Assoc.Prof.Dr.

Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 Ground Motion Levels (GML):

DD1: Probability of exccedence in 50 years is 2% (with a return period of 2475 years)
DD2: Probability of exccedence in 50 years is 10% (with a return period of 475 years)
DD3: Probability of exccedence in 50 years is 50% (with a return period of 72 years)
DD4: Probability of exccedence in 50 years is 68% (with a return period of 43 years)
 Standard earthquake ground motion spectrums: formed for a certain «level of ground
motion» and 5% damping ratio in accordance with «map spectral acceleration
coefficients» and «local soil impact coefficients»
 (Dimensionless) Map spectral acceleration coefficients: obtained from seismic hazard map of
Turkey for four GML.
Ss: map spectral acc. coeff. for short periods
S1: map spectral acc. coeff. for a period of 1 sec.
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 Design spectral acceleration coefficient

SDs= Ss× Fs (Fs and F1 : local soil impact coefficients)
SD1= S1× F1

 Spectral Acceleration= Spectral Acceleration Coefficient × g (g: gravitational acc., 9.81 m/s2)
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 Lateral Elastic Design Spectrum:

Sae(T): lateral elastic design spectral acceleration
T: natural vibration period of the building
Boundary periods for the spectrum:

TL:transition period for the constant displacement zone

(TL=6 sec.)
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

Building Category and Building

Importance Factor: Earthquake Design Category (DTS): Categories for Building Height (BYS):

Note: Check the definition for the «base»

of building with/without basement
(Page 16)
HN: total height of the building
(ignore elevator machine rooms etc.)
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 Building Performance Levels:

 Immediate Occupancy: no or negligible damage on the structural system (Kesintisiz Kullanım)
 Limited Damage: limited damage on the structural system (number of members that are in the
inelastic region are limited) (Sınırlı Hasar)
 Controlled Damage: considerable, yet repairable damage on the structural system where life safety
is secured (Kontrollü Hasar)
 Collapse Prevention: Heavty damage on the structural system without collapse (local or total
collapse of the building is prevented) (Göçmenin Önlenmesi)
 Building Performance Objectives: the building performance levels that are provided in Table
3.4 (and in Table 3.5 for buildings with base isolation) with respect to varying ground motion
levels and earthquake design categories.
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

Earthquake design category

The scope of application for

Ultimate Capacity Design
(Chapter 4) and Displacement
Based Assessment (Chapter 5)

DGT: Dayanıma Göre Tasarım (Load Based Design)

ŞGDT: Şekildeğiştirmeye Göre Değerlendirme ve Tasarım
(Displacement Based Assessment and Design)

Ground 1a(1), 2a(1): BYS>3 (building height category larger than 3)

Motion 1a(2), 2a(2): BYS=2, 3 (building height category equals to 2 or 3)
Level
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

Torsional Irregularity: Discontinuity in Slabs:

(Irregularities in Plan)
Torsional Irregularity:

Discontinuity in Slabs:

Protrusions in Plan:

Discontinuity of
(Irregularities in Elevation vertical members:
Weak Story Deficiency:

Protrusions in Plan:

Soft Story Deficiency:

Discontinuity of
vertical members:
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 A1 and B2 are critical while selecting type of seismic analysis method.

 When there is A2 and A3 deficiencies, the slabs should be modeled as shell members
and proper distirbution of lateral shear forces in between vertical members with
respect to their rigidities should be shown.
 In case of weak story deficiency (B1):
 when 0.6≤(ηci)min<0.8, the behavior factor for the structural system (defined in Chapter 4,
Table 4.1) will be multiplied by «1.25(ηci)min» and applied along both orthogonal directions.
 (ηci)min is never allowed to be smaller than 0.6. Otherwise, the rigidity of the weak story
should be increased and the calculations should be repeated.
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 Torsional Irregularity:

 Shear damage (inclined cracking) especially at the outer circumference of buildings.

 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

Gökdemir et al. «Effects of torsional irregularity

to structures during earthquakes»
Adapazarı, 1999 Marmara Earthquake

Torsional shear damage at

the east face of the building

 Z. C. Girgin ve D. G. Yılmaz, YTÜ Mimarlık

North
Fakültesi, Yapısal Sistemler Bölümü
 «The reasons and results of earthquake
damages in reinforced concrete buildings

Alaska, 1964 Anchroge (USA) East

Earthquake
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

Christchurch, New Zealand Earthquake, 2011

(Protrusions in Plan)
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

Δi : Interstory drift at the «i»th story level (average value for the story) hi: Story height («i»th story) Higher ground story:
Δi/hi : Interstory Drift Ratio at the «i»th story level (average value for the story)
Open ground story:

Equivalent static lateral forces Story Shear Forces Resulting Relative Drifts
acting at the story levels
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

California, Northridge Gölcük, Marmara

Earthquake, 1994 Earthquake,1999

Marmara Earthquake,1999

Open ground story for parking facility: Open ground story for commercial use:
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

Olive View Hospital,

San Fernando Earthquake, 1972
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 The seismic loads are estimated and reduced regarding the «structural system
ductility capacity» for a foreseen «building performance objective».
 The linear analysis of the building is conducted under this reduced seismic load. The
resulting reduced internal forces (considering the overstrength factors, if required)
are combined with the internal forces resulting from other loadings (dead load, live
load, wind load, etc.). Consequently, the internal force demands are determined
under these combined forces.
 The internal force demands are compared with the member capacities which are
calculated considering the foreseen building performance objective.
 The interstory drifts which are estimated by the seismic analysis are compared with
the interstory drift limits defined by the code.
 It should be shown that the internal force demands are lower than the member
capacities and the interstory drifts are lower than the defined limits. Otherwise, the
sections of members are changed and the seismic analysis is repeated.
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 In most cases of ordinary buildings (for most earthquake design categories), the
equivalent static seismic loads are calculated so as to provide «controlled damage»
building performance objective (normal performance objective) under DD2 ground
motion level. The load based design is performed.
 For DTS=1a, 2a and BYS=2, 3:
 Load based design will be applied as preliminary design with I=1.5 under DD2 ground motion level.
 Then the building will be evaluated by means of «displacement based assessment and design» so
as to satisfy «controlled damage» under DD1 (defined as advanced performance objective) and
«limited damage» under DD2 ground motion.
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 The design of a building by requiring an elastic response during a strong ground motion
where no permanent deformations are expected (design according to fe) is not
economical. In reality, the structures will have an inelastic response with a certain
level of permanent deformations on its structural members under such a strong
motion. If seismic design principles (i.e. capacity design rules, seismic detailing, etc.)
are applied properly in order to obtain a structural system with a presumed ductility
level, these permanent deformations and damage can be controlled in such a way that
the structure will dissipate the energy imposed by the ground shaking without serious
degradation in response (ductile behavior in inelastic response). Therefore, the
engineer may take a more economical design force on condition that the ductile design
details are provided.
 The seismic code permits a further reduction in design load (fd) taking advantage of
the fact that the structures possess significant reserve energy (overstrength) due to:
 the difference between actual and design material strength
 load factors and multiple load cases
Reference: Taieb B. And Sofiane B., «Accounting for
 participation of nonstructural members dyctility and overstrength in seismic design of RC
 redundancy of the structure and redistribution of forces structures», Proc. of 9th Int. Conf. On Str. Dyn.
 strain hardening
 actual confinement effect
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

The yield strength capacity (fy) of the structural system for a foreseen ductility
capacity (μk) is:
Lineer elastic capacity of the structural system

Reduction factor for the yield strength

 In case of structural systems with less rigidity (T>TB), according to equal
displacement rule (umax=ue):
𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝑘 = = = → 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 = = = 𝜇𝜇
𝑢𝑢𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦

In case of structural systems with high rigidity (T≤TB), according to equal area
rule (umax>ue; Aelastic=Ainelastic): f Aelastic
fe
Ainelastic
fy
u
uy ue umax
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 Design strength for load based design:

(D: overstrength factor)

 The behavior factor for the structural system (R):

 The seismic load reduction factor:

𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 ×𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 ⁄𝐷𝐷

 For T>TB: ;

 For T ≤TB: ;
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 BYS=1 Chapter 13, ; Seismic Design of Highrise Buildings

 In Table 4.1 (for R, D and permitted BYS), structural systems are defined in three groups:
 with high ductility
 with limited ductility
 with composite ductility (example: A21. Structural systems composed of RC frames with limited ductility and
shear walls with high ductility)
 Read «guidelines for chosing R, D and permitted BYS» on pages 32~34.
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 When the structural systems composed of high ductility RC frames and high ductility shear walls are
used, the following condition should be satisfied.
0.4𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜 < 𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 < 0.75𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜 (Mo: the overturning moment for the building)
(MDEV: the overturning moment for the shear walls)
 If the upper limit is not satisfied, the «R, D and permitted BYS» values should be chosen as those
corresponding to a structural system having only shear walls with high ductility.
 If the lower limit is not satisfied, no change is required for «R and D», but the «permitted BYS» will be
increased by «1».

USE OF «D» FACTORS:

 The «D» factors will not be used for the design forces related to a ductile response (i.e. for bending
moment, tensile force, etc. D=1). «D» factors will be used only for the design forces related to a brittle
response (i.e. for shear force, etc. use D>1). The resulting design forces should be lower than the forces
calculated by using capacity design principles (Vd<Ve).
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 The seismic load reduction will be conducted by reducing the (lateral) design spectral acceleration:

 Combination of loads (if «equivalent seismic load method» or «mode combination method» is to be
used):
[Ed(X) and Ed(Y): the independent equivalent seismic loads along the x and y directions]

𝐻𝐻 (𝑍𝑍)
 𝐺𝐺 + 𝑄𝑄 + 0.2𝑆𝑆 + 𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 + 0.3𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 [G: dead loads, Q: live loads, S: snow loads; H: lateral earth pressure]
𝐻𝐻 (𝑍𝑍)
 0.9𝐺𝐺 + 𝐻𝐻 + 𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 − 0.3𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 [Ed(H) : combined lateral seismic load; Ed(Z): vertical seismic load]
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 A 3-D model will be constituted for the analysis of the building where the lateral earthquake forces are
defined along the two lateral axes (Ed(X) and Ed(Y)). The damping ratio is 5%.
 The beams and columns should be modeled as one dimensional members which have 6 degrees of
freedom (DOF) at its nodes. If a rigid diapragm is defined for the slab system, the DOF’s corresponding
to rigid body motion should be eliminated.
 The effective (cracked) sectional properties should be used for the members according to the table
below: Table 4.2 Axial
Transverse
Two dimensional members, In plane
Shear walls
Shear walls of the basement
Flexure
Slabs
Shear
Two dimensional members, Out of plane
Shear walls
Shear walls of the basement
Slabs
One dimensional members
Coupling beams
Beams
Columns
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 The shear walls: members where «larger sectional dimension» / «smaller sectional dimension» ≥ 6
 The shear walls will be modeled as two dimensional members where finite element meshing is applied
(number of meshes should be selected to represent the real internal force distribution successfully)
 Read details for modeling shear walls on Pages 42-43.
 Read details for modeling coupled shear walls on Pages 43~45.
 Read details for modeling shear walls of the basement on Page 45.
 Read details for modeling slabs on Pages 45-46.
 The masses should be defined along the two transverse and one vertical directions of each node. This
mass corresponding to a node «j» is calculated by:
 [wGj(S) and wQj(S) are the resultant dead and live nodes acting at node «j»]
 [n: live load participation factor]

Table 4.3
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

Methods for Seismic Loads

Equivalent Seismic Load Method Modal Methods

(Chapter 4.7)
Mode Combination Modal Summation
Method Method
(Chapter 4.8.2) (Chapter 4.8.3)
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 The method should be applied seperately along the two transverse directions (however it is presented
for the x-direction below):
 The base shear along the x-direction:
mass of «i»th story

 Distribution of total base shear to shear forces at each story level

Additional lateral force at

the roof level
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 If rigid diphragms are defined for the slab system, the lateral forces at each story level will act at the
mass center of the story. Otherwise (if finite element shell modeling is applied for the slabs instead of
rigid diapragm assumption), the lateral force at each story level should be applied to the nodes of that
story seperately in proportion to the mass of each node.
mass of «j»th node
at the «i»th story

𝑇𝑇
 The total overturning moment for the building: Φ × 𝑚𝑚 × Φ

 The fundemantal vibration period of building along x-direction:

𝑇𝑇
Φ × 𝑘𝑘 × Φ
Ffi(X): the lateral force at the «i»th story under any pseudo (imaginary) base shear applied instead of (VtE(X)-ΔNE(X))
dfi(X): the lateral displacement at the «i»th story when subjected to Ffi(X).
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 For buildings with DTS=1, 1a, 2, 2a and BYS≥6 and for all buildings with DTS=3, 3a, 4, 4a, the following
empirical expression can be used for the fundemantal period:

 If the structural system is RC moment resisting: Ct=0.10, otherwise Ct=0.07

 If the lateral earthquake forces are resisted by the shear walls only:

At: the equivalent area for the calculation of empirical period

Awj: the cross-sectional area of the «j»th shear wall (m2)
lwj: the length of the «j»th shear wall in plan (m)
HN: the total height of the building over the basement level (m)
 Torsional effect in design: If there is any torsional irregularity (A1) for the building along any direction
with 1.2<ηbi<2.0, then 5% eccentricity should be increased by multiplying with 𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ⁄1.2 2 .
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 If the building has a basement, the basement should be modeled as integrated to the main model of
the building. And the seismic loads should be calculated in two steps:
1. (Ra)up should be calculated regarding Rup, Dup and Tp(X). And the reduced seismic loads are estimated for the
upper structure by using (Ra)up. As a result of the analysis under these seismic loads, the reduced internal
forces are determined not only for the upper structure but also for the lower basement.
2. Sae(0) and corresponding SaR(0) are calculated by taking T=0. The weight of the lower basement is multiplied
by SaR(0) to determine the seismic shear force acting on the basement. In these calculations,
(Ra)low=Dlow=1.5. The analysis under this reduced seismic load will result in the reduced internal forces for
the lower basement only.
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 The relative drift for any column or shear wall along x-direction:
ui(X) and ui-1(X) : the lateral drift at the ends of a column or shear wall at the «i»th and «i-1»th story
under the effect of reduced seismic forces along the x-direction (note that condition 4.7.3.2 – upper
limit for fundamental period and condition given by Eq.4.19 – minimum base shear is not required for
these calculations).
 The effective relative drift:
 The maximum value of the effective relative drift (δi,max) should be determined considering all stories
along both orthogonal (x and y) directions. And the following conditions should be satisfied:

 If there is no flexible gap between infill wall and structural system:

 If there is a flexible gap between infill wall and structural system:

λ is the ratio of the Sae values calculated for DD3 over DD2 ground motions. Κ=1.0 for RC buildings. hi: story height.
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 The second order effect at any «i»th story level and along the x-direction will be calculated by the
following expression: Total weight of «i»th story

The reduced story shear force for the «i»th story

 The maximum second order effect of all stories should be determined to satisfy the following condition
 Ch: a constant related to the hysteretic behavior of the structural system (Ch=0.5 for RC buildings)

 If this condition is not satisfied, all internal forces for this direction should be increased by multiplying
with βII(X):

 Alternatively, the lateral strength and rigidity of the structural system may be increased to decrease
the second order effects (re-design).
 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Emre AKIN
ADU Civil Eng. Dept.

 For buildings with basement:

 Upper building:
 Internal forces corresponding to ductile response (bending moment, normal force, etc.): these will be directly taken as
the analysis results (subjected to 1st loading).
 Internal forces corresponding to brittle response ( shear force): the internal froces obtained from the analyses should be
multiplied by Dup.
 If required, these internal forces should be increased by multipying with the coefficient for considering second order
effects (βII(X)).
 Lower basement:
 Internal forces corresponding to ductile response (bending moment, normal force, etc.): these will be the summation of
analysis results under 1st and 2nd loading.
 Internal forces corresponding to brittle response ( shear force): these will be the summation of the analysis results for the
lower part under 1st loading multplied by 0.6 Dup and under 2nd loading multiplied by Dlow.