contours of  Max/ RTM have been applied to the
plots presented in Fig. 9. For the smallest part,  Max is
always reached during the initial injection phase, and is
therefore only a function of hi. For the two larger parts,
 Max typically occurs during the compression phase,
and is sensitive to both parameters. Again a trade-off
must be made, in this mode between lower fill times, and
increasing maximum stress applied to the mould. How-
ever, in each case, very good solutions can be found
with significantly lower fill times, and applied mould
stresses similar to, or lower than for RTM. The best fill
time reductions relative to RTM can be achieved for
larger parts, these savings being very significant due to
the long fill times required for that process.
5. Experimental verification program
An initial experimental study has been performed to
provide verification of the models applied in this paper.
Radial injection into an isotropic reinforcement is con-
sidered, measurement made of P0 and Fclamp during
mould filling. As the injection phase is essentially RTM
filling, the applied modeling approach well verified in
the literature, the compression phase is focused upon
here. Han et al. provided measurement of gate fluid
pressure during completion of an injection/compression
SRIM process [17]. Qualitative comparisons to their
simulations were good, but no attempt was made to
measure the clamping force required during the process.
Kang and Lee have presented an experimental I/CM
study of a complex three-dimensional part [16], focusing
on verification of predicted clamping force. The com-
ponent of clamping force due to preform deformation
was determined by compression of a dry sample in the
actual part mould, and not by implementation of a
stress–strain model. While good agreement was
achieved in this manner, this is not an effective manner
of addressing a wide variety of products.
5.1. Experimental procedures
An aluminium mould has been used in this study, the
part geometry being a 0.15 m radius circular disc of
constant thickness. The mould is depicted in Fig. 10,
and consists of two pieces. The upper platen is a simple
flat disc, while the lower platen is essentially a high
walled basin. This arrangement allows for simplicity of
sealing, and the ability to produce a wide range of final
part thickness.
The entire experimental setup is presented schemati-
cally in Fig. 11. The mould has been mounted in an
Instron 1186 testing machine, which provides accurate
control over platen position during a prescribed
moulding cycle. A 200 kN load cell has been used to
measure the required clamping force during an experi-
ment. The test fluid was driven into the mould from a
simple piston and cylinder arrangement, the viscosity
being 0.40 Pa s for both experiments described here. For
 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375
Fig. 10. Two piece cast aluminium mould. Internal cavity diameter is
300 mm.
implementation of an I/CM process, it is important that
the required volume of fluid is accurately metered out.
This is easily achieved by monitoring the distance tra-
versed by the piston. A hydraulic cylinder was used to
drive the piston, effecting a reasonably constant pres-
sure at the gate. A pressure transducer is mounted near
the injection gate, monitoring pressure at the inlet dur-
ing both the injection and compression phases of an
experiment.
An isotropic polyester fibre mat has been used as the
reinforcement in this study. Preforms were formed from
six layers of this material, cut to a radius of 0.145 m.
Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of experimental setup. The mould platens are mounted on the upper and lower Instron crossheads. The lower crosshead
position is adjustable.
1369
The preform is placed in the mould, and compressed to
an initial thickness of 8.0 mm, and Vf=20%. The
experiment is initiated with injection of the fluid,
clamping force and injection pressure being monitored
through both phases. Once the required amount of fluid
is injected, a manual valve is closed in the injection line,
and a constant mould closing speed is initiated. The
experiment is concluded when a final part thickness of
4.0 mm, and fibre volume fraction of approximately
40% has been achieved.
5.2. Material characterisation
The polyester fibre mat used in this study is isotropic,
and has a very repeatable areal weight. Permeability
data has been collected over a range of volume fraction
from 25 to 50%, utilizing a continuous measurement
technique developed by Stadtfeld et al. [31]. Three sets
of data were collected, the average being represented by
the following empirical relationship;
KðVf Þ ¼ 1:13E  09expð5:67Vf Þ; 0:25 4 Vf 4 0:50: ð19Þ
A study of the compression characteristics of the
polyester mat was carried out, the authors initially
under the impression that a nonlinear elastic model
would suffice. It rapidly became apparent that the com-
pressive deformation of this material was significantly
more complex, exhibiting time dependent viscoelastic,
and plastic behaviour. These effects have been noted by
1370 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375
several authors, as discussed earlier. Two sets of experi-
mental data are presented here to demonstrate such
behaviour. These initial studies have prompted the
authors to embark on a more in depth study, consider-
ing the viscoelastic behaviour of three common LCM
reinforcements [30].
Four different polyester preform samples have been
compressed at varying speeds, while the clamping force
was monitored. The samples have been compressed
from the initial volume fraction of 10%, to 40%, at
speeds of 0.4, 0.2, and 0.1 mm/s. A fourth sample was
compressed to increasing volume fraction values, and
then any load relaxation allowed to occur. By plotting
the resulting compressive stress versus volume fraction
in Fig. 12, we observe the apparent long-time, or equi-
librium behaviour. At the fastest compression speed a
clear rate dependency is demonstrated, larger loads
generated with greater speeds. Stress relaxation is on the
order of 10% of the peak stress, occurring over time
periods of approximately 500 s. Investigations into the
deformation behaviour of glass random mats, and a
plain weave fabric, have produced relaxations as high as
40–60% of peak values [30].
The polyester mat has also displayed significant sen-
sitivity to previous deformation. This is demonstrated
by measuring the clamping force required during repe-
ated loading–unloading cycles of a single preform sam-
ple. A sample has been deformed between 10 and 50%
volume fraction, at a speed of 0.2 mm/s. The recorded
stress response is presented in Fig. 13. There is a sig-
nificant hysteresis loop present, and it can be seen that
with successive loading curves the required compressive
Fig. 12. Measured stress response of polyester mat preforms, at various compression speeds.
stress decreases. We have noted that a repeatable beha-
vior is only approached after at least 10 cycles.
Considering these significant departures from elastic
behavior, care must be taken in forming any empirical
compression deformation models to be applied within
LCM filling simulations. Initially we will apply a purely
elastic model, which has been fitted to a loading curve
generated at a constant compression rate of 0.2 mm/s.
Given the possibility of plastic deformation, these tests
were completed on fresh preform samples. A quadratic
equation was found to represent the data well within the
a Vf range from 10 to 40%:
 ðVf Þ ¼1:53E þ 07V2f  3:32E þ 06Vf þ 2:03E þ 05;
0:10 4 Vf 4 0:40:
ð20Þ
6. Results
Two sets of I/CM filling experiments have been com-
pleted. The initial experiment detailed here is compared
to the simulation based on the elastic preform defor-
mation model represented by Eq. (20). The experimental
and numerically predicted fluid pressure and clamping
force are presented in Figs. 14 and 15 respectively. The
average injection pressure over the initial filling period
was 100 kPa, the predicted initial fill time being
approximately 10% greater than the experimental value.
This provides initial confidence in the gathered perme-
ability data. A periodic fluctuation is noted in the injec-
tion pressure, which has been attributed to a stick–slip
motion of the piston in the fluid injection unit. During
 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375 1371

Fig. 13. Applied compressive stress measured during repeated loading and unloading of a polyester mat preform.

Fig. 14. Comparison of experimental and numerically predicted central fluid pressure.

the compression phase, the mould platens were brought
together at a constant speed of 0.25 mm/s. From Fig. 14,
a 30 s delay is evident between the injection and com-
pression phases, which was required to make this
switch. The compression phase of the predicted P0 trace
has been delayed in Fig. 14 so that a comparison can be
made with the experimental data. The comparison is
very good, a similar level of agreement found for all
other experiments completed. This level of agreement
has provided confidence in the application of Eq. (5),
the governing equation for fluid pressure.
Comparison is made between experimental and
numerical clamping force only for the compression
phase, as for the parameters chosen, the clamping force
was negligible during injection. Several significant dif-
ferences are noted. At the initiation of compression the
predicted clamping force is 10.0 kN, due only to load
required by the elastic preform model employed. The
1372 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375
Fig. 15. Comparison of experimental and numerically predicted total clamping force. An elastic model has been applied for preform deformation,
represented by Eq. (20).
experimental clamping force rises from 0.0 kN, as the
initial load relaxed completely prior to the compression
phase. At the completion of compression, the predicted
clamping force holds at 109.0 kN, while the experi-
mental value peaks at 94.5 kN, and exhibits significant
relaxation. These qualitative disagreements are related
to the inability of an elastic deformation model to
replicate stress relaxation. It is clear that a more realistic
model is required for preform deformation.
A second experiment is detailed here, and compared
against a simulation utilising an experimentally deter-
mined preform clamping force trace. Two preform
samples were prepared, and an initial experiment per-
formed in which one was taken through the identical
deformation cycle without fluid injection. The measured
clamping force trace has then been applied directly
within the filling simulation, being added to the
numerically predicted force due to fluid pressure, Ffluid,
to obtain the predicted total clamping force, Fclamp. A
similar approach was taken previously by Kang and Lee
[16].
The total clamping force traces recorded during the
dry compression experiment, and the I/CM experiment
are presented in Fig. 16. Fig. 17 compares the experi-
mental clamping force to the numerical prediction. Also
presented are the force components, Ffibre, as measured
in the dry compression experiment, and Ffluid, calculated
from the predicted fluid pressure field. Very good
agreement is found over the first 12.0 s of the compres-
sion phase, with the experimental trace falling steadily
below the numerical trace as time progresses past this
point. The initial agreement is encouraging, the fluid
force component contributing a significant portion of
the total clamping force. It appears that towards the end
of the compression phase, the component of force car-
ried by the reinforcement has dropped below that
measured during the dry compression experiment. We
propose that this deviation is caused by a change in the
preform response due to the presence of the advancing
viscous fluid within the fibre network. It is possible
that the presence of a fluid serves to lubricate fibre–
fibre connections, reducing the load covered by the
reinforcement.
We can conclude from this initial experimental study
that the proposed Darcy’s Law based flow model can be
used to predict internal fluid pressures, given that good
permeability data is obtained for the required fibre
volume fraction range. Improvements are required in
our ability to predict the required clamping force, an
issue that will be critical when attempting to model a
constant force compression process. A better under-
standing is required of the complex time dependent
deformation behaviour of fibre reinforcements, while
dry, and in the presence of a viscous fluid. The physical
mechanisms responsible for stress relaxation should be
identified. If changes in preform architecture are
occurring, it is possible that permeability is also affec-
ted. It is clear that improved compressive reinforce-
ment deformation models are required to more
accurately address I/CM, and all other LCM processes
involving dynamic cavity thickness changes (SCRIMP,
RTM Light, etc.).
 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375 1373

Fig. 16. Comparison of measured clamping force for a dry preform sample, and for an actual moulding cycle.

Fig. 17. Comparison of experimental and numerically predicted total clamping force. Also plotted are the Ffluid and Ffibre components of the
numerical prediction. Ffibre was obtained from compression of a dry preform sample.

7. Conclusion significant qualitative differences, more work being

Analytical solutions to simple flow geometries have
been utilised to explore the potential benefits of I/CM
relative to RTM. An experimental study has verified the
suitability of the governing flow equations, with good
agreement found between experimental and numerically
predicted fluid pressure traces. Predictions of the mould
clamping force during the compression phase showed
required to understand time dependent reinforcement
deformation behaviour. Due to the similar time scales
of these deformation phenomena, and the duration of a
typical LCM filling phase, development of viscoelastic
reinforcement deformation models is required to
improve modelling of these processes.
Our current model, based on elastic preform defor-
mation, was used to explore the effect of process design
1374 S. Bickerton, M.Z. Abdullah / Composites Science and Technology 63 (2003) 1359–1375

parameters on resulting fill times, and clamping force dP

requirements. While significant reductions in fill time @x ¼ 0 ¼ 0; ðA7Þ
dx
can be achieved, these gains are balanced by increased
clamping force, or increased internal stress applied to @x ¼ xf P ¼ 0: ðA8Þ
the mould. By careful selection of parameters such as
closing speed and initial cavity thickness, it is possible
to obtain significant reductions in fill time as com- The fluid pressure field generated during compression
pared with RTM, while utilising similar clamping flow was therefore found to be:
equipment. Constant force compression has been :
h  2 
shown to generate the lowest fill times, making full PðxÞ ¼ x  x2f : ðA9Þ
use of the capacity of the clamping device throughout 2Kh
compression.
The total force generated by fluid pressure is determined
by integrating across the wet domain, from x=0 to
Acknowledgements x=xf.
:
The authors would like to acknowledge the generous 2hL 3
Ffluid ¼  x ðA10Þ
support of the Foundation for Research Science and 3Kh f
Technology, New Zealand. Ffibre, has been found by multiplying the stress carried
by the preform, , by the planar area of the preform,
WL.
Appendix A. Rectilinear flow analytical solutions

The derivations presented earlier are repeated here for References

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