12 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGV

г II

Fig. 1.7. Shear stress (t) vs. shearing rate (•/) for (a) Bingham b o d y ; t y is the yield stress and the
tangent of the slope ß gives the incremental viscosity. |b) Pseudo-plastic or shear-thinning
fluid, (c) D i l a t a n t or shear-thickening fluid. Dashed lines show N e w t o n i a n behaviour.

t h e simple s i t u a t i o n discussed here the s e c o n d - o r d e r fluid a n d the N e w t o -

nian fluid a r e not distinguishable.

Bingham plastics. A B i n g h a m plastic is characterized by a flow curve which

is a straight line h a v i n g an intercept i y o n the shear-stress axis. T h e yield
stress, т у , is t h e m a g n i t u d e of the stress which must be exceeded before flow
 1.3. N O N - N E W T O N I A N FLUID BEHAVIOUR IN SHEAR 13

starts. Hence this substance is really a solid, not a fluid. T h e rheological

e q u a t i o n for a Bingham plastic may be written (y > 0)

y = 0; |t|<Ty,

where rj p , the plastic viscosity, is the slope of the (low curve. F o r у < 0, the
curves in Fig. 1.7 are to be c o n t i n u e d as odd functions of y.
T h e concept of an idealized Bingham plastic is convenient in practice
because some fluids a p p r o x i m a t e this type of behaviour m o r e or less
closely. C o m m o n examples are slurries, drilling m u d s , greases, oil paints,
t o o t h p a s t e , and sludges. T h e explanation of Bingham plastic behaviour is
t h a t the fluid at rest contains a three-dimensional structure of sufficient
rigidity to resist any stress less t h a n the yield stress, т . If this stress is
exceeded the s t r u c t u r e disintegrates a n d the system behaves as a N e w t o n i a n
fluid under a shear stress т — t y ; when the shear stress falls below r y the
structure is reformed.

Pseudo-plastic fluids. Pseudo-plastic fluids show n o yield value a n d the

typical flow curve for these materials indicates that the ratio of shear stress
t o the rate of shear, which is termed the viscosity/ falls progressively with
shear rate a n d the flow curve becomes linear only at very high rates of
shear. This limiting slope is k n o w n as the viscosity at infinite shear and is
designated >ix (Fig. 1.2). T h e logarithmic plot of shear stress and rate of
shear for these materials is often f o u n d to be linear with a slope between
zero a n d unity. As a result, a n empirical functional relation k n o w n as the
'power law' is widely used to characterize fluids of this type. This relation,
which was originally p r o p o s e d by de Waele (1923) a n d O s t w a l d (1925) may
be written as

z = k\yГ1*, * (1.6)

where к a n d n are c o n s t a n t s (n < 1) for the particular fluid: к is a measure

of the consistency of the fluid, the higher к the m o r e 'viscous' the fluid: n is
a m e a s u r e of the degree of n o n - N e w t o n i a n behaviour, and the greater the
d e p a r t u r e f r o m unity the m o r e p r o n o u n c e d are the n o n - N e w t o n i a n proper-
ties of the fluid. T h e index n m a y often be regarded as c o n s t a n t over several
decades of shear rate. Table 1.6 gives some representative values of к a n d n.
T h e viscosity for a power-law fluid m a y be expressed in terms of к a n d n
since

ri = r/y = k \ y \ " - \ (1.7)

' In m a n y older b o o k s this ratio is often termed the ' a p p a r e n t viscosity'. We shall not use
this term.
I-

14 INTRODUCTION TO RHEOLOGY

TABLE 1.6. Power-law parameters

Range of y(s ') MPa-s") n

54.3% cement rock in water 10-200 2.51 0.153

23.3% Illinois yellow clay in water 1800-6000 5.55 0.229
Polystyrene at 422 К 0.03-3 1.6 X 10 5 0.4
1.5% c a r b o x y m e t h y l cellulose ( C M C ) IO 2 -10" 9.7 0.4
in water
0.7% C M C in water 2 X 1 0 3 - 3 ж 10 J 1.5 0.5
3% polyisobutylene in decalin 25-200 0.94 0.77
0.5% hydroxyethylcellulose in 293 К — 0.84 0.509
water 313K — 0.30 0.595
333 К — 0.136 0.645
1 % poly(ethylene-oxide) in 293 К — 0.994 0.532
water 313K — 0.706 0.544
333 К — 0.486 0.599

All d a t a are at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e (300 K) except where indicated. D a t a a d a p t e d f r o m W. R.

Schowalter (1978), Mechanics of non-Newtonian fluids, p. 139, P e r g a m o n Press, O x f o r d . See
also T a b l e 1.7.

#
a n d since n < 1 for pseudo-plastics t h e viscosity f u n c t i o n decreases as the
rate of s h e a r increases. This type of b e h a v i o u r is characteristic of high poly-
mers, p o l y m e r solutions a n d m a n y suspensions. O n e physical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ^ Ь,
o r t h i f p h e n o m e n o n is t h a t with increasing rates of shear the molecules ( o r ' J
the structure) are progressively aligned. Instead of the r a n d o m intermingled^
state which exists w h e n the fluid is at rest the m a j o r axes are b r o u g h t into
line with the direction of flow a n d t h e viscosity decreases. This is, however,
an over-simplified picture (see C h a p t e r 5). UMJ? л И 1 Ì J "v^uAuU^û
T h e H e r s c h e l - B u l k l e y e q u a t i o n c o m b i n e s t h e B i n g h a m a n d power-law
bodies. O t h e r empirical e q u a t i o n s w h i c h have been used to describe
pseudo-plastic b e h a v i o u r are the following with the n a m e s of their inven-
tors :

Prandtl г = A s i n - 1 {y/C)

Eyring X — у/В + С sin {т/А)

Powell-Eyring т = Ay + В sinh~ x (C>')

(1.8)
Williamson т = Ay/{В + \у\) + цх>у

Ellis 1Д, = l / r ì o + m -l/" ( T 2)(l--)/2«

C a s s o n (Solid)

T h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r s (Wilkinson 1960).
In these e q u a t i o n s , А, В a n d C, t]0, m a n d n a r e c o n s t a n t s which
are typical of a p a r t i c u l a r fluid. An especially useful f o r m h a s been
described by C a r r e a u (see Bird et al. 1977, p. 210-211). H e sets (rj — =

I
 1.3. N O N - N E W T O N I A N FLUID BEHAVIOUR IN S H E A R 15

TABLE 1.7. Parameters for Carreau fluid behaviour

Fluid >/o<Pa-s) >)JPa-s) A(s) n

2% Polyisobutylene in Primol 355 923 0.15 191 0.358

5% Polystyrene in Aroclor 1242 101 0.059 0.84 0.380
0.75% Separan-30 in 95/5 mixture 10.6 0.010 8.04 0.364
by weight of water-glycerol
7% Al soap in decalin and m-cresol 89.6 0.010 1.41 0.200
Polystyrene at 453 К 1.48 X 10* 0 1.04 0.398
High-density polyethylene at 443 К 8920 0 1.58 0.496
Phenoxy-A at 485 К 1.24 X 10" 0 7.44 0.728

{fio ~ >7ao)D + O 3 -?) 2 ]'"" 1>/2 which c o m b i n e s all t h e power-law region a n d t h e

t w o N e w t o n i a n regions of the c o m p l e t e curve (Fig. 1.2). T a b l e 1.7 is derived
f r o m his d a t a ; values are for r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e c o n d i t i o n s ( 3 0 0 K ) unless
otherwise stated.
In fitting this f o r m of curve c a n be t a k e n as being of the o r d e r of the
solvent viscosity; if is k n o w n then / a n d n will be the p a r a m e t e r s t h a t
m u s t be f o u n d ; n will usually be clearly defined f r o m a l o g - l o g plot.
T h e s e e q u a t i o n s are considerably m o r e difficult to use t h a n the p o w e r -
law b u t occasionally if one needs a close fit for numerical w o r k , they can be
useful. F o r illustrative analytical w o r k m o s t of the eqns (1.8) are t o o
complex, a n d it is difficult to find any physical c o n n e c t i o n between struc-
ture a n d the values of m o s t of the c o n s t a n t s .

Dilatant fluids. D i l a t a n t fluids are similar t o pseudo-plastics in that they

s h o w n o yield stress but the viscosity for these materials increases with
increasing rates of shear. T h e power-law e q u a t i o n is again often applicable
but in this case the index n is greater t h a n unity. ( C o m p a r e T a b l e 1.6.)
This type of b e h a v i o u r was originally discussed in c o n n e c t i o n with con-
centrated suspensions of solids by O s b o r n e R e y n o l d s (1885). H e suggested
t h a t w h e n these c o n c e n t r a t e d suspensions a r e at rest, the voidage is at a
m i n i m u m a n d the liquid is only sufficient t o fill the voids. W h e n these
materials a r e sheared at low rates, the liquid lubricates the m o t i o n of o n e
particle past a n o t h e r a n d the stresses are c o n s e q u e n t l y small. At higher
rates of shear the dense p a c k i n g of the particles is b r o k e n u p a n d the
m a t e r i a l e x p a n d s o r 'dilates' slightly a n d t h e voidage increases. T h e r e is
n o w insufficient liquid in the new s t r u c t u r e t o lubricate the flow of the
particles past each o t h e r a n d the applied stresses have t o be m u c h greater.
T h e f o r m a t i o n of this s t r u c t u r e causes the viscosity to increase rapidly with
increasing rates of shear.
T h e term 'dilatant' h a s since c o m e to be used for all fluids which exhibit
the p r o p e r t y of increasing viscosity with increasing rates of shear. M a n y of
 4
h J v j c . t с 'J ' - '

2.7. T H E C L A S S I C A L CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS 55

does not hold for a dilute suspension of spheres when the microscale Rey-
nolds n u m b e r is not negligible. In most cases we shall merely use the a b o v e
ideas to check constitutive relations p r o d u c e d by o t h e r m e t h o d s ; it is gener-
ally necessary to have s o m e m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l k n o w l e d g e to apply this prin-
ciple with confidence. i / i
x
k û n S T i ' ù u i 4- I - r
2.7. The classical constitutive relation^^ * * ~

T h e classical constitutive e q u a t i o n s are those for an inviscid fluid, a linear

viscous fluid, the linear elastic b o d y and the linear viscoelastic body. O n e
might also consider the t h e o r y of plasticity as classical but we shall not
e x a m i n e it here. These cases will n o w be treatedLlLlllLU to
IU ililLIUUULt J^lliV IUV/ЦД
n t r o d u c e some ideas
involved in f o r m u l a t i n g constitutive models.
2.7.1. Linear viscous fluids and inviscid fluids lids /h ViòfOl
In a n y fluid at rest, there is always a pressure (p) determined by equilibrium

№
^.-.-considerations. By definition, n o shear stresses occur in a fluid at rest, a n d
t h e pressure acts equally in all directions. T h e r e f o r e the constitutive m o d e l
for a n y fluid at rest is simply

<y = - p i («ту = - p ô u ) . (2.55)

Euler t o o k this over in his t h e o r y of inviscid flow a n d it is the simplest

constitutive m o d e l possible. It c o n t a i n s n o shear stresses a n d hence is not a
g o o d model of real fluid b e h a v i o u r . T h e next m o s t c o m p l e x m o d e l is the
linear viscous ( N e w t o n i a n ) fluid (Stokes 1845): • -

о« = -Р0и + A d k k Su + 2r,d l J t x j/4S№ I ^ y V f (2.56)

w h e r e A is a second viscosity coefficient which in general is not related to )/,
the usual viscosity coefficient m e a s u r e d in s h e a r i n g m o t i o n . F o r incom-
pressible fluids dkk = 0 a n d so the value of A is irrelevant a n d we find

оa = -Pdtj + 2 ifrfy = -р0и + ПЛ\у. (2.57)

N o t e t h a t for a n y incompressible material we have the incompressibility

c o n s t r a i n t (V • V = 0) a n d p m u s t be f o u n d by using the e q u a t i o n of m o t i o n
(2.49) a n d b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s ; it c a n n o t be f o u n d f r o m the constitutive
e q u a t i o n alone. It is often convenient with incompressible fluids to write

a.. + Р0и = Ty (o + pi = x), (2.58)

T is then the extra stress (or deviatoric stress) a n d is the p a r t of the stress
tensor which c a n be c o m p u t e d f r o m the constitutive e q u a t i o n when the
m o t i o n is k n o w n . S u b s t i t u t i o n of (2.57) into the e q u a t i o n s of m o t i o n gives
the N a v i e r - S t o k e s e q u a t i o n s . T h u s we get three e q u a t i o n s plus the incom-
pressibility c o n d i t i o n to find the three velocity c o m p o n e n t s a n d the press-
ure. All of the a b o v e constitutive f o r m s can be seen to satisfy all of the

I
56 REVIEW OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS

Fig. 2.6. Simple shearing kinematics; x , is the flow direction, x 2 is the velocity gradient direc-
tion, and x 3 is the neutral direction. The speed Oj = yx2 ; the other velocity c o m p o n e n t s v2 and
v3 are zero.

general principles for constitutive laws laid d o w n in § 2.6; the relation (2.57)
is isotropic because it has been m a d e so; the Appendix to this chapter gives
a derivation merely assuming linearity; we expect isotropic behaviour from
fluids with a r a n d o m isotropic miscrostructure. Before leaving these fluids
we shall examine their complete reiponses in simple shearing flow and in
elongational flow. In the former we shall consider the velocity field v = i y y
(Fig. 2.6), where i is a unit vector parallel to the x-axis, a n d consider only
the incompressible case. T h e n the p r o p o s e d velocity field satisfies the
incompressibility condition (2.45) and f r o m (2.57) we find

СXX - °yy - <*zz = - p (2.59)

a T
xy — 1У - (constant).

W e now check that (2.59) and the assumed velocity field satisfy the equa-
tions of m o t i o n , under the assumption that n o variation in quantities in the
X a n d z directions occurs. Some a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t the body force must be
m a d e ; it will be ignored here for simplicity. (If required a gravity body force
can be easily a d d e d ; it simply p r o d u c e s a hydrostatic pressure distribution.)
T h e n we find p — constant, the level being set externally by some b o u n d a r y
condition a n d not influenced by the flow. W e emphasize that since the
hydrostatic pressure p is not set by the flow, only the differences of n o r m a l
stresses

= «Гц - a22, (2.60)

N2 = &22 - (2.61)
 2.7. T H E C L A S S I C A L CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS 57

a n d the shear stress r are of rheological interest. T h e q u a n t i t y N l , the first

n o r m a l stress difference, is defined by the direct stresses a l o n g t w o axes, one
a l o n g the flow direction (x, = x) a n d the second a l o n g the flow gradient
direction (x 2 = у). T h e second n o r m a l stress difference, N 2 , is defined using
x2( = >') a n d x 3 ( = z). F o r the N e w t o n i a n fluid, TV t a n d Nz are b o t h zero,
a n d , by a s s u m p t i o n , г/ is c o n s t a n t .
W h e n у is a f u n c t i o n of time, a n d c o n d i t i o n s a r e such t h a t inertia can be
ignored, then the same solution will h o l d ; the shear stress т merely follows
the shear rate exactly, with no delay or c h a n g e of w a v e f o r m . T h u s the N e w -
t o n i a n fluid has i n s t a n t a n e o u s response a n d n o m e m o r y . A second basic
flow field is steady elongation. H e r e the velocity field is a s s u m e d to be

V = |è{2ix - j у - кz}. (2.62)

T h u s the e l o n g a t i o n a l rate ди/дх is equal to è, a n d dvjdy a n d dw/ôz are b o t h

— 2 è. T h e flow is s y m m e t r i c a r o u n d the .x-axis a n d satisfies the incompress-
ibility c o n d i t i o n s (2. 45). A possible w a y of p r o d u c i n g the i r r o t a t i o n a l veloc-
ity field (2.62) is t o elongate a viscous rod, so t h a t it is a tensile test, rather
t h a n a shear test. W e shall ignore b o d y forces a n d accelerations. It is then
clear t h a t the only q u a n t i t y of rheological interest is a x x — a y y , since all
shear stresses are zero a n d a y y = a T Z . Again, t h e a b s o l u t e values of the
direct stresses will be set by s o m e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n , which in t u r n deter-
mines p. W e find

aXX - oyy = 3t]è = rjT è. (2.63)

The quantity is the T r o u t o n (1906) or e l o n g a t i o n a l viscosity; in a N e w t o -

n i a n fluid it is exactly 3i7. U n s t e a d y elongations, in which è is a f u n c t i o n of f,
simply m a k e the left-hand side of (2.63) t i m e - d e p e n d e n t also, following è.

2.7.2. Linear elastic behaviour

H e r e we expect to relate the stress tensor to a strain. S u p p o s e a b o d y is at
rest in the c o n f i g u r a t i o n x at time t. If it is then strained (t' > t in this case)
so t h a t the particle which was at the place x is n o w at r then we can define
the displacement vector u as

u = г- x (Uj — l'i x,). (2.64)

T h e strain tensor C 0 - can then be written in t e r m s of dujôxj = Fu - ôu,

giving, f r o m (2.32)

du, du, duk dut

 3.5. P A R T I A L L Y CONTROLLABLE FLOWS 97

;.- THE CI W-- : \ S ( l i s s ì ; , ГГ. . Ii : : Л i H '

c a n n o t be described by using the viscometric constitutive e q u a t i o n . (See
C h a p t e r 8).
Axial flow in the a n n u l a r region between two cylinders is of interest as an
a r r a n g e m e n t that allows m e a s u r e m e n t of the second n o r m a l stress differ-
ence. Usually a pressure g r a d i e n t drives the flow, but the use of a m o v i n g
i n n e r cylinder is also possible. W h e t h e r the inner cylinder is m o v i n g or not,
w,e find directly f r o m t h e e q u a t i o n s of m o t i o n a n d the s y m m e t r y of the flow
t h a t t h e difference between the radial t h r u s t s at the o u t e r radius r 0 a n d the
i n n e r radius is related to the n o r m a l stress difference N 2 by

î o Î S . Ï ^ f o ) ] - . [ - * > « > ] = p v 2 dr/r. (3.71)

flow field i> s t e a d y eiongaticnii H e r e velocity tic Id ь assume,.
T h e r e are at least t w o difficulties associated with this m e t h o d of testing.
Ficsty t h e basic velocity profile is no longer governed by eqn (3.62) but by

C
T ß i f e - m * frr , Л , f x is eoi 1 al io ; a n d e r ; and ' ^
i n Iwhtch the c o n s t a n t of integration С is t o b e d e t e r m i n e d by using the
ï f ô u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s at the t w o walls. This is generally not an easy
p r o b l e m , as extensive w o r k on it h a s shown. F o r example, o n e can a t t e m p t
töaöse the p o w e r - l a w model, a n d it is i m m e d i a t e l y clear t h a t there are
sihipler a n d m o r e c o n v e n i e n t m e t h o d s of viscosity m e a s u r e m e n t .
T h e second difficulty is t h a t pressure-hole e r r o r s m u s t be considered (see
C h ä p t e r 4). F r o m the early sets of d a t a using a n n u l a r flows it a p p e a r e d t h a t
fhè : secónd n o r m a l stress difference was positive. H o w e v e r , w h e n the d a t a
were corrected for pressure-hole errors, the sign of N z was reversed, a n d
thifs<N 2 îs negative, which is n o w believed to be the case. But since the
c o r r e c t i o n s a r e larger t h a n the m e a s u r e d quantities, the process is of
d u b i o u s a c c u r a c y / T e s t s with flush-mounted (hole-free) pressure t r a n s d u c e r s
äfe 1 possible, b u t . d u e to t h e wall c u r v a t u r e , these a r e not easy experiments.
Д59? Couette flow and helical flows
The-helical flows listed in § 3.2.4 a r e all partially controllable. W e will not
give a detailed verification of this, but merely n o t e t h a t with three u n k n o w n
f u n c t i o n s , w, co, a n d p at o u r disposal, it is a l w a y s possible t o satisfy the
m o m e n t u m e q u a t i o n s . These flows,., with coaxial cylindrical slip surfaces,
c a n b e visualized a s flows between two coaxial cylinders which m a y be in
relative m o t i o n . Cases in which the m o t i o n is purely axial h a v e already
beea discussed in § 3,5.2. Cases that w o u l d require an a z i m u t h a l pressure
gradient, such as the e x a m p l e in § 3.4, can be considered. Such i n s t r u m e n t s
a f d ' n o t discussed f u r t h e r here; there are s o m e practical p r o b l e m s ( K r a y n i k
egaL-4984). :.:•:.
If t h e g a p between the inner a n d o u t e r cylinders is small in c o m p a r i s o n to
the r a d i u s of either one, by ignoring the c u r v a t u r e o n e c a n treat a helical
98 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS

flow a p p r o x i m a t e l y as a skew rectilinear flow (§ 3.5.1). F o r the present we

confine o u r a t t e n t i o n to the special case of C o u e t t e flow. In the C o u e t t e
viscometer, the flow is driven by steady r o t a t i o n of o n e or b o t h of the
cylinders, with n o applied pressure gradient. Since there is n o a n g u l a r accel-
eration, t h e m o m e n t M per unit axial length o n each slip surface m u s t be
the same, a n d by expressing this m o m e n t in terms of the shear r a t e we
o b t a i n a first integral of the a z i m u t h a l c o m p o n e n t of the m o m e n t u m e q u a -
tion
M = lnr2yt]{y). (3.73)

Recalling t h a t the shear rate is rw'(r) a n d expressing t h e relation in terms of

the fluidity ф, we o b t a i n

rco'(r) = Гф{т), T = M/lnr2. (3.74)

T h e n , i n t e g r a t i o n yields

co(r) - й ^ ) = I ф di', ti = М / 2 л г ? (3.75)

where r, is the r a d i u s of the inner cylinder. T h e difference in a n g u l a r velo-

cities between the cylinders is

Я = i f " ф di', т 0 = M/Invi, ' ~ ' (3.76)

Jta
w h e r e r 0 is the r a d i u s of the o u t e r cylinder. This relation a m o n g the f o u r
m e a s u r a b l e quantities Q, M , r s , a n d r 0 shows t h a t the d a t a f r o m cylinders of
v a r i o u s sizes can be reduced to a relation a m o n g only three quantities, Q,
Tj, a n d t 0 . D a t a t h a t c a n n o t be reduced in this w a y indicate t h a t the
hypothesis of n o slip at the wall m a y have failed or s o m e o t h e r effect m a y
be present.
In o r d e r t o o b t a i n г/ (or ф) f r o m the m e a s u r e d quantities, it is necessary to
invert e q n (3.76). In the case of a g a p h = r0 — r{ t h a t is small in c o m p a r i s o n
t o either radius, the shear rate is nearly u n i f o r m a t the value y = rfì/h,
w h e r e r is the average radius, a n d there is n o difficulty in finding rj(y). U s i n g
this a p p r o x i m a t i o n is equivalent t o using the m i d p o i n t rule of numerical
i n t e g r a t i o n . M a n y a p p r o x i m a t e schemes of inversion are available
( C o l e m a n et al. 1966); a direct numerical a p p r o a c h is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .
T h e r e a r e several c o m m e r c i a l viscometers t h a t use this c o n f i g u r a t i o n .
C o m m o n l y the inner cylinder r o t a t e s a n d the speed a n d t o r q u e o n this
cylinder a r e m e a s u r e d . P r o b l e m s d u e to end effects a n d T a y l o r instability
(see C h a p t e r 10) c a n be minimized by using a g u a r d - r i n g design similar to
C o u e t t e ' s original p r o p o s a l . T h e small q u a n t i t y of fluid needed, c o m p a r e d
t o t h a t needed for Poiseuille viscometry, is a n attractive feature of this type
of i n s t r u m e n t .
 3.5. P A R T I A L L Y CONTROLLABLE FLOWS 99

M e a s u r a b l e n o r m a l stress effects occur in the C o u e t t e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . T h e

stress is given by eqn (3.24), with w set equal to zero. Since the a n g u l a r
velocity is a f u n c t i o n of r a d i u s alone, then w h a t e v e r f o r m s the n o r m a l stress
f u n c t i o n s m a y have, they t o o are functions of r in the present p r o b l e m .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , the m o m e n t u m e q u a t i o n is satisfied if the pressure p in eqn
(3.24) is a f u n c t i o n of r d e t e r m i n e d by t h e radial c o m p o n e n t of the m o m e n -
tum equation:

p'(r) = pw2r - NJr + dN2/dr. (3.77)

H e r e p is the density of the fluid. W e omit the h y d r o s t a t i c pressure, which

c a n be a d d e d to all n o r m a l stresses w h e n the c o m p u t a t i o n is otherwise
complete. T h e radial stress, f r o m eqn (3.24), is

<rr r = - P + N2. (3.78)

C o n s e q u e n t l y , o n integrating e q n (3.77) we find t h a t the difference between

the n o r m a l t h r u s t s on the o u t e r a n d inner cylinders is
Го
[-*>o)3 - [ —a r
r X i)3 = tprco2 2 - (NJrftdr. (3.79)

T h e difference in thrust d u e to centrifugal force is positive, of course. T h e

r e m a i n i n g thrust difference is negative if the first n o r m a l stress difference is
positive, a n d t h u s the radial pressure at the inner cylinder c a n exceed that
at the o u t e r cylinder.
A l t h o u g h this test is s o u n d in principle, a n d t h e r e are some examples in
t h e literature, there is the serious pressure-hole difficulty associated with its
practical execution a n d we k n o w of n o t r u s t w o r t h y m e a s u r e m e n t s ; we n o t e
t h a t the pressure-hole e r r o r s are f o u n d to be of the same o r d e r of magni-
t u d e as the quantities m e a s u r e d .
T h e axial c o m p o n e n t of stress a : : is e q u a l to — p. In a flow with gravity
acting in the negative z-direction, by a d d i n g t h e h y d r o s t a t i c pressure we
obtain

~azz = -P9z + N2 + tprco2 - ( N , / r ) ] d r + c o n s t a n t . (3.80)

If t h e u p p e r surface of the fluid is o p e n to the a t m o s p h e r e , the s h a p e of the

free surface can be f o u n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y by using this relation to find the
value of z at which —a, 2 is e q u a l to a t m o s p h e r i c pressure:

pgz = iV2 + J \_prco - {NJrJJdr + constant. (3.81)

T h e effects of centrifugal force a n d t h e extra tension N l are o p p o s i t e to o n e

a n o t h e r , if N 1 is positive as expected. If N 2 is relatively small a n d the effect
 L
ъ) bJM ^

100 VISCOMETRIC AND ELONGATIONAL FLOWS

Thrust F

'Sea'
of fluid
• ï 'Free'
edge

Fig. 3.5. C o n e - p l a t e g e o m e t r y . N o r m a l setting is t h a t e x t r a p o l a t e d c o n e - t i p j u s t t o u c h e s p l a t e

(c = 0). O n t h e left is s h o w n a d r o w n e d edge a n d o n t h e right t h e m o r e n o r m a l free edge.

of centrifugal force is small, then the surface s t a n d s highest at the inner

cylinder. This is t h e classical Weissenberg effect. T h e result (3.81) is valid
only for small surface d i s t u r b a n c e s ; a large climbing effect disturbs the flow
n e a r the surface.
3.5.4. Cone and plate flow
T h e c o n e - a n d - p l a t e device (Fig. 3.5, with с = 0) p r o d u c e s a flow in which
the shear rate is very nearly u n i f o r m . It is by far the m o s t i m p o r t a n t n o r m a l
stress m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t . T h e flow is partially controllable to the same
degree of a p p r o x i m a t i o n that the shear r a t e is uniform. In Fig. 3.5 we show
o n t h e left the b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n with a 'sea' of fluid a n d on the right the
m o r e c o m m o n free b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n .
T h e slip surfaces in a c o n e - a n d - p l a t e flow are cones r o t a t i n g a b o u t a
c o m m o n axis. Let a be the latitudinal angle, so that a = 0 is the e q u a t o r i a l
p l a n e a n d a = л / 2 is t h e axis of r o t a t i o n . T h e fluid is c o n t a i n e d in the g a p
between a plate in the plane a = 0 a n d a c o n e a = a 0 . Either the cone or
the p l a t e o r b o t h m a y rotate. T o be definite we s u p p o s e t h a t the plate is
fixed a n d t h e cone r o t a t e s with a c o n s t a n t a n g u l a r velocity w 0 .
Typically the g a p angle a 0 is small, say 4° or less (0.07 radians). T h e shear
rate in the fluid d e p e n d s on the a n g u l a r variable a, b u t a itself c h a n g e s so
little t h a t this v a r i a t i o n is insignificant. T h e shear rate at a given radius r is
t h e n the linear speed of the c o n e there, rw0, divided by t h e g a p width, r a 0 ,
so the shear r a t e is c o n s t a n t at the value y = œ j a 0 . A m o r e detailed
analysis s h o w s t h a t the e r r o r in this e s t i m a t e is O(c<o), which is often negligi-
ble ( L o d g e 1964).
If t h e fluid fills the g a p out to the r a d i u s R0, the m o m e n t M exerted on
slip surfaces out t o this r a d i u s m u s t be t h e s a m e for e a c h surface, since there