Br45 6 Ship Handling PDF Free

Issued March 2002
Superseding BR 45(6)
Dated August 1995
BR 45(6)(1)
ADMIRALTY MANUAL OF
NAVIGATION
VOLUME 6 - BINDER 1
SHIPHANDLING (PART 1)
By Command of the Defence Council
COMMANDER IN CHIEF FLEET
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SPONSOR
This publication sponsored by the Commander in Chief Fleet. All correspondence concerning
this publication is to be forwarded to the Operational Publications Authority:
CINCFLEET/PFSA
Fleet Staff Authors Group
Pepys Building
HMS COLLINGWOOD
FAREHAM
Hampshire
PO14 1AS
Copied to the Sponsor Desk Officer:
| SO1 N7 NAV
| Room 170
| Office of the Commander in Chief Fleet
| West Battery (PP 300)
| Whale Island
| HMS EXCELLENT
| Portsmouth
| Hampshire
| PO2 8DX
Copied to the Subject Matter Specialist:
| SO(N)
| Navigation Section
| Endeavour Building
| Maritime Warfare School
| HMS COLLINGWOOD
| Fareham
| Hampshire
| PO14 1AS
© UK Crown Copyright 2001
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BR 45(6)(1)
PREFACE
The Admiralty Manual of Navigation (BR 45) consists of seven volumes:
Volume 1 is a hard bound book (also supplied in A4 loose leaf from 2002), covering General
Navigation and Pilotage (Position and Direction, Geodesy, Projections, Charts and Publications,
Chartwork, Fixing, Tides and Tidal Streams, Coastal Navigation, Visual and Blind Pilotage,
Navigational Errors, Relative Velocity, Elementary Surveys and Bridge Organisation). This
book is available to the public from The Stationary Office.
Volume 2 is a loose-leaf A4 book covering Astro Navigation (including Time). Chapters 1 to
3 cover the syllabus for officers studying for the Royal Navy ‘Navigational Watch Certificate’
(NWC) and for the Royal Navy ‘n’ Course. (The NWC is equivalent to the certificate awarded
by the Maritime & Coastguard Agency (MCA) to OOWs in the Merchant Service under the
international Standardisation of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW) agreements.)
The remainder of the book covers the detailed theory of astro-navigation for officers studying
for the Royal Navy Specialist ‘N’ Course, but may also be of interest to ‘n’ level officers who
wish to research the subject in greater detail. Volume 2 is not available to the general public,
although it may be released for sale in the future.
Volume 3 is a protectively marked A4 loose-leaf book, covering navigation equipment and
systems (Radio Aids, Satellite Navigation, Direction Finding, Navigational Instruments, Logs
and Echo Sounders, Gyros and Magnetic Compasses, Inertial Navigation Systems, Magnetic
Compasses and De-Gausing, Automated Navigation and Radar Plotting Systems, Electronic
Chart equipment). Volume 3 is not available to the general public.
Volume 4 is a protectively marked loose-leaf A4 book covering conduct and operational methods
at sea (Navigational Command and Conduct of RN ships, passage planning and routeing, and
operational navigation techniques that are of particular concern to the RN). Assistance
(Lifesaving) and Salvage are also included. Volume 4 is not available to the general public.
Volume 5 is a loose-leaf A4 book containing exercises in navigational calculations (Tides and
Tidal Streams, Astro-Navigation, Great Circles and Rhumb Lines, Time Zones, and Relative
Velocity). It also provides extracts from most of the tables necessary to undertake the exercise
calculations. Volume 5 (Supplement) provides worked answers. Volumes 5 and 5 (Supplement)
are not available to the general public, although they may be released for sale in the future.
Volume 6 is supplied in three, loose-leaf A4 binders: the non-protectively marked Binder 1
covering generic principles of shiphandling (Propulsion of RN ships, Handling Ships in Narrow
Waters Manoeuvring and Handling Ships in Company, Replenishment, Towing, Shiphandling
in Heavy Weather and Ice), and the protectively marked Binders 2 and 3 covering all aspects of
class-specific Shiphandling Characteristics of RN Ships / Submarines and RFAs). Turning data |
quoted in Volume 6 is approximate and intended only for overview purposes. Volume 6 is |
not available to the general public, although Binder 1 may be released for sale in the future.
Volume 7 is a protectively marked loose-leaf A4 book covering the management of a chart outfit
(Upkeep, Navigational Warnings, Chronometers and Watches, Portable and Fixed Navigational
Equipment, and Guidance for the Commanding Officer / Navigating Officer). Volume 7 is not
available to the general public.
Note. Terms appearing in italics in newer books are defined in the ‘Glossary’ of each book.
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BR 45(6)(1)
PROPOSALS FOR CHANGES
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Continue on a separate sheet if required
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Forward copies of the above form through the usual Administrative Channels to the addressees
listed on Page ii.
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BR 45(6)(1)
RECORD OF CHANGES: VOLUME 6 - BINDER 1
Notes:
1. The incorporation of Changes for this Binder should be recorded below. Changes for
other Volume 6 Binders are issued separately and should be recorded in the ‘Record of Changes’
page in the appropriate Binder.
2. The incorporation of Temporary Amendments such as signals, AILs etc should be recorded
on page vi overleaf.
CHANGE DATE SIGNATURE NAME REMARKS

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BR 45(6)(1)
RECORD OF TEMPORARY AMENDMENTS: VOLUME 6 - BINDER 1
Notes. The incorporation of Signals and AILs etc for this Binder should be recorded below.
Temporary amendments for other Volume 6 Binders are issued separately and should be
recorded in the ‘Record of Temporary Amendments’ page in the appropriate Binder.
REFERENCE DATE SIGNATURE NAME REMARKS

NO. INSERTED
vi
Original
BR 45(6)(1)
CONTENTS - VOLUME 6 (BINDERS 1-3)

(This list contains the contents all 5 Parts of Volume 6, included in Binders 1-3)
CONTENTS - VOLUME 6 (BINDER 1)

PART 1 - GENERIC PRINCIPLES OF SHIPHANDLING
Chapter 1 The Propulsion and Steering of RN Warships

Section 1 External Forces Acting on a Ship
Section 2 Propeller Systems
Section 3 Rudders - Theory of Operation
Section 4 Turning Circles and Turning Trials
Section 5 Acceleration, Deceleration and Speed
Section 6 Propulsion Systems
Section 7 Steering Systems and Controls
Section 8 Conning and Control Orders
Annex A Ships Staff Turning and Acceleration / Deceleration Trials
Annex B Report of Turning and Acceleration / Deceleration Trials
Chapter 2 Principles of Interaction

Annex A Shallow Water Effect Onset Depths during RAS
Annex B RFA Light, Medium and Deep Condition Displacement Ranges
Chapter 3 Handling Ships in Confined Waters

Section 1 Preparations, Practice and Conning for Shiphandling
Section 2 Turning in a Confined Space
Section 3 Berthing Alongside and Leaving a Jetty
Section 4 Berthing Stern-to and Alongside with Anchors
Section 5 Use of Tugs in Shiphandling
Section 6 Breakwaters, Locks, Canals and Rivers
Section 7 Anchoring and Buoywork
Section 8 Wake Waves (Also Known as Wash)
Section 9 Unexpected Events and Unconventional Methods
Annex A Wind Forces on RN Warships and RFAs
Annex B Tidal Stream / Current Forces on RN Warships and RFAs
Chapter 4 Shiphandling in Company

Section 1 Station Keeping
Section 2 Taking Up and Changing Station (OOW Manoeuvres)
Section 3 Anchoring in Formation
Section 4 Taking up and Changing Station
Section 5 Emergency Action in Close Company
Chapter 5 Replenishment, Towing and Man-Overboard

Section 1 Replenishment at Sea (RAS)
Section 2 Towing at Sea
Section 3 Recovery of Man-Overboard
Annex A Recommended Safe Towing Pulls and Speeds for Emergency Use
Annex B Speed and Sea State Limitations for Operating Seaboats
vii
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BR 45(6)(1)
(VOLUME 6 BINDER 1) - PART 1 (continued)
Chapter 6 Waves, Wind and Heavy Weather

Section 1 Waves and Wind
Section 2 Effect of Weather on Ship and Crew
Section 3 Shiphandling in Heavy Weather (including Helo Ops)
Section 4 Tropical Storms (Hurricanes, Typhoons etc)
Annex A Wind and Formation of Wave Data
Annex B Internal Waves
Chapter 7 Handling Ships In or Near Ice

Section 1 General Ice Work
Section 2 Thin Skinned Ships in Ice
Section 3 Ice Accumulation
Chapter 8 Shiphandling for ‘Assistance’ and ‘Salvage’
Chapter 9 Spare
viii
Original
BR 45(6)(1)
PART 2 - CLASS-SPECIFIC SHIPHANDLING CHARACTERISTICS:

CAPITAL, MAJOR AND MINOR WARSHIPS (SURFACE)
Chapter 10 CVS - INVINCIBLE Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Section 1 Propulsion, Steering and Conning
Section 2 Shiphandling
Chapter 11 LHD - OCEAN Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 12 LPD - ALBION & FEARLESS Classes - Shiphandling Characteristics

Section 1 Propulsion, Steering and Conning (ALBION Class)
Section 2 Shiphandling (ALBION Class)
Section 3 Propulsion, Steering and Conning (FEARLESS Class)
Section 4 Shiphandling (FEARLESS Class)
Chapter 13 FFGH - T22 - Shiphandling Characteristics

Annex A Propulsion Orders and Actions in Bridge Control in the T22
Annex B Propulsion Orders and Actions in SCC Control in the T22
Chapter 14 FFGH - T23 - Shiphandling Characteristics

Annex A Type 23 Dimensions, Layout, Equipment and Performance
Annex B Type 23 Engine Change-Over Control Orders
Chapter 15 DDGH - T42 - Shiphandling Characteristics

Annex A Propulsion Orders and Actions in Bridge Control in the T42
Annex B Propulsion Orders and Actions in MCR Control in the T42
Chapter 16 DDGH - T45 - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 17 MSHC - HUNT Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 18 MHC - SANDOWN Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

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Original
BR 45(6)(1)
(VOLUME 6 - BINDER 2) PART 2 (continued)
Chapter 19 PG - RIVER & ISLAND Classes (OPV) - Shiphandling Characteristics

Section 1 Propulsion, Steering and Conning (RIVER Class)
Section 2 Shiphandling (RIVER Class)
Section 3 Propulsion, Steering and Conning (ISLAND Class)
Section 4 Shiphandling (ISLAND Class)
Chapter 20 PG - CASTLE Class (OPV) - Shiphandling Characteristics

Annex A Starting, Selecting and Changing Control of Main Engines
Annex B Castle Class Propulsion Orders and Actions in Bridge Control
Annex C Castle Class Propulsion Orders and Actions in MCR Control
Chapter 21 PBR - ARCHER Class (P2000) Shiphandling Characteristics

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BR 45(6)(1)
PART 3 - CLASS-SPECIFIC SHIPHANDLING CHARACTERISTICS: SUBMARINES
Chapter 30 SSGN - S & T Classes - Shiphandling Characteristics

Section 2 Surfaced Shiphandling
Chapter 31 SSGN - ASTUTE Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 32 SSBN - VANGUARD Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapters 33-39 Spare
PART 4 - CLASS-SPECIFIC SHIPHANDLING CHARACTERISTICS: SURVEY SHIPS
Chapter 40 AGSA - HMS ENDURANCE - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 41 AGS - HMS SCOTT - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 42 AGS - ECHO Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapters 43-49 Spare
PART 5 - CLASS-SPECIFIC SHIPHANDLING CHARACTERISTICS: RFAs
Chapter 50 AG - RFA ARGUS - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 51 AR - RFA DILIGENCE - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 52 AFS - FORT ROSALIE Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

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BR 45(6)(1)
VOLUME 6 (BINDER 3) - PART 5 (continued)
Chapter 53 AOR - FORT VICTORIA Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 54 AO - APPLELEAF Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 55 AO - RFA OAKLEAF - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 56 AORL - ROVER Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

| Chapter 57 AK - ‘POINT’ and SEA’ Classes - Shiphandling Characteristics

| Section 1 Propulsion, Steering and Conning (POINT Class)
| Section 2 Shiphandling (POINT Class)
Section 3 Propulsion, Steering and Conning (RFA SEA CRUSADER)
Section 4 Shiphandling (RFA SEA CRUSADER)
| Section 5 Propulsion, Steering and Conning (RFA SEA CENTURION)
| Section 6 Shiphandling (RFA SEA CENTURION)
Chapter 58 LSL - ‘SIR’ Classes - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 59 LSL - BAY Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 60 AO - WAVE Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

APPENDICES, GLOSSARY, INDEX AND LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES
Appendix 1 Table of Masthead Heights (Common to all Binders)
Index-Glossary Index-Glossary of Terms (Common to all Binders)
LEP List of Effective Pages (Individual to each Binder)
xii
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BR 45(6)(1)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND COPYRIGHT (VOLUME 6, BINDERS 1-3)
Captain J F Thomson
Thanks are due to Captain J F Thomson for his kind permission to reproduce
photographs of a ship in Force 12 conditions (Figures 0-1, 6-8 and 6-9). Further reproduction
of these photographs is not permitted without the prior written permission of Captain J F
Thomson. Applications for permission should be addressed in the first instance to
CINCFLEET/PFSA at the address shown on Page ii; any such applications will be forwarded to
Captain Thomson.
Lieutenant Commander A S Peacock Royal Navy

Thanks are due to Lieutenant Commander A S Peacock Royal Navy for his kind
permission to reproduce photographs of ice in the Antarctic at Chapter 7. Further reproduction
of these photographs is not permitted without the prior written permission of Lieutenant
Commander Peacock. Applications for permission should be addressed in the first instance to
CINCFLEET / PFSA at the address shown on Page ii; any such applications will be forwarded
to Lieutenant Commander Peacock. |
|
Mr L Purkiss |
Thanks are due to Mr L Purkiss for his kind permission to reproduce photographs at |
Figs19-13 and 19-14. Further reproduction of these photographs is not permitted without the |
prior written permission of Mr Purkiss. Applications for permission should be addressed in the |
first instance to CINCFLEET / PFSA at the address shown on Page ii; any such applications will |
be forwarded to Mr Purkiss. |
Earthwatch®
Thanks are due to Earthwatch® for their kind permission to reproduce the satellite
photograph of Hurricane Floyd at Fig 6-12, which was supplied through the internet website
http://www.earthwatch.com. The following copyright restrictions by Earthwatch® apply to
further reproduction of this photograph from their website:
• Copyright Notice. Copyright is owned by: ‘Copyright 1995-2000 Digital
Cyclone Inc, 5125 County Road 101 Suite 300 Minnetonka, MN 55345’.
• Permission Notice. ‘Permission to use, copy and distribute documents and
related graphics available from this World Wide Web server (“Server”) is
granted, provided that (1) the above copyright notice appears in all copies and
that both the copyright notice and this permission appear, (2) use of documents
and related graphics available from this Server is for informational and non-
commercial purposes only, (3) no documents or related graphics available from
this Server are modified in any way, and (4) no graphics available from this
server are used copied or distributed separate from accompanying text without
written permission from Digital Cyclone Inc. Any rights not expressly granted
herein are reserved by Digital Cyclone Inc.’
General
BR 45 Volume 6 is MOD copyright and further reproduction is not permitted without
the prior written permission of CINCFLEET/PFSA at the address shown on Page ii.
xiii
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BR 45(6)(1)
Fig 0-1. Lest we forget......
xiv
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BR 45(6)
THE PROPULSION AND STEERING OF RN WARSHIPS
CHAPTER 1
CONTENTS
Para
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0101
Stabilisers and Other Roll Damping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0102
Tonnages - Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0103
SECTION 1 - EXTERNAL FORCES ACTING ON A SHIP
The Bernoulli Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0110

Flow Around a Ship - The Boundary Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0111
Separation of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0112
Yaw and Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0113
Virtual Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0114
SECTION 2 - PROPELLER SYSTEMS
Design of Propellers (Lift, Drag, Vibration & Cavitation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0120

Propellers - Fore and Aft Forces (Lift) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0121
Propellers - Athwartships Forces (Paddlewheel, Pressure &Suction, Wash, Thrust) . . 0122
Bow Thrusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0123
Turning Action in a Ship Fitted with a Single Propeller (FPP and CPP) . . . . . . . . . . . 0124
Turning Action in a Ship Fitted with Twin Propellers (FPPs and CPPs) . . . . . . . . . . . 0125
Voith-Schneider Propulsion (VSP) Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0126
Azimuthing Propulsion Systems (‘Z Drives’ and ‘Azipods’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0127
Water Jet Propulsion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0128
Submarine Propulsion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0129
SECTION 3 - THEORY OF RUDDERS, PIVOT POINT AND WIND SHEER
Principles of Rudder Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0130

Types of Rudder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0131
The Effect of Water Flow on Rudder Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0132
Forces Acting on a Ship to Make it Turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0133
Control by the Rudder, Hull Lift Force and Hull Drag Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0134
Design Factors for Directional Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0135
Turning and Directional Stability in Shallow Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0136
Turning Circle, Centre of Gravity, Drift Angle and Pivoting Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0137
Movement of the Pivot Point and Wind Sheer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0138
Heel When Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0139
SECTION 4 - TURNING CIRCLES AND TURNING TRIALS
Turning Circle and Manoeuvring Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0140

The Effect of Hull, Rudder and Propulsion on Turning Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0141
The Effect of Draught, Trim and List on Turning Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0142
First of Class Turning Trials and Provision of Manoeuvring Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0143
1-1
Original
BR 45(6)
SECTION 5 - ACCELERATION, DECELERATION AND SPEED

Para
Factors Affecting Gain and Loss of Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0150
Gain and Loss of Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0151
Factors Affecting Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0152
Acceleration / Deceleration Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0153
SECTION 6 - PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Summary of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0160

Steam Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0161
Marine Gas Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0162
Marine Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0163
Arrangement of Diesel and Gas Turbine Engines in RN Warships / RFAs . . . . . . . 0164
Summary of Propulsion Configurations in RN Warships / Submarines and RFAs . . 0165
SECTION 7 - STEERING SYSTEMS AND CONTROLS
Electro-Hydraulic Steering Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0170

Operation of the Electro-Hydraulic Steering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0171
Manual (Hand) Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0172
Automatic Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0173
Emergency and Override Selection of Steering Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0174
Steering by Main Engines (with Hand Pump) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0175
SECTION 8 - CONNING AND CONTROL ORDERS
Giving Conning Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0180

Manual (Hand) Steering Conning Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0181
Automatic (Auto-Pilot) Steering Conning Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0182
Tactical Conning / Control Orders and OOW Veto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0183
Propulsion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0184
Propulsion Conning Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0185
Propulsion Conning Orders when in Bridge Control - General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0186
Propulsion Conning Orders when in MCR/SCC Control- General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0187
Generic Starting-Up Procedure for Gas-Turbine Fitted Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0188
Shaft Brake Orders - General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0189
ANNEXES
Annex A: Ship’s Staff Turning and Acceleration / Deceleration Trials

Annex B: Report of Turning and Acceleration / Deceleration Trials
1-2
Original
BR 45(6)
CHAPTER 1
0101. Introduction
This chapter explains the various forces on the hull produced by the ship’s movement
through the water, and how the propellers and rudders develop and control thrusts. This includes
descriptions of the various types of propulsion and steering systems fitted in RN warships,
together with the methods of controlling them. Class-specific information on the use of these
systems for shiphandling are at Parts 2-5 of this book.
0102. Stabilisers and Other Roll Damping Systems

Information on Stabilisers / Roll Damping Systems and their effects are at Para 0624.
0103. Tonnages - Definitions

A variety of measurements for tonnage are used for ships it is important to apply the
correct one for the purpose in hand. Commonly used terms and simplified definitions are:
• Displacement - Light. This is the weight of water displaced by the ship without
fuel, water or ammunition, and in RFAs / Merships without cargo.
• Displacement - Standard. This is the weight of water displaced by a warship and
its crew, with stores, ammunition and fresh water, but without fuel.
• Displacement - Full. This is the weight of water displaced by the ship when fully
crewed, ammunitioned, stored, fuelled, watered, with systems wet and water ballast
tanks full. (RFAs / Merships only: cargo embarked to Summer Load Line draught).
• Gross Tonnage. Traditionally, this was the volume within the hull and enclosed |
spaces above the deck, available for cargo, stores, passengers and crew with 100
cubic feet of capacity equating to 1 Gross Ton. Methods of measuring Gross
Tonnage varied according to national regulations and in 1982, new IMO
international regulations came into force deriving Gross Tonnage from the moulded
volume of the enclosed spaces in the ship. Gross Tonnage is used for comparing the
sizes of ships and most safety regulations are based on it.
• Net Tonnage. Traditionally, this was the Gross Tonnage after deduction of spaces |
used for the crew accommodation, navigation equipment, machinery and fuel. In
1982, new IMO regulations came into force deriving Net Tonnage from the volume
of cargo spaces, number of passengers carried, the moulded depth of the ship and
the Summer Load Line draught. Net Tonnage is used to assess a ship’s earning
capacity and is often used to assess dues and charges.
• Deadweight Tonnage. This is the difference between the Light Displacement |
tonnage and the Full Displacement tonnage (ie weight of fuel, water ammunition
and cargo).
• Suez and Panama Canal Tonnage. The canal authorities have their own rules for
measuring Gross and Net Tonnages. Canal charges are based on these figures.
0104-0109. Spare
1-3
Change 1
BR 45(6)
SECTION 1 - EXTERNAL FORCES ACTING ON A SHIP
0110. The Bernoulli Phenomenon
a. Link between Pressure and Velocity of a Fluid. In the 18th century, Bernoulli
demonstrated that when the Velocity of a stream of moving fluid increased, the Pressure
decreased. This became known as the Bernoulli Phenomenon and is experienced
wherever a fluid flow is constricted by a solid object. The effect of the Bernoulli
Phenomenon can be observed in any stream or river, where the water passing through a
more constricted (shallow or narrow) section clearly flows faster than the water in the
rest of the stream or river. This ‘speeding up’ of the water is very noticeable when a river
flows over rapids, although it is not so obvious that the Pressure of the water is reduced.
Bernoulli also established the Pressure (P) of the flow varies inversely with the square
of its Velocity (V), ie:
b. Application of the Bernoulli Phenomenon. The reduction in Pressure (ie higher

Suction) noted by Bernoulli, wherever the flow of water past any part of the ship is
constricted or deflected, causes Lift towards the area of lower Pressure (higher Suction);
this may be represented by streamlines becoming closer together. The reverse is also true
and areas of higher Pressure (lower Suction) occur where the streamlines widen out.
Propeller blades and rudders employ this to give thrust in the desired direction, its effect
on the hull of a ship produces a powerful turning force to assist altering course, and it
keeps ships apart when replenishing. However, it also causes Interaction and Squat to
occur (see Chapter 2); it is helpful to note from the Bernoulli Phenomenon equation
that, as Pressure is inversely proportional to the square of ship’s Velocity, halving
the ship’s speed will increase Pressure by 4 times and thus DECREASE Suction (ie
Interaction and Squat effects) by 4 times. The principles of the Bernoulli Phenomenon
apply widely in shiphandling and shiphandlers must be keenly aware of all the
circumstances when it may affect the behaviour of the ship.
0111. Flow Around a Ship - The Boundary Layer
a. Viscosity and the Boundary Layer. All fluids are viscous to a greater or lesser
extent. With sea water, this viscosity slows down the flow close to the hull of a ship
under way. The effect can be visualised by regarding the volume of water near the ship
as a series of thin layers. These layers slide past each other at progressively decreasing
speeds until there is zero Velocity in the layer touching the hull. Collectively this area
of decreasing velocities of water flow is known as the Boundary Layer.
b. Laminar and Turbulent Flows. The Boundary Layer around most ships underway
extends about 1 metre from the hull. The flow in the Boundary Layer takes two forms:
• Laminar Flow, in which the successive layers of different Velocity move
smoothly over each other
• Turbulent Flow, in which the sliding motion breaks up into eddies.
The Boundary Layer around a moving ship starts with Laminar Flow at the bow and
progressively develops turbulence as it moves aft until, at the stern, it consists largely of
Turbulent Flow. The Boundary Layer itself acts on the flow of water around it as if it
were an enlargement of the hull.
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c. Form Drag. The effect of the Boundary Layer on the Flow Stream Lines is shown
at Fig 1-1. Because the Boundary Layer is wider at the stern than on the bow, the Flow
Stream Lines outside it are pressed closer together aft. The result is that the Longitudinal
Pressure force from aft (F2) is smaller than the contrary Longitudinal Pressure force
from forward (F1). The resultant of these two forces is known as Form Drag (sometimes
abbreviated to ‘Drag’). In a well designed ship, Form Drag should be a small force.
Fig 1-1. Flow Stream Lines Around a Ship Underway, Boundary Layer,
Longitudinal Pressures and Separation of Flow
0112. Separation of Flow

When water moving down the hull reaches the stern, the flow pattern breaks down. As
the ship’s hull becomes narrower, Flow Stream Lines outside the Boundary Layer diverge and
the water speed drops. At the same time, inside the Boundary Layer, Turbulent Flow also slows
down the water speed. The combination of these two effects is to thicken the Boundary Layer
abruptly and make the Flow Stream Lines outside it flow directly astern instead of converging.
Within the Boundary Layer there is a volume of eddies which persist as a turbulent wake. A
breakdown of flow of this sort is known as Separation of Flow (see Fig 1-1 above). See Para
0132 for the effect of Separation of Flow on ship design to achieve good steering characteristics.
0113. Yaw and Drift

Angular disturbance from the mean course of a ship in the horizontal plane is called Yaw
or Drift. These quantities are angles, not rates, and their effect is explained at Section 3.
0114. Virtual Mass

Virtual Mass is a hydrodynamic property of a solid body moving in a fluid, and
especially in shallow water, its effect may alter the handling characteristics of a ship
considerably. The Kinetic Energy of a ship of Mass M moving at Velocity V is equal to ½MV2.
However, in accelerating the ship to this Velocity, propulsion power has also to be used in getting
a considerable Mass of water moving by skin friction, wave generation and other effects. This
whole ship/water system, which is known as the Virtual Mass, may be given a hypothetical Mass
of M1 and its Kinetic Energy can thus be expressed as ½M1V2. Given that M1 is by definition
greater than M, it can be seen that more energy has to be expended to accelerate or decelerate to
or from a given Velocity than that required for the Mass of the ship alone. This effect may
become noticeable in shallow waters (see Para 0206) and is also relevant in the initial phase of
Towing operations at sea in deep water (see Para 0526).
0115–0119. Spare
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SECTION 2 - PROPELLER SYSTEMS
0120. Design of Propellers (Lift, Drag, Vibration & Cavitation)
a. Lift and Drag Components. The two forces of Lift and Drag bear at right angles
to each other on any asymmetrical blade immersed in a fluid flow: this applies to both
propellers and rudders. The asymmetrical properties of any blade may either be the
result of it being at an angle to the direction of flow or because each side of the blade has
a different shape. Rotating a propeller through the water creates a flow past each blade,
which, because of its asymmetrical properties, creates an area of high pressure on one
side and low pressure on the other. This produces a Lift force normal to the average flow
across the blade (and thus in a fore-and-aft direction in a well designed blade) to propel
a vessel ahead or astern, and Drag force (resistance) along the flow (and thus in an
athwartships direction, at right angles to Lift). See Paras 0120d and 0120e for further
details of these forces and their applications.
b. Vibration. The design of a basic Elliptical propeller (see Fig 1-2) may be modified
to reduce Vibration. The propeller has to act in the turbulent area of the wake of a ship,
where the direction and Velocity of flow varies considerably at different water levels.
This results in transient increases and decreases of force on the propeller blade as it
rotates, particularly as it passes through the Wake Shadow behind the stern-post or ‘A’
brackets. Continuously changing forces on the blade cause Vibration in the propeller
which is transmitted to the hull through the shaft. In order to overcome Vibration, some
warships and most submarines have propellers with the blades swept back or Skewed
(see Fig 1-2). This design feature permits the blade to pass through the Wake Shadow
progressively and so avoid sudden changes in pressure during rotation. A similar result
may be obtained by fitting a propeller with Raked blades (see Fig 1-2). These are often
fitted to merchant ships to increase the distance between the blade tips and the stern-post
to reduce the fluctuations of the Wake Shadow.
Fig 1-2. Shapes of Elliptical, Skewed and Raked Propeller Blades
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c. Cavitation. Water boils more readily at low pressures. The low pressure area of
a propeller blade is on the side towards which the ship is moving. If the speed of rotation
is increased, the Velocity of flow may eventually reduce the pressure to the point where
air bubbles boil off the water, collect at the edges of the blades and then burst as they are
collapsed by the high pressure behind the blade. This is known as Cavitation. The
bursting bubbles create noise and erode parts of the blade onto which they impinge.
Cavitation is an indication that the propeller is producing too much force from areas of
the propeller blades. Most warships are now fitted with five-bladed propellers to increase
the Lift surface as much as possible while obtaining the greatest thrust, without over-
loading any particular area of the blade and so risking Cavitation.
d. Lift (Fore and Aft Thrust). Since the propeller provides the propulsion force to
drive a ship ahead or astern, each propeller blade must be designed to produce a Lift
force in the fore and aft direction as the propeller rotates (see Para 0120a). To do this,
the Velocity of flow across one side of the blade must be speeded up and the Velocity on
the other side slowed down to produce a difference in Pressure, as shown by the spacing
of Flow Stream Lines at Fig 1-3. The direction of the resultant force may be altered by
either reversing the Pitch or changing the direction of rotation, depending on whether it
is a Controlled Pitch Propeller (CPP) or a Fixed Pitch Propeller (FPP). Further details
of CPP and FPP systems are at Para 0121.
Fig 1-3. Lift and Drag Forces on a Propeller Blade
e. Drag (Athwartships). If there is a smooth, undisturbed flow of water through the

disc of the propeller, the Drag (see Para 0120a) on the lower blades counteracts the Drag
on the upper blades and there is no resultant athwartships (sideways) force. However,
Wake Shadow, Turbulent Flow in the Separation of Flow area and obstruction of smooth
flow by the rudder, all distort the flow and cause various sideways forces to act on the
ship when its propeller(s) are rotating. The following different sideways effects are
produced: ‘Paddlewheel Effect’, ‘Pressure and Suction’ and ‘Lateral Wash’. In addition,
in a twin propeller ship, if one shaft is put ahead and the other astern there is a
mechanical ‘Turning Moment’ exerted on the ships’ Thrust Blocks. While this Turning
Moment has nothing to do with the fluid dynamics of the propeller, the effect must be
taken into account, especially in ships with widely spaced shafts. These four athwartships
(sideways) effects are particularly important when attempting to Turn at Rest or when
manoeuvring the ship at slow speed. Further details of these effects are at Para 0122.
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0121. Propellers - Fore and Aft Forces (Lift)
a. Number and Position of Propellers. Since there is a limit to the thrust that can be
obtained from a given size of propeller without inducing Cavitation (see Para 0120c),
the number of propellers fitted depends upon the maximum propulsion power required,
taking machinery size, weight, economy and manoeuvrability into account. To provide
powerful thrust and high manoeuvrability, the majority of RN warships have two
propellers, although nuclear submarines, some survey ships, some smaller warships and
most RFAS have single propellers. To provide propulsion power, a variety of engines
of different type and power are coupled to the propeller shafts either through clutches or
electric drive. See Parts 2-5. for individual details by class.
b. Summary of Propulsion Systems.

(1) Conventional Propellers. Conventional propellers are of two types: Fixed
Pitch Propellers (FPP) and Controlled Pitch Propellers (CPP). Conventional
propellers rotate in the vertical or nearly vertical plane, and the direction of rotation
is described as Right-handed or Left-handed. A Right-handed propeller turns in a
clockwise direction when viewed from aft, that is to say the blade at the top of the
cycle moves to the right, and a Left-handed propeller turns counter-clockwise with
the top blade moving to the left. Further details on propellers are at Para 0121c-d.
(2) Specialised Propulsion Systems. There are also some more specialised types
of propulsion systems, of which the Bow Thruster (Para 0123), the Voith-Schneider
(Vertical Axis or Cycloidal) propeller (Para 0126), Stern Azimuth Drive (Z Drive)
and Azipod (Para 0127), and Water Jet (Para 0128) are of interest to the RN.
c. Fixed Pitch Propellers (FPP). The blades and the boss of a Fixed Pitch Propeller
(FPP) are made as one solid unit and the blades are set at a fixed angle. As it is not
possible to alter the Pitch of the blades, a FPP must rotate in the opposite direction when
astern thrust is required. This requires a reversing gearbox (eg INVINCIBLE class), or
a separate astern turbine (eg nuclear submarines), or electric motors that can put the shaft
into reverse (eg DUKE class). The only way of increasing or decreasing the thrust of an
FPP is by altering the speed of rotation. Single FPPs fitted to RN warships are all
Right-handed. Twin FPPs in RN warships always turn outwards when going ahead; the
port is Left-handed and the starboard. This ensures maximum lateral turning forces
when Turning at Rest.
d. Controlled Pitch Propellers (CPP). To change a Controlled Pitch Propeller

(CPP) from propulsion ahead to propulsion astern, the blades are rotated in the hub from
ahead-Pitch to astern-Pitch while the propeller continues to revolve in the same
direction. Changes in Pitch are carried out by pumping actuating oil to the propeller hub
through tubes inside the propeller shaft. Once the blades are set at maximum Pitch, more
thrust is obtained by increasing shaft revolutions with greater engine power. The single
CPP fitted in the ISLAND and ROVER classes is Left-handed, but some other RFAs (eg
OAKLEAF) have a right handed CPP. Twin CPPs fitted in RN warships always turn
inwards (ahead and astern); the port is Right-handed and the starboard Left-handed. This
focusses the wake and increases the effectiveness of the rudders. The lateral forces from
the astern propeller help a turn but are cancelled by the other propeller going ahead
unless unbalanced power is used. The propeller is stopped by applying the Shaft Brake.
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0122. Propellers - Athwartships Forces (Paddlewheel, Pressure & Suction, Wash, Thrust)
An outline of Drag (athwartships) forces was given at Para 0120e. Details of its effect
in the form of ‘Paddlewheel Effect’, ‘Pressure and Suction’ and ‘Lateral Wash’ are explained
below, together with the mechanical ‘Turning Moment’ experienced in a twin propeller ship, if
one shaft is put ahead and the other astern.
Note. Although a fully immersed propeller does not equate to a half immersed ‘Paddlewheel’,
the term ‘Paddlewheel Effect’ has been used for a long time in the RN as a convenient analogy
and means of remembering the direction in which this particular propeller effect will move the
stern. However, the analogy is not an exact explanation.
a. Paddlewheel Effect - ‘Going Astern’. The results of Paddlewheel Effect are most
significant when applying astern power (ie ‘going astern’) on one propeller, Turning at
Rest or manoeuvring into a berth. The water flow through the propeller disc of a single
propeller ‘going astern’ is asymmetrical. As shown in Fig 1-4, when rotating in an anti-
clockwise direction astern, the top blades produce a flow forwards and to port which will
meet the A-bracket and the plates on the stern to exert a force to port. The bottom blades
produce a flow forward and to starboard, but this flow is not so obstructed, as some
passes under the keel and some impinges on only the finer lines of the hull. The
resultant is a force that tends to push the stern to port. The direction of rotation is the
significant factor and it makes no difference whether it is a FPP or a CPP.
Fig 1-4. Paddlewheel Effect on a Propeller ‘Going Astern’, Anti-Clockwise
b. Paddlewheel Effect - ‘Going Ahead’. The results of Paddlewheel Effect are less
significant when ‘going ahead’ (ie developing thrust that will take the ship ahead), as this
tends to be the time when the ship is rapidly gaining headway and thus directional
stability, led by the bow. In addition, with twin propeller ships, very often both
propellers are put ahead in these circumstances and so the effects cancel. However
in a Right-handed single propeller ship ‘going ahead’ from rest, unless the rudder is
used, the stern kicks noticeably to starboard until headway has built up, because:
(1) On first ‘Going Ahead’. On first ‘going ahead’, the presence of the hull and
free surface obstructs the flow of water over the top blades, causing them to ‘Stall’
in the uneven flow, and so reducing their sideways thrust. At the same time, the
lower blades work without Stalling and deliver their normal sideways thrust. The
result in a Right-handed single propeller ship is for the stern to kick to starboard.
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(0122) (2) On Gathering Headway. As the ship gathers headway, the axial flow through
the propeller disc increases and the Stall on the upper blades stops. As a result, the
tendency for the stern of a Right-handed single propeller ship to kick to starboard
diminishes. Then, when the ship is fully under way, the propeller race exerts
opposing, but unequal, lateral forces on the top and bottom of the rudder when it is
held amidships. A ship with a single propeller, therefore, has a tendency to move
in a particular direction at cruising speed and will have to carry a small amount of
wheel to compensate.
c. ‘Pressure and Suction’. ‘Pressure and Suction’ applies only to ships with two
propellers. When one propeller is going ahead and the other astern, the propeller going
ahead draws water away from the hull and the propeller going astern forces water
forward on to the hull (see Fig 1-5). This causes a difference in pressure between each
side of the after part of the ship to produce a sideways force to push the stern towards the
side of the propeller ‘going ahead’. Since this effect depends on the fore-and-aft
movement of water, the direction of rotation of the propellers is immaterial.
Fig 1-5. Effect of Pressure and Suction on a Ship with Two Propellers
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(0122) d. Lateral Wash. When a ship with two propellers is Turning at Rest, some of the
flow is thrown out laterally against the hull. If the propellers are turning in the same
direction, as they will be when a ship with FPPs is ‘going ahead and astern’, Lateral
Wash will help turn the ship in by moving the stern towards the ahead going propeller.
With inward turning CPP propellers there will be no resultant turning force from Lateral
Wash. A ship with CPPs will only feel the effect of Lateral Wash when one propeller
is stopped or its power differs considerably from that of the other propeller.
Fig 1-6. The Effect of Lateral Wash on a Ship Going ‘Ahead and Astern’
e. Mechanical ‘Turning Moment’ from Shaft Thrust. The inboard end of the
propeller shafts transfer their thrust to the ship’s hull via the Thrust Blocks. In a ship
with twin propellers, one propeller going ahead and the other astern produces a Couple,
as a shaft-thrust Turning Moment on the Thrust Blocks that tends to turn the ship.
However, because warships are narrow beamed, their shafts have of necessity to be close
together and the effect of the shaft-thrust Turning Moment is small compared to the
propeller effects described at Para 0122 a-d above.
0123. Bow Thrusters

Bow Thrusters are fitted in some RN warships and RFAs for precise manoeuvring. A
Bow Thruster consists of one or more propellers or Water Jets (see Para 0128) mounted in
athwartships tunnel(s) near the bow. The propellers or Water Jets generate a flow of water to
push the bow in the required direction. Some Bow Thrusters are fitted with CPPs or reversing
FPPs, and others have two separately driven propellers to produce flows to port or starboard as
required. Most Bow Thrusters are only effective when the ship has little or no head/stern way
and have virtually no effect at forward speeds above 4 knots.
Fig 1-7. Simplified Diagram of Basic Bow Thruster Arrangement
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0124. Turning Action in a Ship Fitted with a Single Propeller (FPP and CPP)
a. Application of Astern Power. The strong Paddlewheel Effect from ‘going astern’
is the most significant factor when it comes to turning a ship with a single propeller. On
‘going astern’, a single Right-handed, Fixed-Pitch Propeller (FPP) will take the stern
to port when it starts rotating to the left (see Fig1-8 below). A single Left-handed
Controlled Pitch Propeller (CPP) with astern Pitch set (eg ISLAND Class) will also
take the stern to port. Once astern power in applied and the flow of water over the
rudder is confused, the rudder has no effect until a ship has gathered a considerable
amount of sternway. The direction in which the stern ‘kicks’ when the propulsion
is put astern is the dominant factor to take into consideration when deciding how
to turn a ship with one propeller in a limited space. The Pivot Point moves aft when
astern power is applied (see Fig 1-8) and this enhances the rate of turn when making
sternway. Further details on the effect of Pivot Point movements are at Para 0137-0138.
Fig 1-8. Turning Effect from a Single Right Handed FPP ‘Going Astern’
b. Application of Ahead Power. On going ahead from stopped, a single Right-handed

FPP will take the stern to starboard (bow to port). A single Left-handed CPP (eg
ISLAND Class), will take the stern to port (bow to starboard) if the ship is stopped in
the water and ahead Pitch is set. An SSGN / SSBN’s single Propulsor has the same
effect (ie take the stern to port (bow to starboard). However these effects can be
counteracted by applying appropriate opposite rudder and to take advantage of the
slipstream of the propeller to produce Turning Moment, even if the ship has no headway.
In order to make the best use of the rudder in this propeller slipstream, it is often
helpful to apply plenty of ahead power when the ship is stopped or making
sternway, and ease the power back as the ship gathers headway and the rudder is
in a normal flow of water. The tendency to turn to port or starboard will decrease as
the ship gathers headway but some ships may continue to carry a small amount of wheel
even at full cruising speed.
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0125. Turning Action in a Ship Fitted with Twin Propellers (FPPs and CPPs)
a. Twin Fixed Pitch Propellers (FPP). Twin FPPs fitted in RN warships rotate
outwards in opposite directions when going ahead (Para 0121). This has the advantage
that, when one propeller is put ahead and the other astern, Paddlewheel Effect, ‘Pressure
and Suction’, Lateral Wash and the shaft thrust Turning Moment (see Para 0122) all
work in the same direction to assist the turn. A ship so fitted will therefore Turn at Rest
quite readily in the direction indicated by the small shaft-thrust Couple. However if a
small amount of headway is maintained, the rate of turn is enhanced due to the forward
movement of the Pivot Point (see Paras 0137-0138).
b. Twin Controlled Pitch Propellers (CPP). The propellers in RN warships fitted

with twin CPPs rotate inwards, in opposite directions all the time, unless the Shaft Brake
is applied (Para 0121). Thus the Paddlewheel Effect and Lateral Wash (see Para 0122)
from one propeller counteract those from the other propeller and no resultant turning
force is produced when power on both propellers is the same, irrespective of whether
Pitch is ahead or astern. Since ‘Pressure and Suction’ and the shaft thrust Turning
Moment (see Para 0122) only generate very small turning forces, a ship with CPPs (see
Fig 1-9) is hard to Turn at Rest, but the following strategies can be employed:
• If power astern can be increased above power ahead, favourable Paddlewheel
Effect and Lateral Wash will be produced. This will help turn the ship, but at
the expense of losing rudder effect and potentially gathering sternway; such
action may be constrained by the room available to manoeuvre.
• When using ahead power, the accelerated wash of the ahead-going propellers
over the rudders help the turn. With both CPPs put ahead the sideways forces
cancel, but if one CPP is put ahead at high power and the other astern at low
power, Paddlewheel Effect and Lateral Wash hinder the turn.
• If a small amount of headway is maintained, the rate of turn is enhanced due
to the forward movement of the Pivot Point. Further details on the effect of
Pivot Point movement are at Para 0137-0138.
Fig 1-9. Turning Forces with a Ship with Twin CPPs at Equal Power, at Rest
(Port Ahead, Starboard Astern)
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0126. Voith-Schneider Propulsion (VSP) Units

Twin Voith-Schneider Propulsion (VSP) units are fitted in SANDOWN class MHCs and
in ADEPT class tugs; FELICITY and TRITON class tugs have a single VSP unit. These VSP
units have five vertically mounted blades (Fig 1-10) projecting from a Carousel (circular rotor-
casing housing the pivots / control linkage for each blade). The Carousel is fitted flush with the
hull and rotates at a constant speed. In tugs, the vertical blades are protected by a frame which
can support the vessel in dry-dock and a Skeg is fitted aft. The angle of attack of each blade
changes while the Carousel rotates and depending how the controls are set, the unit will develop
thrust in any direction. Vessels with VSP units are highly manoeuvrable and can thrust in any
direction, irrespective of their heading. In ADEPT, FELICITY and TRITON class tugs the VSP
units are positioned well forward and so these tugs are unlikely to be Girded (see Para 0354).
Fig 1-10. A Voith-Schneider Propulsion Unit (Fitted in a Tug)
a. VSP Control. At Fig 1-11 the Centre of Rotation of the Carousel is at ‘A’. Each
blade is connected by a linkage to a Steering Centre at ‘B’. Moving the Steering Centre
away from ‘A’ causes the blades to oscillate about their pivots as the Carousel rotates.
This produces thrust at right angles to the line ‘AB’ with a force proportional to the
distance between ‘A’ and ‘B’ and thus allows the ship to be driven in any direction.
Fig 1-11. Voith-Schneider Propulsion Unit - Control of Blade Positioning
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b. VSP Thrust to Move Ahead. Ahead thrust is obtained by putting the Steering
Centre to port of the Centre of Rotation; the vessel (tug) will move ahead (see Fig 1-12).
Putting the Steering Centre in the opposite direction will produce thrust to move astern.
Fig 1-12. VSP unit fitted Tug (SUTT) - Thrust to Move Ahead
(Blade Angles Exaggerated)
c. VSP Athwartships Thrust. Athwartships thrust is obtained by moving the

Steering Centre forward or aft of the Centre of Rotation. At Fig 1-13, the Steering
Centre B is moved forward, with the wash to port, to push the ship’s bow to starboard.
Fig 1-13. VSP unit fitted Tug (SUTT) - Thrust to Move Athwartships
(Blade Angles Exaggerated)
d. VSP Neutral and Intermediate Thrusts. Moving the Steering Centre to the
Centre of Rotation sets neutral Pitch on the blades which then produces no thrust; this
is the ‘idle’ setting. Moving the Steering Centre to an intermediate angle will produce
thrust at 90 degrees to the line between the Steering Centre and the Centre of Rotation.
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0127. Azimuthing Propulsion Systems (‘Z Drives’ and ‘Azipods’)

A wide range of other ‘Azimuth Propulsion Systems’ are currently in use or under
development for both commercial and naval vessels. These range from small, azimuthing
propeller-based Propulsors used as auxiliary manoeuvring aids (eg the submarine Secondary
Propulsion Motor (SPM) or ‘Eggbeater’ - see Chapters 30 - 32), to ‘Z Drives’ in tugs and to
large, permanently mounted propeller ‘pods’ (‘Azipods’) capable of being rotated in azimuth and
which comprise a ship’s main propulsion.
a. Stern Azimuth Drive (Z Drive). Stern Azimuth Drive (widely known as‘Z Drive’)
is an early form of ‘Azimuthing Propulsion’. Each unit consists of a conventional
propeller surrounded by a cylindrical shroud, mounted on a swivel which allows the
whole unit to be rotated over 360° of azimuth (see Fig 1-14). This flexible and powerful
propulsion system is ideal for vessels which need a high degree of manoeuvrability and
power, such as tugs. The MoD-owned IMPULSE class tugs are fitted with two of these
units, and original PACIFIC class seaboats are fitted with a single unit (see also Para
0128c). The nickname ‘Z Drive’ may possibly have originated from the orientation of
the Z-bend drive shafts between the engine and propeller.
Fig 1-14. Typical Configuration of Twin Azimuth Drive (Z Drive) Units
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b. Azipods. Azipods are permanently mounted ‘pods’ containing a large electric motor
which is supplied with electrical power by inboard generators. Azipods either have a
single propeller (see Fig 1-15) or a propeller at each end. Depending on the size and
capability of the ship, Azipods may be mounted either singly or in pairs (see Fig 1-15).
• Advantages. The advantages of Azipods over conventional machinery are:
< Greatly enhanced ship manoeuvrability over conventional propellers.
< Reduction in machinery needed (ie no large reduction / reversing
gearboxes, long propeller shafts or rudders).
< Ideal for use with Integrated Electric Propulsion (IEP) (see Para 0164e).
< Large Ice-Breakers or Ice-Strengthened ships (typically 16,000 to
100,000 tonnes) fitted with an Azipod aft and designed to run stern-first
into Ice, require only 50%-70% of the power required by a conventional
bows-first ship to cut through the same thickness of Ice (see Para 0716).
• Occurrence and Fitting. Azipod systems are now being fitted to a variety of
commercial vessels, including large cruise liners (eg QUEEN MARY II), Ice
Breakers and Ice Strengthened ships. The first RN / RFA vessels to be fitted
with Azipod systems as the main propulsion are the ECHO class AGS (see
Chapter 42) and the BAY class LSDA (see Chapter 59). Other navies are |
building ships fitted with Azipod systems as the main propulsion (eg the Dutch
LPD HNLMS ROTTERDAM).
Fig 1-15. Typical Configuration of a Twin Azimuthing Propulsion System,

Showing Twin Azipods, Each Fitted with a Single Propeller
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0128. Water Jet Propulsion Systems
a. System Description. A Water Jet propulsion system comprises a large water intake
which supplies a powerful pump which in turn directs a high pressure jet of water out of
a nozzle to provide directional thrust. Directional control of this thrust is provided in
some cases by a nozzle which may be physically rotated in azimuth, or in others, via
internal ducting which directs the jet of water out of a selection of fixed outlets to
provide a similar effect of variable azimuth thrust. Some larger vessels fitted with Water
Jet propulsion also have a Bow Thruster and so can move directly sideways at relatively
slow speed.
b. Advantages. The major advantage of Water Jet propulsion systems is that there is
no rotating propeller in the water. This factor makes makes Water Jets extremely useful
for a range of small craft and vessels where there may be a risk injury to personnel in the
water, or damage to propellers when operating in shallow water. For these reasons
Water Jet propulsion is used in the very popular ‘Personal Water Craft’ (Jet Skis), in
boats towing water-skiers, in other recreational craft, and in working vessels or boats
which normally operate close inshore or near bathers.
c. Use in Royal Navy. For the above reasons, Water Jet propulsion has been
introduced in the replacement for existing PACIFIC class seaboats and is fitted to the
LCU Mark 9S and Mk 10 Landing Craft. Water Jet propulsion is also fitted as the Bow
Thruster system in HUNT class MCMVs. It is likely that the fitting of Water Jet
propulsion will be extended to a variety of other RN ships, craft and boats over the next
few years.
Figs 1-16 to 1-19. Spare
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0129. Submarine Propulsion Systems
a. Large Submarines. Description. Large submarines, which are usually nuclear

powered, have particular constraints in the characteristics of the propulsion system and
steering arrangements. A single (main) Propulsor is normally fitted which comprises
fixed Stator blades with a moving Rotor; the Stator and Rotor are encased within a
circular outer Duct. The rudders are usually fitted forward of the Propulsor and do not
benefit from the slipstream of accelerated water which would otherwise increases their
effectiveness (as in most surface ships). To assist in creating an enhanced flow of water
over the lower rudder, a small external Secondary Propulsion Motor is often fitted but
is only capable of a limited effect. Astern power is normally very limited. Full details
concerning RN submarines are contained in Part 3, at Chapters 30 - 32.
b. Small submarines. A number of Navies operate small diesel-electric submarines

capable of surfaced transit on diesel engines and submerged transit on battery powered
electric motors. When surfaced, these vessels usually have very limited facilities
available for manoeuvring and turning, and by nature of their design, have limited
surface surveillance and navigation arrangements from the Bridge (Conning Tower).
c. Capabilities, Limitations and Additional Caution Required. Although very

effective at depth, the propulsion and steering characteristics of any submarine on the
surface are extremely limited.
CAUTION
Due to their limited manoeuvrability and vulnerability

to collision, when approaching surfaced submarines, all
mariners should exercise particular caution (see Annual
Notice No. 8 of Admiralty Notices to Mariners).
Given the particular propulsion and steering system constraints of submarines, some of
which are nuclear powered, all submarines are fitted with a yellow (amber) quick
flashing light situated 1-2 metres above the masthead light as an additional aid for
identification of surfaced submarines in narrow waters and in dense traffic. This quick
flashing light (90-105 flashes per minute) should not be confused with a similar but
faster light (120 flashes per minute) used by hovercraft. Details are contained in Annual
Notice No 8 of Admiralty Notices to Mariners.
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SECTION 3 - THEORY OF RUDDERS, PIVOT POINT AND WIND SHEER
0130. Principles of Rudder Design
a. Function and Operation. The function of the rudder is to use the hydrodynamic
force of Lift to produce the Turning Moment to (1) start a ship turning, (2) keep it
turning, (3) stop it turning, and (4) maintain a steady course. When stopping a turn
rudder is applied in the opposite direction and the rudder is centred. Small rudder
movements will then maintain a steady course, assisted by the effect of the Deadwood
(see Para 0131c).
b. Description and Positioning of Rudders. The rudder is a vertical blade, usually

with a curved section. When at an angle to a flow of water, it is subject to the
hydrodynamic forces of Lift and Drag (see Para 0120a). The rudder is thus a ‘passive
control device’, only creating a Turning Moment when in a flow of water. Partly
for this reason, rudders are normally fitted aft in a position where they benefit from lying
the flow of the propeller slipstream when the ship is going ahead. In addition, in a ship
with headway, the Pivot Point is normally well forward (see Para 0137c) and so rudders
are fitted aft to provide the greatest possible Turning Moment about the Pivot Point.
c. Lift and Stalling. If the angle of attack of the rudder to the water flow is increased,
the Lift and Drag forces also increase, until the flow on the rear side of the rudder
becomes increasingly turbulent and finally breaks up altogether. This causes the Lift
force to be suddenly and dramatically reduced, which in turn causes a proportionate loss
of rudder effectiveness; this is known as ‘Stalling’. For this reason the rudder is limited
to 35° in most ships. Rudder design, including the curved section shape, has to take into
account the Lift force required and efficiency through the range of rudder angles.
0131. Types of Rudder
a. The Spade Rudder. The fully balanced Spade Rudder (Fig 1-20) is supported by
a rudder head mounted entirely in the hull. About 30% of the area of a Spade Rudder
lies forward of its axis and uses the pressure on the leading part of the blade to reduce
the power required to turn the rudder. Most RN warships are fitted with fully balanced
Spade Rudders with a maximum rudder angle of 35°, which avoids rudder Stalling in
most cases. The large Cutaway area and much reduced Deadwood (see Para 0131c)
improves turning capability but reduces directional stability. In the CVS, the after third
of the rudder is hinged, to improve its hydrodynamic shape and efficiency in turns.
Fig 1-20. The Spade Rudder, as fitted in most RN Warships
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(0131) b. The Semi-Spade Rudder. The Semi-Spade Rudder (Fig 1-21) is the most common
type of rudder found in merchant ships and is a variation of the balanced rudder. It is
robust, but requires more power to operated than a fully balanced Spade Rudder. The
Semi-Spade Rudder is supported by the rudder head mounted partly or entirely within the
hull and also by a rudder horn at its top forward edge. Modern Semi-Spade Rudders
typically have an Aspect Ratio (height v. width) of about 3:2. In some vessels, the after
third of the rudder is hinged, to improve its hydrodynamic shape and efficiency in turns.
Fig 1-21. The Standard Semi-Spade Rudder, as fitted in many Merchant Ships
c. Deadwood - The Hinged Rudder. The older type of conventional Hinged Rudder
is shown in Fig 1-22. This arrangement contains a large Deadwood - a largely flat
vertical surface forward of the rudder and propeller that damps any Yaw (see Para 0113)
and helps to maintain course stability, but hinders turning. This type of rudder is not very
efficient and is now rarely fitted to merchant ships, but is still widely used in small craft
and pleasure boats. The Hinged Rudder is very robust and its lower bearing and
support plate also give the propeller some protection; it is thus particularly useful if a
small craft / vessel is to occupy a ‘mud berth’ which dries at low water. Conventional
Hinged Rudders often have a simple flat-plate section shape.
Fig 1-22. The Hinged Rudder, as fitted in old Merchant Ships and in Many Small Craft
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0132. The Effect of Water Flow on Rudder Efficiency
a. Effect of Hull Form. Separation of Flow was explained at Para 0112. When
Separation of Flow occurs, the Flow Stream Lines break away from the streamlined
shape of the hull and the water flow on to the rudder becomes turbulent. This reduces
rudder Lift and, in extreme cases, can result in a ship not responding to the helm. Ideally,
a ship should have a long, gently-tapered stern to allow the Flow Stream Lines to follow
it without turbulence. In warships this is not feasible, so they are designed with a
transom stern to ensure that Separation of Flow always occurs abruptly in the same
position. This provides for stable steering by preventing the flow past the rudders from
fluctuating backwards and forwards as the result of movement of the position of the
Separation of Flow at different speeds. Warship manoeuvrability is further improved
by a large Cutaway and two rudders in the slipstream of their respective propellers.
b. Effect of Propellers.
• Enhancement by Slipstream. The beneficial effect of placing the rudders in
the slipstream of their respective propellers has already been described (see
Paras 0124, 0125, 0130, 0131, 0132a).
• Degradation with Stopped Propeller. If the propeller and shaft is stopped
from rotating (eg Shaft Brake applied in CPP fitted ships or ‘Stop’ ordered in
FPP fitted ships), the flow of water over the rudder will be disrupted. This
will reduce the effectiveness of the rudder and degrade steering control. In
these circumstances it may still be possible to steer by using larger rudder
angles to overcome the loss of efficiency, but particular care is required when
doing so.
• Degradation with Zero or Minimum Pitch Set. In a CPP fitted ship, if the
Pitch-Power Control Lever (PCL) is set to 0% while the the shaft continues
to rotate at its idling speed of 50 rpm (ie the normal “Set Lever Zero”
situation), the propeller at Zero Pitch forms a disc shaped obstruction, which
severely obstructs the flow of water to the rudder. The result will be an
immediate and total loss of steering control. For this reason, CPP fitted RN
warships making a ‘RAS Fast Backdown’ manoeuvre, normally reduce the
PCL to about 16% to achieve a rapid reduction in speed from (about) 22 knots
to 12 knots. This achieves the compromise of a ‘water brake’ effect from the
propellers, while still allowing some flow of water over the rudders.
Nevertheless some degradation of steering control will still occur and
particular care must always be taken when planning and executing
manoeuvres of this type. See Chapter 5 for more detailed guidance of the
procedures to be followed.
c. Steering While Making Sternway. When making sternway, most ships (including
RN warships with normal rudders) do not steer well due to a combination of factors:
• The square transom creates turbulence, reducing the rudder’s efficiency.
• The rudder section shape is optimised for ahead (not astern) ship movement.
• The rudders are not in the propeller slipstream.
• The Pivot Point will have moved aft in the ship, greatly reducing the Turning
Moment produced by the rudders.
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0133. Forces Acting on a Ship to Make it Turn.
a. Centripetal Force. In order to alter course, a force is required to act on a vessel

with headway, in order for it to be accelerated towards the rotational centre of the turn.
The force producing this acceleration is known Centripetal Force and acts at right angles
to the direction of advance at any instant (ie towards the rotational centre of the turn). Its
magnitude is equal to the vessel’s Mass ‘m’ multiplied by the square of the velocity ‘v’,
divided by the radius ‘r’ of the Turning Circle. This may be represented by the formula:
From this formula, it can be seen by inspection, that the Centripetal Force needed to turn
a vessel increases by the square of its speed and the force required is also multiplied as
the tightness of the turn increases (ie ‘r’ decreases).
b. Hydrodynamic Forces - Lift and Drag. If the ship’s hull is slanted to the flow,
different Pressures will be developed on each side of the hull as soon as it is made to
Yaw (see Para 0113) off its original course. The force of Lift will then be developed
towards the centre of the turn (see Fig 1-23) At the same time, Drag will increase and
the ship will slow down unless propulsion power is increased.
c. Rudder and Hull. It can be seen from Fig 1-23 that if the rudder initiates a Yaw
to starboard and then keeps the hull at an angle to the flow, the force of Lift generated
by flow past the hull comes into play to accelerate a ship inwards in the direction towards
which its bow is pointing. In practice, the hydrodynamic force that acts on any blade
slanted in a fluid flow will produce the greater part of the Centripetal Force required to
turn the ship.
Fig 1-23. Hull Lift and Drag Forces Acting on a Ship Turning
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0134. Control by the Rudder, Hull Lift Force and Hull Drag Force
a. Turning Forces. As described at Para 0133c, the rudder acts as a trigger in order
to initiate and maintain a Yaw, with the hydrodynamic Lift force producing much the
greater part of the Centripetal Force required to turn the ship. Fortunately, the force of
Lift generated by the oblique flow of water on the hull of a ship with headway acts at a
point close to where the (athwartship) Centripetal Force acts. In most ships, point of Lift
is a little abaft the point where the Centripetal Force acts, so an additional small turning
Couple is needed (see Para 0135). The rudder supplies this, and the combination of this
small Turning Moment from the rudder and large Lift force from the hull produce a
resultant force, forward of the Centre of Gravity, that maintains the Yaw across the flow
of water and accelerates the ship towards the centre of the Turning Circle.
Fig 1-24. Combined Turning Forces acting of a Ship
b. Loss of Ship’s Speed in the Turn. As well as a Lift force, application of the rudder
also triggers the generation of a Drag force. Unless the engine power is increased, the
ship will decelerate under the effect of this increased Drag. Most ships reach a new
steady speed by the time the heading has changed 90°.
0135. Design Factors for Directional Stability
a. Directional Stability. If the hull shape is designed so that the centre of Lift is abaft
the point of action of the (athwartships) Centripetal Force (see Para 0134), any transient
Yaws caused by wind and waves will be damped out if the rudder is held amidships. The
effect is similar to that seen in an arrow with a large tail area well aft of the Centre of
Gravity. Such a ship is directionally stable and will continue on a more or less straight
course until rudder angle is applied. This is a desirable feature, and most ships,
including all RN warships, are designed with hull shapes to be directionally stable in
order to avoid wear on the steering gear, and fatigue for the helmsmen.
b. Directional Instability. The position at which Lift acts depends in part on the angle
of Yaw of the hull across the water flow. At small angles of Yaw induced by small
rudder angles, some ships may be directionally unstable, only becoming directionally
stable when more rudder increases the Yaw angle. This is an undesirable design
limitation, as such a ship is difficult to hold on a steady course using small rudder
movements, although it will often respond effectively to large rudder angles.
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0136. Turning and Directional Stability in Shallow Water
a. Effect on Turning Circle. When a ship enters shallow water, the water flow
around the hull changes. A given angle of rudder produces a smaller Yaw angle than in
deep water, with the result that the ship follows a wider Turning Circle and does not lose
so much speed. Where there is an under-keel clearance of only 0.4 times the
draught, the diameter of the Turning Circle may double. The ship’s speed has a very
great impact on the severity of these effects, which can frequently be minimised by a
reduction in speed. Further details are at Chapter 2.
b. Effect on Directional Stability. Shallow water strongly affects the directional

stability of a ship and a patch of shoal water can cause a ship to swing uncontrollably off
its course in spite of efforts to counter this with the rudder. When the depth shoals to the
point where the keel is very close the seabed, a ship becomes very directionally stable
and may hardly answer the helm at all. The ship’s speed has a very great impact on the
severity of these effects, which can frequently be minimised by a reduction in speed.
Further details are at Chapter 2.
0137. Turning Circle, Centre of Gravity, Drift Angle and Pivoting Point
a. Turning Circle. The Turning Circle of a ship altering course is the path traced out
by its Centre of Gravity with the centre of this Turning Circle some distance to one side
of the ship (Fig 1-25). The bow will lie and point inside this circle and the stern will lie
outside it, because the ship is made to Yaw at an angle across the track to produce
Centripetal Force on the hull.
Fig 1-25. Turning Circle, Centre of Gravity, Drift Angle and Pivoting Point
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b. Pivot Point. Provided the ship has headway, between the Centre of Gravity and the
bow there will be a point ‘P’, known as the Pivot Point, at which the centre-line of the
ship is at right angles to the radial line to the centre of the Turning Circle; at the Pivot
Point the centre-line of the ship is parallel to the tangent to the (Centre of Gravity’s)
Turning Circle (Fig 1-25). The position of the Pivot Point is not fixed but varies with
hull shape, rudder angle and speed. For this reason all Manoeuvring Data (including
Advance, Transfer and Distance to New Course(DNC) etc), although measured from the
GPS aerial during trials, is theoretically referenced to the Centre of Gravity. However,
Manoeuvring Data supplied to RN warships is adjusted for use from the Bridge.
c. Position and Movement of Pivot Point. The Pivot Point position varies as follows:
• Stopped. When stopped in the water and making no headway, the Pivot Point
is normally near the mid-point of the ship.
• Applying Power at Rest. When applying power at rest, the Pivot Point moves
along the centre-line towards the centre of greatest Pressure, which is usually
in the direction of intended travel. This produces a good Turning Moment.
Note. Taking an extreme case to demonstrate the point, if a warship was placed at 90° to a jetty
with the bow touching it, and if ahead power with rudder angle applied, the Pivot Point would
be at the point of contact with the jetty, where the pressure would be greatest.
• Moving Ahead. When moving ahead, in most major RN warships the Pivot
Point moves to a position about ¼ to a of the ship’s length from the bow,
which is normally just ahead of the Bridge (except in the T22 where it is abaft
the Bridge). In many merchant ships the Pivot Point is between one sixth and
one third of the ship’s length from the bow. In flat-bottomed barges, some
Very Large Cargo Carriers (VLCCs), Fast Patrol Boats (FPBs) and similar
light fast craft, the Pivot Point may move to a position well ahead of the bow.
• Reducing Ahead Power when Ship has Headway. If a sharp reduction of
ahead power is applied to a ship with headway, the Pressure forward also
reduces sharply and the Pivot Point moves aft towards the centre of greatest
Pressure, noticeably reducing the Turning Moment generated by the rudders.
• Applying Astern Power when Ship has Headway. If astern power is applied
to a ship with headway, it produces a sudden increase of Pressure immediately
forward of the propeller. This counteracts the bow Pressure Wave and causes
the Pivot Point to move aft very rapidly to a roughly midships position.
Note. Wind Sheer. This rapid aft movement of the Pivot Point while the ship still has headway
as a result of applying astern power (eg in the final stages of a berthing manouevre) can have
a significant and suddenly altered effect on how the wind affects the ship. This phenomenon gives
rise to the term ‘Wind Sheer’ which is explained fully at Para 0138.
• Moving Astern. When moving astern, in most ships the Pivot Point moves aft
to a position about one sixth to one third of the ship’s length from the stern.
This has the effect of greatly shortening the Couple from the rudders and thus
the Turning Moment that they can produce (see Para 0132c)
d. Drift Angle. The Drift Angle at any point in the ship is the angle between the centre-
line of the ship and the tangent to the path of the ship at that point (see Fig 1-25). Drift
Angle is referenced to the Centre of Gravity unless otherwise specified. Drift Angle is
zero at the Pivot Point and increases (inward from the centre-line) with increasing
distance forward from the Pivot Point; the converse applies aft of the Pivot Point.
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0138. Movement of the Pivot Point and Wind Sheer
a. Importance of Appreciating ‘Wind Sheer’. When berthing or in other confined-

water situations, the effect of the wind in relation to the movement of the Pivot Point
(known as ‘Wind Sheer’) is absolutely critical. For many years after the advent of CPP
fitted warships in the RN, this relationship was not fully appreciated and it was often
claimed (incorrectly) that it was impossible to predict which way a CPP fitted ship with
headway would sheer when astern power was applied. Many such ‘unpredicted’ sheers,
particularly when berthing, were blamed on the lack of beneficial athwartships turning
forces enjoyed by those in FPP fitted ships (see Para 0122), when in fact these sheers
were probably due to undetected ‘Wind Sheer’. The effect was probably exacerbated by
the fact that CPPs deliver astern power much more sharply than FPPs, and so the Pivot
Point movement is consequently also more rapid. However, it is probably also true that
the lack of beneficial athwartships turning forces in CPP fitted ships made the effects of
Wind Sheer harder to counter, especially when it was unexpected.
b. Centre of Windage. Most RN warships have evenly distributed superstructure and,

when stopped in the water with no power applied by the propellers, thus have their
Centre of Windage near the mid-point of the ship, close to the (stopped position) Pivot
Point. As a result, they lie roughly beam to the wind (ie wind at Red/Green 90°). The
exceptions to this general rule are the T42 Batch 3 destroyers and ROVER class tankers,
both of which have more superstructure aft than forward and thus have a Centre of
Windage aft of the (stopped position) Pivot Point. These ships thus tend to lie about 70°
off the wind (ie wind at Red/Green 70°). SANDOWN class minehunters have computer
designed superstructure geometry which at slow speeds places the Centre of Windage and
Pivot Point in the same position, thus requiring minimal power to maintain the ship’s
head in any direction relative to the wind; this is extremely useful while minehunting and
berthing.
c. Centre of Windage and Pivot Point - with Headway (Ship Seeking the Wind).
In most RN warships with headway, the Pivot Point is well forward (see Para 0137), the
Centre of Windage is roughly in the mid-point of the ship (see Para 0138b) and so the
bows tend to ‘seek the wind’ - in exactly the same way that a weathercock points into the
wind. In T42 Batch 3 and ROVER class ships this effect is more pronounced. In
INVINCIBLE class CVSs, due to the enormous windage of the ship, the tendency to seek
the wind makes the ship difficult to steer in gale force winds, other than directly into or
out of the wind.
d. Movement of Pivot Point - Effect on Centre of Windage (Wind Sheer). When

astern power is applied to a ship with headway, the Pivot Point moves smartly aft, to a
position roughly at the mid-point of the ship (fairly close to the ‘stopped in the water’
Pivot Point position), even though some headway remains (see Para 0137c). This
dramatically changes the tendency of the bows to seek the wind. It was the failure to
appreciate this change, almost immediately after the application of astern power, which
was interpreted (incorrectly) as an ‘unpredictable’ sheer in many CPP fitted ships. Fig
1-26 (opposite) shows the Wind Sheer turning effect for various wind directions on a
typical RN frigate/destroyer with headway immediately after it applies astern power, on
approaching a berth.
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Fig 1-26. Wind Sheer Turning Effect, when Astern Power Applied to a Ship with Headway
e. Wind Sheer - Moment of Inception. Inspection of Fig 1-26 shows that as soon as
astern power is applied to a ship making headway, the Pivot Point moves aft to the mid-
point of the ship. When this occurs, instead of the bows seeking the wind, in ships with
a balanced superstructure, Wind Sheer attempts to turn the ship beam-on to the wind. In
the case of a T42 Batch 3 destroyer, Wind Sheer will attempt to turn the ship to a position
where the relative wind is Red/Green 70°, but this does not alter the direction of initial
turning effect in Fig 1-26.
f. Wind Sheer - Most Dangerous Quadrants. Inspection of Fig 1-26 also shows
that, in common with the empirical experience of many shiphandlers, a wind on the
inboard quarter or on the outboard bow are by far the most dangerous as they
institute a Wind Sheer turning effect towards the jetty. In these circumstances, the best
action is to apply outboard helm (ie to starboard in Fig 1-26) and start a gentle swing
away from the jetty, before applying astern power.
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0139. Heel When Turning
a. Initial Inward Heel. A large vessel heels inwards immediately the wheel is put
over because the rudder force away from the centre of the turn acts below the Centre of
Gravity of the ship (see Fig 1-27a).
b. Outward Heel as Turn Progresses. As the turn continues, the Centripetal Force
on the hull exerts more force than the rudder and so makes the ship heel outwards (see
Fig 1-27b). A quick easing of the wheel will increase the outward heel, because the
inward-heeling rudder force is suddenly removed. This can be alarming in a boat or
small vessel carrying a deck load; under these conditions, decreasing speed to reduce
Centripetal Force will prevent the vessel from heeling dangerously. It should be noted
that outward heel is aggravated by any Free Surface in fuel or water tanks, and also by
any rise in the Centre of Gravity due to additional topweight (eg deck cargo, or any
accumulations of Ice if operating in Arctic waters).
c. Exceptions. Fast, shallow-draft craft, however, behave differently to larger ships.

Due to their considerable side-slip in the water, the Centripetal Force that they generate
is smaller than the lateral rudder Turning Moment and they heel inwards throughout a
turn. The initial inward heel in a fast motor boat at high speed may be violent.
d. Heel as an Aid to Shiphandling. When steadying up on a new course, similar but

opposite effects occur as the rudder is reversed and then brought to midships. The
experienced shiphandler will have learned to feel almost ‘through the soles of the feet’
what the ship is doing as it heels one way or another during manoeuvring. Having the
‘feel’ of a ship in this way greatly assists the shiphandling task and can almost make the
ship feel like an extension of one’s own self. Those who can sense and interpret these
subtle movements of the ship rapidly become expert at shiphandling.
Fig 1-27a. Vertical Forces Acting Fig 1-27b. Vertical Forces Acting on a
on a Ship Turning, Immediately Ship Turning, After the Ship has
after the Rudder is Applied Begun to Make the Turn
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SECTION 4 - TURNING CIRCLES AND TURNING TRIALS
0140. Turning Circle and Manoeuvring Data
a. Turning Circle. Theoretically, the path of a ship’s Centre of Gravity as it turns

through 360° is its Turning Circle for a particular speed and the particular amount of
rudder used. Positions at which the rudder must be applied to achieve a particular
alteration of course at various speeds, together with the time such manoeuvres take, are
compiled for each class of RN warship (see Para 0143) and provided to each vessel of
the class. This information is retained in Section F (Turning Trials) of the Navigation
Data Book (Form RNS 2677) as part of the ship’s Manoeuvring Data.
b. Reference Point for Manoeuvring Data. In RN warships (as opposed to merchant

ships where large amounts of cargo are loaded and unloaded) there is an almost fixed
relationship between the position of the Centre of Gravity and the position of the Bridge.
Theoretically, the Turning Circle should be measured from the Centre of Gravity, but the
Manoeuvring Data supplied to RN warships (ie Transfer, Advance, Distance to New
Course (DNC), Intermediate Course, Intermediate Distance, Tactical Diameter and
Final Diameter (see Fig 1-28), plus the times of turns and acceleration/deceleration data)
is in fact offset for use from the Bridge (see Para 0137b). Any small residual errors due
to change in the position of Centre of Gravity due to heel, or as fuel and stores are
consumed may usually be ignored in warships, but is a factor in RFAs where
separate Manoeuvring Data may be needed for different states of draught/loading.
c. Calculation, Monitoring and Control of Turns. The path followed by the Bridge
of most RN warships turning with headway closely approximates that taken by the Pivot
Point where the Drift Angle is zero, and this makes the Bridge an ideal position from
which to plan, monitor and control turns (see Para 0137). As the Manoeuvring Data
supplied is intended for use from the Bridge position, this allows turns to be planned and
executed with precision.
d. Transfer. The Transfer for a specific alteration of course is the lateral distance
moved in a direction at right angles to the original course. In Fig 1-28, distance QC
is the Transfer for an alteration of 60°. When calculating the Wheel-Over position for a
specific alteration of course, Transfer is the first measurement that should be plotted
(as shown by the line QC in the 60° turn example at Fig 1-28).
e. Advance. The Advance for a specific alteration of course is the distance moved
in the direction of the original course from the Wheel-Over position to the point where
the ship steadies on her new course. In Fig 1-28, the distance AQ is the Advance for an
alteration of 60°, and in this example, should be measured back from position Q
(obtained from plotting the Transfer) to obtain the Wheel-Over position at A.
f. Distance to New Course (DNC). The DNC is the distance along the original course
from the Wheel-Over position to the point of intersection between the new and old
courses. In Fig 1-28, distance AL is the DNC for an turn of 60°. DNC is of little use for
for pilotage, can be misleading for turns over 120° and is thus little used. Although
available in older ships, DNC is no longer tabulated in FOC turning trials.
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g. Intermediate Course and Intermediate Distance. The Intermediate Course and

Intermediate Distance are the direction and distance respectively between the Wheel-
Over position and the point where the ship steadies on the new course. Intermediate
Course and Intermediate Distance for an alteration of 120° are shown Fig 1-28 by the
angle RAE and the distance AE. Plotting DNC, Intermediate Course and Intermediate
Distance does not give the position at which the ship steadies on the new course.
h. Times of Turning. The times taken for alterations of course under different speeds
and rudder angles are also given in the Manoeuvring Data for RN warships. They are
normally provided in minutes and seconds and are useful for certain manoeuvres.
i. Tactical Diameter. The Tactical Diameter is the distance moved at right angles to
the original course after turning through 180°. It is shown by distance PF in Fig 1-28.
j. Final Diameter (Steady Turning Diameter). The Final Diameter (also known
as the Steady Turning Diameter) is the diameter of the Turning Circle when the ship is
turning at a steady rate. It is shown by distance TU in Fig 1-28
Fig 1-28. A Turning Circle showing, Transfer, Advance, Distance to New Course,
Intermediate Course, Intermediate Distance, Tactical Diameter and Final Diameter
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0141. The Effect of Hull, Rudder and Propulsion on Turning Circles
a. Hull Shape. A ship with a long, fine hull will turn in a larger circle than a broad-
beamed ship of the same length. Modern warships usually have a length to beam ratio
of about 9:1 compared an ordinary merchant ship ratio of about 6:1. So, if otherwise
similar, warships would have larger Turning Circles than merchant ships of the same
size. However, warships have twin rudders sited in the slipstream of the propellers and
have the aft underwater part of the hull designed for improved manoeuvrability. RN
warships thus have an extremely good turning performance for their length to beam ratio.
b. ‘Handbrake Turns’. If it is required to make a sharp turn of 90° or more, and a

substantial loss of speed can be accepted, reversing the inner propeller will substantially
reduce the diameter of the ship’s Turning Circle, but it will not shorten the Advance
element of the turn. This technique is colloquially known as a ‘Handbrake Turn’.
c. Different Turning Circles to Port and to Starboard. Vessels with only a single
propeller will turn more readily in one direction than the other because of the sideways
thrust of Paddlewheel Effect on the stern. A ship with a Right-handed propeller will
therefore have a smaller Turning Circle to port. Twin propeller ships with asymmetrical
shaft arrangements will also turn more sharply in one direction than the other; the
INVINCIBLE class CVSs are examples of this. In this class, alterations of course to port
require 2½° more rudder than alterations to starboard to achieve the same Turning Circle.
d. Four-Shafted Ships with Twin Rudders. In large four-shafted ships it was normal
to fit twin rudders behind the inner propellers. This allowed these ship the very useful
facility putting both inner engines ahead at 8 knots and both outer engines astern at 6
knots, to achieve 2 knots headway with 8 knots steerage way. Although these large four-
shafted ships are no longer in service (the last being withdrawn in the 1970s), the
technique may have applications in future and is thus recorded here.
e. Loss of Speed During an Alteration of Course. The force needed to accelerate

a vessel towards the centre of a turn and the smaller force required to overcome the Drag
of the rudder results in a progressive loss of speed during the first 90° of a turn, after
which a balance of forces is reached and the ship settles to a lower steady speed. The
percentage of speed lost depends upon the initial speed on entering the turn and the
rudder angle used. The tables of Manoeuvring Data in the Navigation Data Book (RNS
2677) normally give the speed remaining for each angle of alteration shown. As an
example, a Type 42 BIII destroyer at 10 knots (initially) will emerge from a turn of 90°
using 10° of rudder at 90% of its initial speed, whilst at 30 knots (initially) and using 35°
of rudder, it will emerge at 67% of its initial speed.
f. Rudder Limits. Most warships and RFAs have a limit on the maximum rudder
angle that can be used at certain speeds and engine configurations. These limits usually
apply when engines are near full power, because the extra power to provide Centripetal
Force for turning may raise shaft torque above the authorised figure. Class-specific
details are at Parts 2-5 where appropriate.
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0142. The Effect of Draught, Trim and List on Turning Circle
a. Draught. The moderate reduction in the draught of a warship that occurs when fuel
is low usually results in a small increase in its Tactical Diameter. RFAs and merchant
ships, by loading cargo, vary their draughts by much greater amounts than RN warships.
So an RFA or mechant ship that is deeply laden will be more sluggish in answering its
rudder and have a much larger Turning Circle than when it is lightly laden.
b. Trim. A Trim by the stern will usually increase a warship’s Tactical Diameter but
will improve its directional stability. The reverse also applies (ie a Trim by the bow will
decrease the Tactical Diameter, but will make it harder to hold on course). Trimming the
ship moves the Pivoting Point in the direction of the deeper end.
c. List. The effect of a List to one side is to hinder a turn in the direction towards
which the ship is Listing and assist a turn away from it. A List to port will therefore
increase the Turning Circle to port and reduce it to starboard.
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0143. First of Class Turning Trials and Provision of Manoeuvring Data

See Para 0153 for First of Class (FOC) acceleration / deceleration trials.
a. Tables of Manoeuvring Data. The Manoeuvring Data for an RN warship contains
the following: acceleration/deceleration data for all engine configurations and a summary
of turning characteristics under different rudder angles and at different speeds (Advance,
Transfer, the time taken to turn, and speed remaining). Older trials data also includes
DNC (see Para 0140f), but this output is no longer provided.
| b. First of Class (FOC) Turning Trials. DERA Haslar (see Para 0143c/d below)
was historically used by MoD to conduct ‘First of Class’(FOC) turning trials and
establish FOC Manoeuvring Data. A full set of FOC turning trials covers speeds of 7,
10, 12, 15, 18, 25 and 30 knots under 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, 30° and 35° of rudder. The
results of these turning trials are issued to all ships of the class and should be placed in
each ship’s Navigational Data Book. Abridged Manoeuvring Data in graphical form for
all HM Ships and RFAs are also at Parts 2-5. Although the accuracy of Manoeuvring
Data must depend on the conditions prevailing during the trial, the figures derived will
be accurate enough for pilotage in all normal weathers and depths. If conditions become
abnormal, such as when the ship goes into shallow water, allowances must be made for
the special circumstances pertaining. The Navigating Officer (NO) should record any
additional information on ship performance in the Navigational Data Book. Details of
the procedures for Ship’s Staff Turning Trials are at Annexes 1A and 1B.
c. Method of Conducting First of Class (FOC) Turning Trials. In recent times

(until 1999) nearly all DERA Haslar FOC turning trials were conducted using Hifix or
Hyperfix. After 1999, trials have used GPS/DGPS (which provides Latitude and
Longitude measurements). From Apr 2001, this part of DERA Haslar became
‘QinetiQ’, due DERA’s change to ‘Agency’ status. Trials instrumentation (provided
by QinetiQ) measures heading, rudder angle, propeller shaft RPM and the ship’s heel.
All this data is recorded at 1 second intervals on a computer where it is subsequently
processed. A standardised set of computer codes is applied to correct the GPS position
data for tidal effects (based on distortions of the Turning Circle produced by tidal drift).
The individual manoeuvres (circles, pullouts, zig-zags, spirals, accelerations and
decelerations) are then analysed by computer to produce the Manoeuvring Data required.
d. QinetiQ (Ex-DERA Haslar) Facilities and Support. The ‘Centre for Marine
Technology’ at ‘QinetiQ’ (Ex-DERA Haslar) offers a complete service on all aspects of
warship hydrodynamic performance through the use of theoretical predictions, model
experimentation and full scale trials. This includes FOC turning trials, manoeuvring,
powering and seakeeping. The main point of contact is:
| Technical Manager, Hydrodynamic Technologies
| QinetiQ
| Centre for Marine Technology, Haslar Marine Technology Park
| Gosport, Hants, PO12 2AG
| Tel: 023-9233-5048 / 5263
| FAX: 023-9233-5196
| e-mail: mrrenilson@QinetiQ.com
0144-0149. Spare
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK
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BR 45(6)
SECTION 5 - ACCELERATION, DECELERATION AND SPEED
0150. Factors Affecting Gain and Loss of Speed

The following factors affect the acceleration and deceleration of a ship:
a. Inertia. A heavy ship is slower to gain and lose speed than a smaller ship with
similar engine power.
b. Shape of the Hull. Between two ships of similar Displacement and engine
configuration, the one with the finer lines will accelerate more rapidly and carry its way
further than the one of fuller form.
c. Response in Propulsion Power. CPP fitted ships generally respond more quickly
to engine orders than FPP fitted ships. Where CPPs are fitted, astern power can be
applied rapidly by reversing the Pitch of the blades.
d. Size and Design of Propellers. The acceleration effect of a large, slow turning
propeller is felt more quickly than that of a smaller, fast-turning propeller. A large
propeller also exerts considerable Drag when rotating slowly or stopped, which improves
deceleration. Safeguards are normally incorporated in machinery control systems to
prevent excessive torque being accidentally applied to the shaft when changing direction.
e. State of the Ship’s Bottom. The effect of Drag from growth on the bottom is
roughly proportional to the square of the ship’s speed, and thus has more effect when
decelerating from high speed, than when initially accelerating from rest.
f. Depth of Water. The effect of shallow water is to reduce both the acceleration and
deceleration of a ship (ie it is difficult to check headway, even by using astern power, and
a ship will be sluggish in gaining speed, even if considerable engine power is used). A
number of navigational incidents have occurred due to failure to take account of these
constraints. Further details are at Chapter 2.
0151. Gain and Loss of Speed

The rates at which a ship gains or loses speed are obtained from acceleration and
deceleration trials. From this information, Gain of Speed or Loss of Speed figures, usually
expressed in ‘yards per knot’ are deduced for use when manoeuvring in company. When
deciding the point at which to reduce speed to decelerate to take up Station, an extra distance
equal to the difference between the Station changing speed and the guide’s speed multiplied by
the Loss of Speed factor must be applied to the Station position. The ship will pass through its
Station if high speed is maintained until the Station is reached. Although Gain of Speed or Loss
of Speed figures will vary according to speed, draught, loading and depth of water, they are based
on standard figures for each ship. An assessment should always be made on whether the standard
figure will be correct in the prevailing circumstances and any adjustment made if necessary.
Note. Gain of Speed or Loss Speed figures are usually referred to as ‘acceleration/deceleration
data’, although in fact it is not so; acceleration and deceleration are measured as distance
divided by time squared. However, for manoeuvring purposes, the Gain or Loss of Speed in
‘yards per knot’ is the essential tool, irrespective of the name used.
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0152. Factors Affecting Speed

Several factors affect the total resistance of a ship moving through a calm sea.
Characteristics of hull forms which minimise these effects are summarised as follows:
a. Frictional (or Viscous) Resistance - Form Drag. A description of the Laminar

Flow and Turbulent Flow frictional resistance, the Boundary Layer around a ship and its
effects was given at Para 0111. The combination of these Laminar Flow and Turbulent
Flow frictional resistances is known as Form Drag (see Para 0111).
• Smoothness of the Hull. The smoothness of the hull its important to the
amount of resistance to motion, as any roughness or protrusions on the hull
penetrating the Laminar Flow (see Para 0111), will increase frictional (or
viscous) resistance. It is for these reasons that racing yachts have very smooth
hulls which are usually polished to a high gloss before important races (to
avoid any disruption of the Laminar Flow from rough patches on the hull).
• Effect of Marine Growths on Speed. The time between ship ‘bottom cleans’
has a significant bearing on ship’s speed. The Navigation Data Book (RNS
2677) should contain tables of speed against shaft revolutions / PCL settings
for use by the NO and OOW in the ‘clean bottom’ and ‘6 months after
cleaning’ situations. The ‘6 months after cleaning’ table may need to be
adjusted depending on the area of operations of the ship over that period.
• Factors Affecting Marine Growths. Marine growth is greatest in hot
climates and, if a ship lies for a period in a tropical harbour, its bottom will
quickly become fouled by weeds, barnacles and other marine obstructions. In
tropical waters, growth after six months may reduce the whole range of ship’s
speeds by about 10%. Under these conditions, the maximum speed of a 30
knot ship would be cut to 27 knots.
• Countermeasures to Marine Growths. Use of modern anti-fouling paints,
moving to a fresh-water berth in a river or proceeding at high speed in the open
sea may reduce fouling to some extent. Cleaning of the hull by divers is an
effective countermeasure against marine growth and may be used as a cheaper
alternative to cleaning the hull by dry-docking.
b. Wave-Making Resistance.
• Surface Ships. Any body moving across the surface of a fluid creates a wave
system and the energy to create that wave system comes from the moving
body’s engines in the form of a wave-making resistance to motion. In shallow
water, the flow of water under the ship speeds up (see Bernoulli Phenomenon
at Para 0110) and considerable additional energy is used to create much
enhanced waves.
• Submarines. Submarines dived at shallow depth below the surface also
experience wave-making resistance; the wave effect of a submarine moving
in this way (especially where the depth equals half the submarine’s length) can
be seen clearly on the surface. This wave-making resistance reduces as depth
increases and is negligible at deep diving depths, although such a resistance
can occur at depth if the submarine is close to a water density layer boundary.
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BR 45(6)
(0152) c. Resistance from Additions to the Hull. Additions to the hull (eg rudders, A-
brackets, stabilizers, inlet/outlet pipes, sonar domes etc) have an effect on both Laminar
Flow and Turbulent Flow, and thus to Form Drag. However, the further aft these items
are placed, the nearer they are to the area of progressively increasing Turbulent Flow, and
thus they have progressively less effect in increasing Form Drag. Sonar domes are
normally located at the bow so that they can operate in largely undisturbed water. For
this reason modern bows domes are highly streamlined, with the intention of preserving
the Laminar Flow characteristics of the hull as far as possible.
d. Eddy-Making Resistance. When Flow Stream-Lines break down, circular eddies

are formed. The energy for the creation of these eddies comes from the ship’s engines
and acts as an addition ‘eddy-making’ resistance to motion, which varies in proportion
to the square of the speed.
e. Air Resistance. Air acts as a fluid, and as in a fluid, air resistance to motion also
varies as the square of the speed (which is why racing cars are highly streamlined). As
far as possible, ship design takes air resistance into account to minimise its adverse
effects. However, warship design has to incorporate many factors and the ideal
streamlining has to be weighed against weapon and sensor fits and a host of other factors.
f. Rough Weather Resistance. In addition to all the other factors, the ship’s ahead
motion is affected by the impact of wind-generated waves and spray. In rough weather,
the loss of speed through the water can be substantial, when compared to the calm
weather speed for a particular engine setting.
0153. Acceleration / Deceleration Trials

First of Class (FOC) acceleration / deceleration trials are normally carried out at the same
time as turning trials (see Para 0143). Details of the procedures for Ship’s Staff Acceleration /
Deceleration are at Annexes 1A and 1B.
0154-0159. Spare
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BR 45(6)
SECTION 6 - PROPULSION SYSTEMS
0160. Summary of Information

Full details of propulsion arrangements, Manoeuvring Data and shiphandling
characteristics for RN warships are at Parts 2-5 of this book. The following paragraphs give a
brief overview of the type of systems which might be encountered with the RN, RFA and in some
merchant ships.
0161. Steam Turbines

Steam turbine propulsion requires one or more boilers to produce high pressure
superheated steam which is directed into a multi stage ‘ahead’ turbine; this turbine is connected
to the shaft via a reduction gearbox. Astern power is produced by directing the steam into a much
smaller ‘astern’ turbine which drives the gearbox and shaft in the opposite direction. After
passing through one or the other turbine, the now cooled and de-pressurised steam is exhausted
into a sea-water cooled condenser and then returned as water via various feed tanks to be re-
heated in the boiler. Some water losses usually occur and have to be made up from extra feed
water made by evaporating sea water, using separate machinery. Steam turbine machinery is
large, heavy and relatively labour intensive and it has been replaced in RN surface warships by
other propulsion systems. However, a steam turbine system is used in all nuclear submarine with
the nuclear reactor providing the heat source to boil the water. Some older merchant ships are
also powered by steam turbines.
0162. Marine Gas Turbines
a. Operation. The marine gas turbine is a combustion engine derived from its aero
engine counterparts on which there has been much research and development. Air is
continuously forced into the combustion chambers by the compressor, mixed there with
fuel and ignited to drive the propulsion turbine. The gas turbine’s continuous burn
combustion process requires it to run at a relatively high speed and thus it requires a
reduction gearbox to provide a suitable rotation speed for the propeller (CPP). Unless
the Shaft Brake is applied, the shaft rotates continuously and the CPP never drops below
50 rpm. Where two types of engines, such as the Olympus/Spey and Tyne are fitted in
a propulsion plant, additional reduction gearing (in the form of a primary gearbox) is
required to synchronise the much faster running speed of the Tyne engine.
b. Advantages of Gas Turbines. Gas turbines are now widely fitted as main
propulsion machinery in the Royal Navy and they have a number of advantages. They
have a high power to weight ratio, respond well to control by automated, remote control
systems and their maintenance (usually by engine exchange) is straightforward. These
factors save significantly on manpower. They can also be started quickly from cold, so
the notice required to obtain propulsion power is very short; this has obvious operational
advantages and also considerably improves safety when at anchor.
c. Tyne, Olympus and Spey Engines. The marine gas turbine engines currently in
service (2001) in RN warships are: the Tyne (rated at 3.5 MW), the Olympus (18.3 MW),
and the Spey (12.6 MW). Normally, the Tyne engine is used for cruising at economical
speeds, whilst the Olympus/Spey engines are used when higher speeds or a reserve of
power are required.
1-41
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BR 45(6)
0163. Marine Diesel Engines

The marine diesel engine is a well developed and established technology with many
commercial applications allowing straightforward procurement without high development costs.
Diesel engines are reliable and have low fuel consumption, allowing diesel powered ships an
extended endurance (range). Diesel engines power the majority of merchant ships and an
extensive range of machinery configurations have been developed for the different types of ship
operating patterns in the merchant marine, RFA and naval environment.
0164. Arrangement of Diesel and Gas Turbine Engines in RN Warships / RFAs
a. Summary of Gas Turbine Configurations. A variety of engine configurations are

found in gas turbine powered RN warships. In broad terms they may be divided into the
following categories, although there are some variations within those categories:
| • Combined Gas or Gas (COGOG) (Fitted in Type 42 destroyers)
• Combined Gas and Gas (COGAG). (Fitted in Type 22 BIII frigates & CVS)
• Combined Diesel Electric and Gas (CODLAG). (Fitted in T23 frigates).
| • Integrated Electric Propulsion (IEP). (To be fitted in T45 destroyer and
| fitted in the LPD, AGS, AO and LSDA classes. See Note following Para 0164e
| opposite).
| b. Combined Gas or Gas (COGOG). Type 42 destroyers are fitted with 1 Tyne and
1 Olympus engine per shaft. Each shaft is fitted with Controlled Pitch Propellers (CPPs).
With the COGOG system, only one type of engine can be clutched to each propeller
shaft at a time, but different engine types can be connected to different shafts at the
same time. The basic COGOG layout for each shaft is to fit the main gearbox between
the Olympus and Tyne engines; however due to its faster running speed, the Tyne output
has to be synchronised through a primary gearbox before it can be linked to the main
gearbox. Either engine may then be selected and linked to the main gearbox through
Synchronous Self Shifting (SSS) clutches, which give a seamless change-over from one
engine to the other driving the propeller shaft. Normally, one Tyne is used for slow speed
loitering with the other shaft trailing, two Tynes are used for speeds up to 18 knots, a
mixed Tyne/Olympus configuration for speeds up to 23 knots and two Olympus engines
above 23 knots.
c. Combined Gas and Gas (COGAG). Type 22 BIII frigates are fitted with 1 Spey
and 1 Tyne engine per shaft and each shaft is fitted with Controlled Pitch Propellers
(CPPs). The CVSs are fitted with 2 Olympus engines per shaft and each shaft is fitted
with Fixed Pitch Propellers (FPPs). With the COGAG system, either one or two
engines may be used together to drive the same shaft. However, the arrangements for
COGAG fitted ships vary as follows:
• In Type 22 BIII (Spey / Tyne) COGAG frigates, as the Tyne engine runs at four
times the speed of rotation as Spey engines (approximately), its output has to be
synchronised through a primary gearbox before it can be linked to the main gearbox
and thus the Spey engine. Astern power is available at any time via the CPPs.
1-42
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BR 45(6)
• In CVSs, all the Olympus engines are similar, so no primary gearbox is needed
(contrary to the Type 22s), but due the fitting of FPPs the CVSs require a reversing
gearbox on each shaft in order to have an astern capability. Fluid couplings provide
the drive through Synchronous Self Shifting (SSS) clutches at slow speeds and when
manoeuvring. At higher speeds the engines are connected to the shafts by a direct
drive and in this mode there is no astern manoeuvring capability.
d. Combined Diesel Electric and Gas (CODLAG). The requirements for a frigate
with a low noise signature, economical fuel consumption and a long endurance led to the
adoption of a CODLAG arrangement for the Type 23. Each shaft has the rotor of an
electric motor fitted directly on to it, a Spey gas turbine (12.75 MW) linked through a
double reduction (non-reversing) gearbox and SSS clutch, and an FPP. The ship has four
1.3 MW electric generators (total 5.2 MW) to supply power for propulsion and for the
ship’s other electrical requirements and propulsion. Although for simplicity the T23 is
classed as ‘CODLAG’, there are three distinct main propulsion drives and two
emergency configurations, as follows (see Chapter 14 for more detailed information):
• EM Drive. Diesel generators driving motors with astern power available. No
gas turbines in use. Maximum speed ahead is 15 knots.
• Sided Boost Drive. Diesel generators driving motors on both shafts with gas
turbine boost on one side only. Maximum speed ahead is 24 knots. No astern
power available on the boosted side.
• CODLAG Drive. Diesel generators driving motors on both shafts with gas
turbine boost on both sides. Maximum speed ahead is 29 knots. No astern
power available.
• Emergency Configurations. See Chapter 14.
e. Integrated Electric Propulsion (IEP). Integrated Electric Propulsion (IEP) uses

diesel / gas turbine generators feed the whole ship electrical system, which includes the
propulsion system. IEP can be compared to a power station supplying all the needs of
a town. The T45 destroyer will be fitted with diesel / gas turbine IEP, and the LPD |
(ALBION class), AGS (ECHO class), AO (WAVE class RFA) and LSDA (BAY class RFA) |
are fitted with diesel powered Integrated Electric Propulsion (IEP). |
|
Note. IEP varies from the dedicated diesel / gas turbine engines generating electric power |
which is supplied direct to propulsion motors (eg T23 EM Drive, SANDOWN, DILIGENCE), in
that IEP embraces the supply of electrical to the whole ship and not just the propulsion. IEP is |
sometimes known as Full Integrated Electric Propulsion (FIEP) |
|
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0165. Summary of Propulsion Configurations in RN Warships / Submarines and RFAs

A wide variety of propulsion configurations are found in RN warships, submarines and
RFAs, and a summary is at Table 1-1. The detailed arrangements for each class are at Parts 2-5.
Table 1-1. Summary of Propulsion Configurations in RN Warships / SMs and RFAs.

Propeller Configuration Platforms
FPP Electric Motors (Diesel Generators) T23 EM Drive (see Chapter 14)
(Astern power is provided by reversing SANDOWN Slow Speed Drive (see Chp 18)
the current to the motor and thus the ALBION class (see Chapter 12)
rotation direction of the propeller shaft) DILIGENCE (see Chapter 51)
FPP Electric Motors (Diesel Generators) T23 Sided Boost Drive (see Chapter 14)
& Gas Turbines (No astern power) T23 CODLAG Drive (see Chapter 14)
FPP Integrated Electric Propulsion (IEP) T45 Destroyer (see Chapter 16)
(Diesel or Gas Turbine Generators) WAVE class RFAs (see Chapter 60)
(Astern power by reversing current)
Azipod Integrated Electric Propulsion (IEP) ECHO class survey ships (see Chapter 42)
| (Diesel Generators) BAY class LSDAs (see Chapter 59)
(Astern power by reversing current)
FPP Reduction Reversing Gearbox INVINCIBLE class (see Chapter 10)
(Astern power is provided by reversing HUNT & ARCHER classes (see Chp 17 & 21)
the propeller shaft via the gearbox; the FORT VICTORIA class (see Chapter 53)
engine rotates in the same direction) SIR BEDIVERE (SLEP) class (see Chp 58)
FPP Steam, with Ahead/Astern Turbines SSGN S & T classes (see Chapter 30)
(Astern power is provided by applying SSGN A class (see Chapter 30)
steam to the small astern turbine) SSBN VANGUARD class (see Chapter 32)
FPP Reduction (Non-Reversing) Gearbox OCEAN class (see Chapter 11)
(Engine has to be stopped and re- ARGUS (see Chapter 50)
started backwards for astern power) FORT ROSALIE class (see Chapter 52)
SIR BEDIVERE (Original) class (see Chp 58)
CPP Reduction (Non-Reversing) Gearbox T22 & T42 classes (see Chps 13 & 15)
(Astern power is provided by reversing ISLAND & CASTLE classes (see Chp 19 & 20)
the Pitch of the propeller blades) ENDURANCE & SCOTT (see Chp 40 & 41)
APPLELEAF class (see Chapter 54)
OAKLEAF class (see Chapter 55)
ROVER class (see Chapter 56)
‘SEA’ classes (see Chapter 57)
| ‘POINT’ class (see Chapter 57)
SIR GALAHAD (see Chapter 58)
VSP Voith-Schneider Propulsion (Diesel SANDOWN class (see Chapter 18)
Engines and Fluid Couplings)
FPP Hydraulic Motor (Diesel Engine) HUNT class Slow Speed Drive (see Ch 17)
Water Jet Hydraulic Motor (Diesel Engine) HUNT class Bow Thruster (see Chapter 17)
0166-0169. Spare
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SECTION 7 - STEERING SYSTEMS AND CONTROLS
0170. Electro-Hydraulic Steering Systems

Major warships are fitted with electro-hydraulic steering with two control systems (port
and starboard). One system is fitted with an auto change-over device in the event of failure. The
steering controls generate electrical signals to hydraulic pumps which turn the rudder. A feed-
back signal from the rudder head stops the rudder at the required angle. The Quartermaster’s
console contains the following three instruments: the Hand Steering Unit for manual steering;
the Set Course Unit and Auto Steering Unit for steering a course automatically. Some RFAs and
minor warships, together with most small craft, have different systems appropriate to their
requirements.
0171. Operation of the Electro-Hydraulic Steering System
a. System Diagram. A simplified diagram of a steering system is shown at Fig 1-29.

The components are situated in three compartments: the Bridge, the Secondary Steering
Position (SSP) and the Steering Gear Compartment (SGC).
b. System Operation. The signal generated by movement of the handlebar is routed

through the Hand Steering Unit in the SSP to the SGC. There it is fed to the Rudder
Servo Amplifier to produce power for the Rudder Servo Gearbox to operate the Steering
Control Box mechanically. The function of the Steering Control Box is to control the
hydraulic output from a continuously running pump. The hydraulic pressure from the
pump moves the rudders through a Rotary Vane Actuator. In order to stop the rudders
at the required angle, there is a mechanical link from the rudder heads to a reset
mechanism in the Steering Control Box which centres the control levers of the pumps
and so stops the delivery of hydraulic pressure.
Fig 1-29. Electro-Hydraulic Steering System
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0172. Manual (Hand) Steering

Some RFAs, small ships and craft may be fitted with a wheel for steering, but older major
warships are fitted with the steering equipment described at Paras 0172-0173. Type 23 frigates
have a simplified but broadly similar system (see Chapter 14).
a. Hand Steering Unit. The Hand Steering Unit is fitted with a handlebar which is
rotated to the required rudder angle up to a limit of 35 degrees, as shown by the
handlebar pointer. There are two method of hand steering:
• Self Centring - where the handlebar returns to amidships when released;
• Ratchet - where the rudder is offset in 1o steps to port or to starboard, to allow
for the situation where the ship is carrying helm (eg weather helm). With this
method the handlebar does not automatically re-centre.
b. Steering Mode Selection. Changing from hand to automatic steering and vice-
versa is normally effected by square push-buttons on the Hand Steering Unit which also
light up to show which mode is in use. See Para 0174 for emergency and override
procedures.
c. System Selection Switch and Failure Alarm Lights. The System Selection Switch
allows either the port or starboard steering control circuit to be used and has an indicator
light to indicate which is in use. Failure Alarm indicator lamps shows when there is a
fault in either of the steering control circuits.
d. Weather Helm Trim Control. Rudder trim may be set to an angle of up to 10o to
port or starboard using the Weather Helm Trim Control.
f. Compass Follow (Monitor) Alarm. The Monitor Alarm illuminates when there is
a gyro compass error of more than 2o. It is then necessary to change to hand steering.
Fig 1-30. Hand Steering Unit (Older Major Warships)
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0173. Automatic Steering

In older major warships, the QM’s console contains the Set Course Unit and the Auto
Steering Unit, which, when activated from the Hand Steering Unit, are used together for
automatic steering. Type 23 frigates have a very much simplified auto-pilot (see Chapter 14).
a. Set Course Unit. The Set Course Unit allows the course to be set to the nearest ten
degrees on the outer scale using the ‘ship outline’ control (see Fig 1-31) and then to the
nearest degree on the inner, fine control. The unit compares the ordered course with the
compass course and generates an error signal to operate the rudder within the limits set
on the Auto Steering Unit (see Fig 1-32).
Fig 1-31. Set Course Unit (Older Major Warships)
b. Auto Steering Unit. The Auto Steering Unit (see Fig 1-32) allows the rudder
control signal to be modified to allow for rudder limits, Yaw, ship’s speed and weather
helm. Weather helm, which is monitored continuously when in hand steering, is stored
in the unit’s memory and becomes immediately available on changing over to automatic
steering. Ship’s speed is fed from the ship’s log; if the log fails, however, there is an
alarm and a manual control to input ship’s speed. An Off-Course Alarm warns if there
is any deviation from the set course when in automatic steering. An Auto-Pilot Failure
Alarm is also fitted.
Fig 1-32. Auto Steering Unit (Older Major Warships)
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0174. Emergency and Override Selection of Steering Control

The normal method of changing the mode of steering is at Para 0172b.
a. Emergency Change to Hand Steering. In an emergency, the helmsman can

change from automatic steering to hand steering by rotating the handlebar fully in either
direction. This overrides the automatic mode of steering and immediately puts on full
port or starboard rudder. The helmsman must ease the wheel as soon as the indicator
lamp lights to show that the steering is in the hand steering mode.
b. Changing to the Secondary Steering Position (SSP). Changing to steering from

the SSP is controlled by a ‘override’ switch on the Hand Steering Unit in the SSP. The
SSP is not normally manned, so the protection of this control and the procedure for using
it should be laid down in Ship’s Orders. Automatic steering is not available in most
warships at the SSP. The SSP can also pass propulsion orders to the MCR/SCC.
c. Emergency (Local Handwheel) Steering. Should damage or an electrical fault in

either control system make it impossible to steer from the Bridge or the SSP, the ship can
be steered under local control from the Steering Gear Compartment. Provided one of the
two steering motors is running to produce hydraulic power, the Local Handwheel will
control rudder movement.
d. Emergency (Hand Pump) Steering. As a last resort, in the event of failure of all
power supplies to the steering motors, steering can still be achieved by Hand Pump. This
requires hard manual work using a hand operated hydraulic pump to move the rudders.
It is normal to use this facility to centralise the rudder (or apply a small rudder angle to
counter any weather helm) and then steer primarily by main engines, assisted as required
by the rudder (see Para 0175).
0175. Steering by Main Engines (with Hand Pump).

When steering by main engines, steady power is normally maintained on one shaft and
varied on the other. Provided rudder orders are limited to small amounts, in ships up to FF/DD
size, the Hand Pump (see Para 0174d) should be combined with steering by main engines. Ships
using this method for any protracted period are normally surprised by its effectiveness, but the
OOW has to be able to anticipate ship movement and counter Yaws with the main engines before
they become too pronounced. If a Yaw does become pronounced, a combination of very small
rudder orders and judicious engines orders should bring it under control. It is essential that the
OOW takes early action to counter Yaws, but equally, does not over-correct if one does develop.
It is also very important that personnel operating the Hand Pump are relieved by fresh teams at
frequent intervals, as the work is arduous, particularly in larger ships.
Note. If the rudders are jammed, or if for any reason the Hand Pump is not available to assist
| steering by main engines, it is unlikely the ship will be able to make ground in any direction, and
this will have a serious effect on operational capability. In 1941, the battleship Bismark was only
brought to action and sunk by pursuing forces because one of its rudders had been jammed by
a torpedo and it was thus unable to escape. Had the torpedo struck anywhere other than the
rudders, it is unlikely the Bismark would have been sunk, and this underlines the importance of
maintaining steering capability in an operational situation.
0176-0179. Spare
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK
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SECTION 8 - CONNING AND CONTROL ORDERS
0180. Giving Conning Orders

The term ‘Conning’ means manoeuvring the ship by giving wheel, steering or propulsion
orders to the helmsman. Other than the CO, only the Officer of the Watch (OOW) may normally
give Conning orders (but see Para 0183). The helmsman should always acknowledges a Conning
order by repeating it before taking action. When a Conning order is not repeated correctly, the
OOW should give the order again, firmly and clearly. If the helmsman is confused by a wheel
order or puts on wheel in the wrong direction, the OOW should order ‘MIDSHIPS’ and then give
the wheel order again (but see Para 0514b for action during RAS operations).
0181. Manual (Hand) Steering Conning Orders
a. Wheel Orders - General. Wheel orders are Conning orders to apply the rudder in
a given direction to a particular angle (eg ‘STARBOARD FIFTEEN’, ‘MIDSHIPS’ etc).
The final course intended may be indicated by adding ‘ALTERING ...’ (see Para 0181b).
An order to steer a course is made by using either the ‘STEER ...’ or the ‘STEADY’
procedure (see Paras 0181b, 0181c). The term ‘degrees’ is never used. The ‘STEADY’
procedure is useful if only the OOW does not have immediate access to a compass
repeat; it is thus not often used. On receiving a wheel order, the helmsman repeats it
and turns the handlebar (or wheel in some ships) in the required direction to the angle
shown on the indicator on the Quartermaster’s console. The helmsman reports when the
amount of wheel ordered has been applied, (eg ‘WHEEL IS AMIDSHIPS’ or 'FIFTEEN
OF STARBOARD WHEEL, ON’ etc). These principles apply to all Conning orders.
b. Alterations of Course over 20°. When altering course by more than 20°, it is usual
to include the intended course with the initial order. The sequence of orders given by the
OOW is then as follows:
• OOW includes the intended course with the initial order (eg ‘STARBOARD
TWENTY, ALTERING 340’).
• The helmsman acknowledges by repeating the order, and reporting when the
rudder angle is set (eg ‘TWENTY OF STARBOARD, ON’).
• As the lubbers line passes through a heading 15o before the new course, the
helmsman reports to the OOW (eg ‘PASSING 325’).
• The OOW ‘Cons’ the ship on to the new course, and particularly if large
amounts of wheel have been used initially, may first ease the helm (eg ‘EASE
TO TEN’) and then when the ship nears its intended course, by ordering
‘MIDSHIPS’. The helmsman responds as described in Para 0181a.
• With the rudder amidships the ship will continue to turn and so the OOW will
stop the swing by ordering opposite wheel (eg ‘PORT TEN’).
• Finally, when on or near the new course, the OOW will order ‘MIDSHIPS’,
followed immediately by ‘STEER ...’ (eg ‘STEER 340’) or ‘STEADY’. If the
OOW gives an order to ‘STEER ...’ then the helmsman applies wheel as
required to do so, but if the order ‘STEADY’ is given, the helmsman is to steer
the heading shown by the lubbers line at the instant ‘STEADY’ was given.
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c. Alterations of Course up to 10°. When making a small alteration of course of up

to 10°, the OOW may give a wheel order followed by the course required to steer
(eg ‘STARBOARD FIFTEEN, STEER 312’). The helmsman repeats this, brings the ship
to the course ordered using that amount of wheel. When steady on the new course, the
helmsman reports this (eg ‘COURSE 312’).
0182. Automatic (Auto-Pilot) Steering Conning Orders
a. Changing to Automatic Steering (Auto-Pilot) and Setting Course. To change

from hand to automatic steering (auto-pilot), a button on the Hand Steering Unit is
pressed (see Para 0172b). To set or alter course, the OOW orders ‘SET COURSE ....’,
(eg. 'SET COURSE 053’). The helmsman repeats this order back (see Para 0181a) and
applies it to the Set Course Unit (see Para 0173a), reporting ‘COURSE ... SET’ (eg.
'COURSE 053 SET’). The auto-pilot brings the ship to the new course using the rudder
limit set on the Auto Steering Unit (see Para 0173b). When steady on the new course, the
helmsman reports: eg. ‘COURSE 053’. However, the auto-pilot assumes no alteration is
greater than 180° and so brings the ship to the new course by the shortest way; alterations
of more than 180o must be ordered in two steps.
CAUTION
The auto-pilot assumes no alteration is greater than 180° and so

brings the ship to the new course by the shortest way. Alterations of
more than 180° must be ordered in two steps
0183. Tactical Conning / Control Orders and OOW Veto

In RN warships the OOW on the Bridge normally gives all Conning orders, except at
Shelter Stations when they may be made from the Shelter Station. However, in SANDOWN
class ships, the CO is authorised to Con the ship from the Operations Room when in PJC or AIO
(NAUTIS CAAIS) control; the CO may delegate this to the Mine Warfare Officer but the OOW
then retains responsibility for ship safety. See Para 1819f and QRRN 3003.13 for further details.
a. Taking Bridge Control / Ops Control (see Note). In operational situations,

‘Tactical Control’ of the ship (abbreviated to Control) may be exercised from the Bridge
or the Ops Room. Whenever there is a change of Tactical Control, a formal verbal
handover between the OOW and PWO must take place on Command Open Line (or
equivalent), giving the ship’s course, speed and ‘Command Intentions’, plus the
executive order ‘TAKE BRIDGE CONTROL’ / ‘TAKE OPS CONTROL’ (as appropriate)
which is always repeated back so that there is absolutely no doubt among the entire
Command Team where Control of the ship lies.
b. Ops Room Control Orders (see Note). When in ‘Ops Control’, the PWO may
direct the ship’s movement by a general instruction (eg ‘Patrol your sector at ... knots’)
or by ordering the OOW to ‘INCREASE / DECREASE ...’ (indicating the new speed in
knots) and to ‘COME LEFT / RIGHT .... ’ (eg ‘COME LEFT 240’). The direction may
be prefixed ‘SLOW’ or ‘HARD’. Although the precise meaning of these prefixes may be
laid down in Standing Orders for particular ships, they are normally taken as follows:
• ‘SLOW LEFT / RIGHT’ - 10° of wheel
• ‘LEFT / RIGHT’ - 20° of wheel
• ‘HARD LEFT / RIGHT’ - 30° of wheel
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c. Tactical Control - OOW Veto (see Note). The OOW has complete responsibility
for the safety of the ship and although (Tactical) Control orders are made with Command
Authority (and may indeed be spoken by the CO), the OOW has the authority to query,
modify, delay or veto them if to obey would be unsafe (QRRN 3003.12). In the event
of any situation which makes it unsafe for the OOW to obey any Control orders (or to
continue to obey existing Control orders) the OOW must declare ‘OOW VETO’ on
Command Open Line (or equivalent) and take whatever manoeuvring action is required
to keep the ship safe, explaining the situation to the PWO / Command as soon as possible
afterwards. Control and Conning orders deliberately use different forms of words to
achieve the same end, so that there is no risk of the helmsman misinterpreting a Control
order for a Conning order and accidentally applying wheel or a change in speed without
the OOW’s specific authority.
Note. Para 0183 is contained in BR 45 Volume 4 Para 0831, which also has extra information.
0184. Propulsion Control
a. Methods of Propulsion Control. The method of propulsion control varies with the
type of machinery fitted and whether the ship is fitted with FPPs or CPPs. Most major
warships (except T23s) may control the propulsion systems either directly from the
Bridge (known as Bridge Control) or by telegraph orders (supplemented by telephone in
some cases) to the MCR/SCC (known as MCR/SCC Control). The Conning orders used
vary depending on which method of control is being used and what propulsion control
instruments are fitted.
b. General and Class Guidance. The propulsion controls used for Bridge Control
and MCR/SCC Control are specified at Parts 2-5 for individual classes. General guidance
on Conning order procedures are at Paras 0185-0189, but see also Parts 2-5 for any
specific class Conning order procedures required
c. Terminology. It is important not to confuse propulsion ‘Bridge Control’ (Para

0184) with tactical ‘Bridge Control’ (see Para 0183).
0185. Propulsion Conning Orders

Propulsion Conning orders may be divided into three categories and their use will depend
on what propulsion control instruments are fitted.
a. Engine Orders. Engine orders are used to order the direction and overall amount
of propulsion thrust. They are passed by Engine Telegraph. Engine orders comprise
combinations of the following terms: Ahead, Astern and Stop, Slow, Half, Full.
b. Power Orders. Power orders are used to order the propulsion power (and
sometimes direction) and are passed by Pitch-Power Control Lever (PCL) settings or
shaft revolutions using a Lever, Percentage or Revolution order instrument of some kind.
c. Shaft Brake Orders. Shaft Brake orders are used to stop a CPP shaft from rotating
by applying the Shaft Brake, or to release the Shaft Brake. A variety of different control
instruments exist to apply and release the Shaft Brake and the implementation procedures
and orders vary by class. See also Para 0189.
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0186. Propulsion Conning Orders when in Bridge Control - General
The following guidance on propulsion Conning orders should be read in conjunction with
any class-specific procedures, which will be found in the appropriate chapter of Parts 2-5. Some
minor warships use the MCR/SCR Control Engine Order Format (see Para 0187a) even when in
Bridge Control, due to the arrangement of the equipment and instruments fitted.
a. Engine Orders - PCL Fitted Ships. When propulsion Conning orders are being
used in Bridge Control, the engine orders ‘Stop’, ‘Slow Ahead/Astern’ and ‘Half
Ahead/Astern’ are not used and the appropriate PCL (Pitch-Power Control Lever)
settings are used instead (‘LEVER ZERO’ equates to ‘STOP’). PCL settings may be
regarded as measure of the % power being applied. See class-specific details at Parts 2-5.
b. Normal Procedure - PCL Fitted Ships. Propulsion Conning orders in Bridge

Control where PCL levers are fitted are preceded by the order ‘Set’, followed by which
lever or levers are to be used, then the direction of thrust and the power required
(eg ‘SET: PORT LEVER - ASTERN - 50’ ). Note that ‘50’ is pronounced ‘FIVE ZERO’.
The helmsman repeats the order (see Para 0180) and applies it by setting the port PCL
astern to the ‘50’ position. See also class-specific details at Parts 2-5.
c. CVS Procedure. In the CVS, the main engines are rarely in Bridge Control.
However in the event that this option is adopted, in response to the same order as at Para
0186b, the helmsman first transmits ‘Astern’ on the port Engine Telegraph and then sets
the port Power Demand Lever to ‘50’. See also Part 2, Chapter 10.
d. Emergency Slow or Stop. If an emergency develops requiring the SCC/MCR to

reduce power, the ‘EMERGENCY SLOW’ procedure will be initiated by the SCC/MCR.
The SCC/MCR will misalign the telegraphs to SLOW, in the direction propelling at the
time of the emergency (ie if propelling ahead, SLOW AHEAD will be used; if
propelling astern, telegraphs will be misaligned to SLOW ASTERN). The
‘EMERGENCY STOP’ procedure is similar, only this indicates that the affected engine |
and/or shaft must be stopped immediately. Standard class emergency procedures should
then be followed.
e. Full Ahead / Full Astern - PCL Fitted Ships. If the emergency order ‘FULL
AHEAD’ or ‘FULL ASTERN’ is given by the OOW / CO when in Bridge Control, they
take responsibility for any damage to machinery which results, the appropriate PCL
is moved to the maximum setting in the required direction and the Engine Telegraph(s)
are put to ‘FULL AHEAD’ or ‘FULL ASTERN’. On receipt of the Engine Telegraph
movement to ‘FULL’, SCC/MCR Control is adopted immediately without further orders.
This procedure is in place to avoid the situation which might arise if the Bridge were
only to apply maximum PCL. In this case, the engines might exceed a machinery limit
and the SCC/MCR would automatically take control and reduce power to prevent
machinery damage, without being aware that an emergency situation existed with full
power being required irrespective of risk to machinery.
f. Engine Telegraph / Lever Order Instrument Movement - PCL Fitted Ships.

When in Bridge Control, PCL fitted ships set the Engine Telegraphs to ‘Half Ahead’ and
the Lever Order Instrument(s) to 30. Any movement of the Engine Telegraphs or Lever
Order Instrument(s) will cause the SCC to ‘Obey Telegraphs’ and adopt SCC/MCR
Control immediately without further orders.
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0187. Propulsion Conning Orders when in MCR/SCC Control - General
The following guidance on propulsion Conning orders should be read in conjunction with
any class-specific procedures, which will be found in the appropriate chapter of Parts 2-5.
Note. Some minor warships use the MCR/SCR Control Engine Order Format (below) even when
in Bridge Control due to the arrangement of the equipment and instruments fitted.
a. Engine Order Format. Engine Telegraph orders precede any Revolution / PCL
order (eg ‘HALF AHEAD BOTH ENGINES, REVOLUTIONS 100’). Engine orders take
the following form and sequence:
• STOP / SLOW / HALF / FULL
• AHEAD / ASTERN
• PORT / STARBOARD / BOTH ENGINES
• SET LEVER / REVOLUTIONS
b. Single and Twin Lever Order Instruments.

• In ships fitted with two Lever Order Instruments, the order ‘SET’ precedes the
shaft and lever power required (eg ‘SET PORT LEVER 40’, or ‘SET
STARBOARD LEVER 40’ or ‘SET BOTH LEVERS 40’)
• In ships fitted with one Lever Order Instrument, the order ‘SET’ precedes the
lever power required on both shafts (eg ‘SET LEVER 54’). If different power
settings are required on each shaft, orders for this are given to the MCR/SCC
by telephone.
Note. When a Lever Order Instrument setting applies to both shafts, propulsion units will then
produce the same power if both Engine Telegraphs are at ‘HALF’, although one engine may be
‘AHEAD’ and the other ‘ASTERN’.
c. Revolution Order Instruments. Exactly similar procedures apply to Revolution

Order Instruments as to Lever Order Instruments, except for the substitution of the word
‘REVOLUTION’ for ‘LEVER’ (eg ‘SET PORT REVOLUTIONS 54’).
Note. In Type 23s, the word ‘Set’ is omitted in the above order.
d. Emergency Slow Procedure. If an emergency develops requiring the SCC/MCR

to reduce power, the ‘EMERGENCY SLOW’ procedure will be initiated by the
SCC/MCR. It should be noted that the SCC/MCR will misalign the telegraphs to SLOW,
in the direction propelling at the time of the emergency. Hence, if propelling ahead,
SLOW AHEAD will be used but if propelling astern, telegraphs will be misaligned to
SLOW ASTERN. Standard class emergency procedures should then be followed.
e. Full Ahead / Full Astern. If the emergency order ‘FULL AHEAD’ or ‘FULL
ASTERN’ is given by the OOW / CO, the OOW /CO takes responsibility for any
damage to machinery which results. The SCC/MCR should then apply the maximum
power available in the current engine configuration, irrespective of normal machinery
limits.
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0188. Generic Starting-Up Procedure for Gas-Turbine Fitted Ships
The following procedure outlines the generic steps necessary when starting gas-turbine
engines when not underway. Variants from this outline, which are authorised in individual
classes, take precedence over the generic procedure below.
a. Starting Engines when Not Underway (Remaining in MCR/SCC Control).
• Condition - Telegraph at Stop, Lever Order Instrument(s) at

zero. Levers at zero position.
• OOW to SCC/MCR - “Confirm propulsion is in SCC/MCR control”
• SCC/MCR to OOW - “In SCC/MCR control”.
• OOW orders - “Start and select Port and Starboard Tyne” (or Spey
or Olympus etc).
• MCR/SCC - Repeats Order
• MCR/SCC reports - “Port and Starboard Tynes running and selected in

MCR/SCC Control. Ready to obey telegraphs.
Limitations ......”
• OOW to QM - “Check telegraphs at stop”.
• QM to OOW - “Telegraphs at Stop”.
• OOW to QM - “Ring on Lever ......” (Lever setting as required).
• QM to OOW - “..... Lever setting ordered”.
• OOW to EOOW - “Obey Telegraphs”
• EOOW to OOW - “Obey Telegraphs”
• OOW to QM - “Obey Telegraphs”
• QM to OOW - “Obey Telegraphs”
b. Changing from MCR to Bridge Control when Not Underway.
• OOW to SCC/MCR - “Prepare to change to Bridge Control”.
• SCC/MCR - Repeats Order.
• QM - Uncovers levers and aligns them with repeat

pointers.
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BR 45(6)
• OOW to SCC/MCR - “Levers aligned change to Bridge Control”
• SCC/MCR - Selects Bridge Control and reports, “Bridge

Control Selected”.
• OOW to SCC/MCR - “Testing” Tests Bridge Control and reports

“Bridge Control Confirmed”.
• OOW to SCC/MCR - “In Bridge Control, disregard Telegraphs”.
• OOW to QM - “Obey Lever Orders”.
• OOW to QM - “Set Port and Starboard Telegraphs half ahead and

Lever Order Instrument(s) to 30".
• QM to OOW - “Port and Starboard Telegraphs half ahead, Lever

Order Instrument(s) set to 30".
• OOW to SCC/MCR - “Any deviation from half ahead, lever 30, and the
MCR/SCC are to assume MCR/SCC Control and
obey telegraphs”.
0189. Shaft Brake Orders - General

The following procedure outlines the generic steps necessary when applying or releasing
Shaft Brakes. Variants from this outline, which are authorised in individual classes, take
precedence over the generic procedure below.
a. Limitations. Before ordering a Shaft Brake to be operated, the ship’s speed and the
shaft revolutions should be brought below the operating limits required, and the Bridge
should warn the MCR/SCC.
b. Method. The method of implementing the application / release of the Shaft Brake
varies by class depending on the equipment fitted; details by class are in the appropriate
chapter of Parts 2-5. In most cases (see Note) the OOW gives the following Conning
order:
‘APPLY / RELEASE - PORT/STARBOARD/BOTH - SHAFT BRAKE(s)’
This order is repeated back by the helmsman before it is actioned. The format of the
report confirming that the Shaft Brake(s) has been applied / released varies by class (see
Note below). See Parts 2-5 for details.
Note. In particular, the Type 23 Shaft Brake orders are entirely different to those shown above
- see Para 1415 and Annex 14B.
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ANNEX A TO CHAPTER 1
SHIP’S STAFF TURNING AND ACCELERATION / DECELERATION TRIALS
1. Ship’s Staff Turning Trials. Ship’s staff may sometimes be required to carry out
limited turning trials to check Manoeuvring Data, especially after any structural change to the
ship that is expected to affect performance. However, it is unlikely ship’s staff will be required
to conduct a check of manoeuvring data at more than a few selected speeds and rudder angles,
particularly as only basic tracking methods will normally be available. Trials should carried out
turning to port and starboard, and accelerations/decelerations (see Para 0153) should also be
measured.
2. Turning Trial Conditions. The trials should be conducted in calm weather, in deep
water and with minimal tidal stream. To avoid Shallow Water Effect, turning trials should be
carried out in depths of not less than 100% Onset Depth (see Para 0204). QinetiQ (ex-DERA
Haslar) use depths equivalent to at least half the waterline length of a warship, which gives a
similar figure at maximum speed. No attempt should be made to adjust propulsion controls
during turns in order to balance power or propeller revolutions on each shaft. Courses should
be recorded in degrees, times in minutes and seconds, distances in yards or metres, and speeds
in knots. The data should be recorded at the prime 15° alterations of course.
3. Turning Trial Preparations. GPS may be used to provide positional information and
an area with nil tidal streams will normally be required. The ‘traditional’ method for conducting
turning trials without GPS is as follows. The ship should lay a free-floating dan buoy with the
submerged part of the stave extending to the same depth as the ship's draught; this will ensure
that tidal stream affects dan buoy and ship equally. The above water part of the stave should be
long enough to allow ranging by vertical sextant angle and should have a flag to make it
conspicuous for bearings. A boat, manned by an observer with a sextant, a recorder and a radio
operator, should be positioned very close to the dan buoy.
4. Conduct of the Turning Trial on the Bridge

a. Navigating Officer. The NO orders each turn, eg: ‘Stand by for Turn No 3 to
starboard’ and reads off bearings of the dan buoy at every 15o of alteration.
b. Recorder. The Recorder notes the following every 15°of alteration: stop-
watch time from wheel over, bearing and range of the dan buoy.
c. Rangetaker. The Rangetaker ranges of the buoy by sextant or radar.
d. Radio Operator. The Radio Operator repeats orders to the boat.
5. Conduct of the Turning Trial in the Boat. The observer in the boat takes a vertical
sextant angle of the ship's masthead at each order ‘Now’ from the ship. The angle to the
masthead should be measured either from the upper deck or from the waterline boot topping to
avoid errors arising from heel.
6. Turning Trial Records. Annex 1B contains a summary of the information which needs
to be recorded.
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7. Turning Trial Analysis. The data from each turn should be plotted on a manoeuvring
form and the results tabulated on a copy of the form at Annex 1A. The ranges taken from the
Bridge should be confirmed by those from the boat; vertical sextant angles may be converted to
distances using Norie's Nautical Tables. The speed remaining at each point of the turn is
determined by calculating the mean speeds between each 30 degree change of heading and then
plotting these on a graph at the half way point of each 30 degree alteration. The speed at any
point of the turn can then be read off from the graph.
8. Acceleration and Deceleration Trials. First of Class (FOC) acceleration/deceleration

trials are normally carried out by QinetiQ (ex-DERA Haslar) at the same time as turning trials
(see Para 0143). In the unlikely event of the ship’s staff needing to carry out acceleration /
deceleration trials, the ships position relative to a fixed mark during the period of speed change
needs to be established as accurately as possible. The procedure is very similar to that of Ship’s
Staff turning trials and is normally carried out at the same time. As in turning trials, it is
important that the acceleration/deceleration trials are conducted in deep water The methods of
determining the distance run and thus calculating acceleration/deceleration are:
a. By establishing the ship's position on passing a free-floating dan buoy, from

compass bearings and vertical sextant angles.
b. By fixing the ship's position on a large scale chart. This is best done in deep water
with GPS, but a shore transit ahead and good beam bearings may also be used provided
that the water is sufficiently deep and allowance is made for the effect of any tidal stream
or current.
9. Acceleration and Deceleration Trial Records. Annex 1B contains a summary of the

information which needs to be tabulated. Observations should be taken from zero time, which
is the moment that the propulsion is set to the power required, and at each subsequent minute.
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RECORD OF SHIP’S STAFF TURNING TRIALS (CONFIDENTIAL WHEN COMPLETED)
Alteration of Course 15° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360
°
SPEED KNOTS RUDDER
Time of Turning (a) Initial Speed during 1st minute ...............
Transfer (b), (c) (before rudder is put over) .......... knots.
Advance (d) Initial Revolutions / PCL during 1st minute
Length of Arc ( Stbd .........
(before rudder is put over)
Mean Speed
( Port .........
Speed at end of each 30° Time taken to put rudder over........... secs.
%age of original speed (end of each 30°) Angle of rudder (at rudder head) ...........°
Time Correction Omit Omit Omit Omit Omit Omit Omit Omit True wind (relative to initial course .........°)
Intermediate Course Direction ............ Force .............
Intermediate Distance State of Sea ....................
Time Correction
(a) From the time of ordering the rudder to be put over.

(b) The transfer for any number of degrees is the distance the ship is transferred to the right or left whilst turning that number of degrees measured at right angles to the original course.
(c) The Tactical Diameter is the transfer for the first 180E.
(d) The advance for any turn is the distance the ship is advanced from the position when putting the rudder over in the direction of the original course while making that turn.
RECORD OF SHIP’S STAFF STOPPING AND STARTING TRIALS (CONFIDENTIAL WHEN COMPLETED)
ANNEX B TO CHAPTER 1
Position of Speed applied for Trial Mean speed of ship during each minute Distance ship travels and Number of degrees and True
Telegraphs and time taken before it has direction in which ship turns Wind Force State
speed of Ship at Port Starboard Angle of 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th lost or gained its way before she has lost her way relative of of Sea REMARKS
start Engine Engine Rudder to Initial Wind
knots knots knots knots knots knots knots knots knots knots Yds Mins Secs Degrees Direction Course
Half speed Slow Slow Steady Omit Omit
.... knots .... knots .... knots course
Slow speed Steady Omit Omit
.... knots Stopped Stopped course
Half Half Steady Omit Omit
Stopped .... knots .... knots course
Slow speed Half s Half
.... knots astern astern Amidships
Half speed Half Half
REPORT OF TURNING AND ACCELERATION / DECELERATION TRIALS
Half speed Full Full

Original
1B-1
BR 45(6)
1B-2
REPORT ON SHIP STAFF TURNING TRIAL CONFIDENTIAL (when completed)
Original
BR 45(6)
HMS Steering by HAND/AUTO PILOT* Date of Trial ...........................................

..........................................................
Control of Engines from BRIDGE/MCR* Months out of Dock ................................
Approach speed .............................
Knots Draught: FORWARD .................. AFT ................... State of Bottom ........................................
Rudder angle ................... Depth of Water ........................................

PORT/STBD*
* Delete as appropriate.
ALTERATION OF COURSE WHEEL 15° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360
(Change of Ship's Head) OVER °
Advance ..............Metres
.............. (Yards)
Transfer: ................Metres
.............. (Yards)
Speed: ................ Knots
Tim: Mins ........ Seconds......... 0.00
CONFIDENTIAL (when completed)

REPORT ON ACCELERATION / DECELERATION* TRIAL (CONFIDENTIAL WHEN COMPLETED)
Date of
HMS ...................................................................................... Trial.....................................................
Steering by HAND/AUTO PILOT*
Speed at Start of Trial................................................... Knots Months out of
Control of Engines from BRIDGE/MCR* Dock....................................................
Speed Rung on...............................................................
Knots Draught: FORWARD .......... AFT ............ State of
Bottom................................................
Rudder AMIDSHIPS/MAINTAINING A COURSE*
* Delete as appropriate
Speed through the water - Knots
Time - Minutes - Seconds
Distance - Metres (Yards)
GAIN/LOSS* of Speed Correction
Time taken to INCREASE/DECREASE* from ....................... Kts to .........................Kts = ............................... Min .............................. Secs
Distance travelled during that INCREASE/DECREASE* of Speed = ........................................................................ Metres

(Yards)
Distance Guide travelled at the HIGHER/LOWER* speed, in that time =
........................................................................ Metres
Difference = (Yards)
Divided by ............................. Kts INCREASED/DECREASED* ........................................................................ Metres

(Yards)
Per Kt
correction
REPORT ON ACCELERATION / DECELERATION* TRIAL (CONFIDENTIAL WHEN COMPLETED)

Original
1B-3
BR 45(6)
BR 45(6)
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
1B-4
Original
BR 45(6)
PRINCIPLES OF INTERACTION
CHAPTER 2
CONTENTS
Para
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0201
Pressure and Suction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0202
Forms of Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0203
Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Onset Depths (Single Ship in Open Water) . . . . . . . . . 0204
Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Speed Loss (Single Ship in Open Water) . . . . . . . . . . . 0205
Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Virtual Mass and Acceleration/Deceleration Changes 0206
Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Principles of Squat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0207
Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Squat in Open Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0208
Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Squat in Confined Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0209
Canal Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0210
Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Interaction with Other Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0211
Interaction in RAS Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0212
ANNEXES
Annex A: Shallow Water Effect Onset Depths during RAS

Annex B: RFA Light, Medium and Deep Condition Displacement Ranges
2-1
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BR 45(6)
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
2-2
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BR 45(6)
CHAPTER 2
0201. Introduction
The general term ‘Interaction’ includes the more specific terms ‘Shallow Water Effect
(SWE)’, ‘Squat’, ‘Canal Effect’ and ‘Ship Proximity Interaction’, which are particular cases of
Interaction and are defined at Para 0203.
a. Nature of Interaction. This chapter outlines the effects and approximate

magnitude of Interaction between a ship, the sea bottom, the shore (or bank), other ships,
and a combination of some or all of these factors. Interaction forces can be enormous
and can greatly exceed the capability of the rudders and engines to counteract them (see
BR 134 Cases 205-207). However, it should be appreciated that the calculation of
Interaction is an inexact science and the results should be treated with caution.
CAUTION
The calculation of Interaction is an inexact science

and the results should be treated with caution.
b. Lack of Precision in Interaction Prediction. The inability to predict Interaction

effects with great accuracy is partly because research by different authorities has resulted
in different equations to describe the same Interaction phenomena, and partly because
for the practical mariner navigating in a channel or in shallow water, exact numerical
values for all the variables are seldom available. Thus the mariner usually has to make
some assumptions and apply a simple mathematical treatment to arrive at broad
guideline rather than a precise answer. Some basic ‘rules of thumb’ are given at BR 45
Volume 1 page 308.
c. Occurrence of Interaction Incidents. Serious navigational incidents have

occurred over many years as a result of the effects of Interaction and similar incidents
continue to occur on a regular basis within the worldwide maritime community. A well
publicised case in 1993, which was fully investigated by the MAIB, involved a luxury
liner grounding at 25 knots in shallow water off the US Coast due to Interaction. In this
case, the ship suffered a predictable large decrease in underkeel clearance (known as
Squat - see Para 0203b), but no allowance for it had been made and this resulted in the
grounding. Further navigational incidents involving Interaction may be found in BR
134, at Cases 204, 205, 206, 207, 208 and 502. Interaction forces are powerful,
invisible and insidious; they deserve the utmost respect and care.
2-3
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BR 45(6)
0202. Pressure and Suction

The Bernoulli Phenomenon (see Para 0110) causes zones of high Pressure and low
Pressure (Suction) to be created around any body moving through a fluid (or gas). In a ship
moving through water, 3 zones are created: a Pressure Zone around and ahead of the bow, a
Suction Zone amidships, and another Pressure Zone around and abaft the stern. The aft Pressure
Zone is normally less powerful than the bow Pressure Zone. These Pressure and Suction Zones
extend laterally and vertically from the ship, and their approximate boundaries for a generic ship
are shown at Figs 2-1 and 2-2 below. The same effects occur on a stationary ship in moving
water (eg ship anchored / secured alongside in a tidal stream / current). The effect of these zones
is analogous to the sensation felt when standing on a railway platform if an express train passes
through at speed. As the engine approaches one feels pushed away (bow Pressure Zone), as the
carriages pass one feels sucked towards them (midships Suction Zone) and as the last carriage
passes clear one feels pushed away again (stern Pressure Zone). Similar effects occur with ships.
Fig 2-1. Approximate Boundaries for Lateral Pressure and Suction Zones (Generic Ship)
Fig 2-2. Approximate Boundaries for Vertical Pressure and Suction Zones (Generic Ship)
Note. While the concept of bow, midships and stern Pressure / Suction Zones is true for all
moving ships, it should be noted that the exact positions of the Pressure / Suction Zone
boundaries are dependent on the hull form of the vessel. In some cases, the Pressure / Suction
Zone boundaries may be different from those shown at Figs 2-1 and 2-2.
2-4
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BR 45(6)
0203. Forms of Interaction

The Bernoulli Phenomenon (see Para 0110) causes an Interaction effect on a moving
ship whenever its proximity to another body distorts the Flow Stream Lines to produce unequal
Pressure on different parts of the hull. When in shallow water or in narrow channels (or both)
these effects are greatly magnified. In a flow of water, the Pressure of the flow is inversely
proportional to the square of its Velocity (see the Bernoulli Phenomenon at Para 0110). As
Interaction is dependent on Pressure, it is inversely proportional to the square of the ship’s
Velocity, (ie halving the speed quarters the effect) and thus even a small decrease in speed has
a significant effect in reducing its effects. Interaction takes the following specific forms:
a. Shallow Water Effect. In shallow water, the effect of Interaction (known overall
as ‘Shallow Water Effect’ (SWE)) is to reduce the ship’s speed over the ground, alter
acceleration and deceleration characteristics, reduce steering control, increase the size
and shape of the wave (wake) pattern generated by the ship, and decrease the underkeel
clearance (known specifically as Squat - see Para 0203b). The OOW’s first visual
indication of SWE may be an enhanced wake in a wide V-shape, which can also cause
difficulties to small craft and damage to any nearby populated coastline. In waters which
are also confined laterally, SWE will be experienced more strongly than in open water.
See Paras 0204-0211.
b. Squat. Squat is one specific element of SWE and will also be experienced more
strongly in waters which are also confined laterally than when in open water (see Paras
0203a and 0207-0209). An accurate, full definition of Squat is:
Squat is the decrease in underkeel clearance which occurs when the ship is making way,
or alongside / anchored in a current or tideway.
An incorrect, but commonly held view, is that Squat is the difference between the
draught when stopped and the draught when making way, measured from the forward
and aft draught marks. This view is in error because the draught mark readings will be
affected by the height of the pressure-induced bow and stern waves (see Fig 2-2 at Para
0202). Using draught marks to assess Squat while making way generally gives an
exaggerated assessment.
c. Canal Effect. When in a narrow channel, canal or river, horizontal Interaction

(known as Canal Effect) causes lateral forces which can throw the ship off course if they
become significantly out of balance. This is particularly likely if the ship gets too close
to one bank or the bank profile changes on one side. A sheer off course can also occur
if the ship passes near a submerged shoal on one side with deeper water on the other. If
the water is also shallow (as is normally the case in a channel, canal or river), these
effects are magnified and other characteristics of SWE will also be experienced in an
enhanced form. See Para 0210.
d. Ship Proximity Interaction. Close proximity of other ships can produce a similar
situation to Canal Effect (eg when passing or overtaking in a canal, or during RAS
(Replenishment at Sea). Large forces are generated on one side which may affect both
steering, speed and Squat. If the water is shallow, these effects are magnified (eg Squat
can double) and the other characteristics of SWE will also be experienced. Particular
care is needed when planning RAS operations to consider the combined Displacement
of the RAS group, its speed and the available depth of water (see Para 0211).
2-5
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BR 45(6)
0204. Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Onset Depths (Single Ship in Open Water)
a. SWE Onset Depth and Graph. The Onset Depth of Shallow Water Effect (SWE)
depends on the ship’s speed, Displacement and the depth of water. The following
formula indicates the Onset Depth at which Shallow Water Effect is likely to start to
occur (for a single ship in open water) and is normally referred to as the 100% Onset
Depth. It is shown graphically at Fig 2-3 for various classes of ship at different speeds.
Fig 2-3. SWE (100%) Onset Depths at Various Speeds, for Single Ship in Open Water
Example 2-1. From Fig 2-3, a Type 22 BIII at 25 knots, operating on its own in open water,
will start to feel the effects of SWE (see Para 0203a) at a depth of about 70 metres.
b. SWE Onset Depth - Effect on Steering Control. SWE reduces steering control
due to an increase in Turbulent Flow in the vicinity of the rudders. As the ship enters
shoaling water within the Onset Depth, there will be a progressive and insidious
reduction in the efficiency of the rudders which may occur unnoticed until a bold
manoeuvre is required. In very shallow water this loss of steering control may become
substantial, particularly if bursts of high power are used to enhance the flow of water
over the rudders for a particular manoeuvre (eg Turning at Rest or Turning Short). In
very shallow water, sudden and substantial increases in engine power may create such
turbulence around the rudders that any advantage is negated.
c. SWE - Percentage of Onset Depth. Depths shallower than the Onset Depth
calculated by the formula at Para 0204a / Fig 2-3, may be referred to their percentage of
Onset Depth (eg In Example 2-1, a depth of 35 metres would be 50% Onset Depth).
2-6
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BR 45(6)
0205. Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Speed Loss (Single Ship in Open Water)
a. Drag and Wake Effects. When SWE is experienced, the reduction in Pressure
causes an increase in the Velocity of the flow past the hull (see Para 0110). This in turn
increases the number of layers of Laminar Flow and an increased incidence of Turbulent
Flow which in turn increases the Form Drag (see Para 0111) and Virtual Mass (see Paras
0114 and 0206) of the whole ship / water system. Some engine power is also lost into the
generation of an enhanced wave (wake) system. Both these factors absorb propulsion
energy and so the ship loses speed. There can also be a drop in propeller rpm.
b. Loss of Speed - Typical Results. The speed loss against depth for a typical ship
(T22 Batch III), operating on its own in open water, is shown in the graph at Fig 2-4.
From comparison of this graph against Fig 2-3 it will be noted that the speed losses start
to become noticeable at about 50% of Onset Depth and increase dramatically as the depth
reduces to about 25-30% of Onset Depth.
Fig 2-4. SWE - Loss of Speed for a Type 22 Batch III Operating Singly in Open Water
Example 2-2. From Fig 2-4, a Type 22 BIII (Full load 4,380 tonnes) at 25 knots, operating on
its own in open water, will experience a SWE speed loss of about ½ knot at a depth of 35 metres
(50% Onset Depth), about 5 knots at a depth of 17½ metres (25% Onset Depth), and about 8½
knots at a depth of 12 metres (17% Onset Depth).
c. Own Ship - SWE Speed Loss. It is very easy whilst on passage to establish own
ship’s SWE speed loss for a particular depth and speed, by careful fixing and allowing
for tidal stream, while running over a flat bottom. Lyme Bay (UK South Coast) is good
for this as wide, flat shelves exist at various depths (care must be taken not to hazard
small craft or people on shore with excessive wakes, particularly in summer during
daytime when beaches and many small recreational craft are in use). Such evolutions
also provide excellent training and a practical demonstration of SWE to Bridge teams.
SWE speed losses should be recorded in the Navigational Data Book (RNS 2677).
2-7
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BR 45(6)
0206. Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Virtual Mass and Acceleration/Deceleration Changes
a. Virtual Mass. The concept of Virtual Mass was explained at Para 0114.
b. Effect of Virtual Mass on Acceleration and Deceleration in Shallow Water. In

deep water Virtual Mass M1 is about 105% to110% of Mass M for most warships. But
in shallow water, because of the changes in flow pattern around the hull, this increases
to about 140% (see Para 0205a). In consequence, a given propulsion force produces
smaller acceleration and deceleration in shallow water than in deep water. By applying
the formulae at Para 0114 to these percentages (ie 105% and 140%), it can be seen that
the effect of Virtual Mass can make about 30% difference to the effect of the propulsion
force in shallow water. This means that a ship in shallow water will:
• Take longer in both time and distance to accelerate to the required speed.
• Take longer in both time and distance before coming to a stop, even if astern
power is applied. This effect has caused a number of berthing incidents.
c. Effect of Shallow Water on Physical Efficiency of Propellers. In addition to the

effect of Virtual Mass on the stopping / acceleration power of a ship in shallow water,
propellers operating close to the sea bottom also encounter greater turbulence as a result
of the construction in water flow (particularly when being used to take the way off a
moving ship) and thus the physical efficiency of the propellers is reduced (see also Para
0210e). This compounds the reduction in stopping / acceleration power caused by Virtual
Mass.
d. Effect on Sideways Manoeuvring and Use of Tugs. The difference between M

and M1 is known as the Added Mass. Added Mass is much greater for sideways
movement (eg when the ship is being moved bodily sideways with little or no headway
/ sternway) than for ahead movement, because the water flow pattern is entirely different.
When berthing alongside, sideways motion may increase the Virtual Mass by several
hundred percent rather than by just a few tens of percent. This increase in Virtual Mass
has to be allowed for when considering the use and power of the tugs required for
manoeuvring the ship sideways, particularly when lowering a ship down onto a jetty with
an onshore wind.
2-8
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BR 45(6)
0207. Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Principles of Squat
a. Cause of Squat. When a ship moves through shallow water, the water flow
underneath it is constricted by the proximity of the sea bottom, which creates an increase
in the Velocity of the flow. Due to the Bernoulli Phenomenon (see Para 0110), the
increased Velocity of water flow causes a reduction of Pressure (greater Suction)
underneath the centre of the ship (see Fig 2-2 at Para 0202) and as a result a reduction
in the underkeel clearance occurs, known as Squat (see Para 0203b).
b. Block Coefficient. The shape of a ship’s hull governs its resistance to motion and
a numerical indicator of this is known as its Block Coefficient (Cb). The Block
Coefficient is important when attempting to calculate Squat. The term was derived from
assuming a rectangular ‘block’ would have a coefficient of 1.0, and an infinitely thin
streamlined pencil shape would have a coefficient of 0.0. Block Coefficients for selected
ships are at Table 2-1. The formula for deriving the Block Coefficient is:
Note. ‘Volume of Displacement’ is the Displacement weight (tonnes) divided by Water Density.
Table 2-1. Example Block Coefficients (Cb) for Selected Ships (in Cb Order)
Class Cb Class Cb
Hunt 0.40 Type 42 BII 0.58
Island 0.40 CVS 0.58
Type 23 0.47 Fort Victoria Class RFA 0.60
Type 22 BIII 0.58 Fort Rosalie Class RFA 0.63 |
Type 42 BIII 0.57 Wave Class RFA 0.65 |
Rover Class RFA 0.57 Appleleaf Class RFA 0.79
c. Squat - Whether by the Bow and Stern. Although Squat produces a ‘Mean
Bodily Sinkage’, it is relatively unusual for a ship to Squat uniformly. In ships with a
zero Trim when static and a Block Coefficient of less than about 0.70 (which includes
most warship hulls), Squat is usually more at the stern than the bow. In ships with a zero
Trim and a Block Coefficient of more than about 0.70, the bow usually Squats more than
the stern. If the ship is not in zero Trim when static, when the ship is moving Squat will
be greater towards whichever end of the ship is deeper than in zero Trim when static.
d. Effect of Speed on Squat. In a flow of water, the Pressure of the flow is inversely
proportional to the square of its Velocity (see the Bernoulli Phenomenon at Para 0110).
As Squat is proportional to Suction (ie inversely proportional to Pressure), Squat is also
proportional to the square of the ship’s Velocity (speed). Thus a ship passing fast over
a shallow patch may be in danger of grounding. However, as Squat is proportional to
the square of the ship’s speed, a small reduction of speed has a significant effect in
reducing Squat, thus rapidly reducing the danger of grounding in shallow water.
2-9
Change 1
BR 45(6)
0208. Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Squat in Open Water
a. Squat in Very Shallow Open Water (Depth 1.1 to 1.4 times Draught). The
following equation (below) gives estimates for Squat in very shallow open water where
the Water Depth (H) divided by Maximum Draught (T) is between 1.1 to 1.4 (ie with a
7 metre draught ship, water depths of between 7.7 and 9.8 metres). However, the ‘Open
Water Squat Equation’ (below) is not yet fully proved and calculations from it should be
treated with caution, as should the graphs at Fig 2-5 which are also based on this
equation.
CAUTION
The ‘Open Water Squat Equation’ (above) is not fully

proven. Calculations and data taken from this
equation, and from Fig 2-5 / Para 0208b (below)
which are based on it, should be treated with caution.
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| Fig 2-5. Squat in Very Shallow Open Water (Depths 1.1 to 1.4 times Draught)
b. Squat in Shallow Open Water (Depth 2 to 3 times Draught). Outside the range
of depths between 1.1 to 1.4 times draught (see Para 0208a), reliable equations are not
available, although evidence indicates that Squat may reduce sharply. At depths of 2.0
times the draught (ie with a 7 metre draught ship, water depths of 14.0 metres) the Squat
experienced is thought to fall to 50%-75% of that calculated at Para 0208a and Fig 2-5,
but this data must be used with caution. At 3.0 times the draught, Squat is thought
to fall to 25%-50% of that at Para 0208a and Fig 2-5. However, even the uncorrected
Squats for most warships (see Para 0208a and Fig 2-5) are relatively small at reasonable
speeds compared to these greater depths of water (2 to 3 times draught).
2-10
Change 1
BR 45(6)
0209. Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Squat in Confined Channels
a. Blockage Factor. If the ship is in a confined channel or canal, Squat will be greater
because the sides of the channel restrict the water flow further, increasing its Velocity
(and thus the effect of the midships Suction Zone) more than in open shallow water. The
Blockage Factor (S) for a particular ship in a given channel may be calculated by
assessing the ship’s largest cross-section and the cross-section area of the channel (see
Fig 2-6) and applying these to the formula below.
Fig 2-6. Cross-Sectional Areas for Calculating Blockage Factors
b. Estimation of Squat in a Confined Channel. Where the Blockage Factor (S) is

between 0.100 and 0.265, the theoretical Squat in a ‘Very Confined’ channel, or a
channel of ‘Intermediate’ width can be estimated from the following formulae, using the
Block Coefficient (Cb) and the Blockage Factor (S) as appropriate. However this
formula is not fully proved and calculations from it should be treated with caution.
Nevertheless some additional allowance should be made for Squat in this situation.
CAUTION
The ‘Very Confined’ and ‘Intermediate Channel’ Squat

equations (above) are not fully proved and calculations
taken from them should be treated with caution.
c. Practical Limitations. As it is very difficult for the practical mariner at sea to

measure the cross-section area of the channel with any certainty, except perhaps in
canals, this calculation is of thus doubtful value for general use, but is included to
establish the principle involved and emphasise that some additional allowance (up to
twice the ‘Open Water’ amount) should be made for Squat in this situation.
2-11
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BR 45(6)
0210. Canal Effect
a. Hydrodynamic Forces in a Canal. The hydrodynamic forces on a ship are

intensified in a canal because the water is both shallow and confined, with the ship
continuously close to the solid banks and bottom. In addition to the Squat experienced
in confined waters (see Para 0209), the loss of speed made good is more substantial, a
powerful wave pattern is generated both ahead and astern, and the lateral forces arising
from the ship’s movement in relation to the banks (known as Bank Effect) can have a
profound effect on steering. The sum of all these forces is known as Canal Effect.
b. Bank Effect in Canals. Consider a vessel which moves off the centre line of a
canal (Fig 2-7 Position 1) and towards the right hand bank (Fig 2-7 Position 2). The flow
of water between its starboard side and the nearer bank becomes confined and from the
Bernoulli Phenomenon (see Para 0110), it will be seen that the Velocity of water flow
will be greater on the starboard side than on the port side, and thus lower Pressure
(greater Suction) will occur on the starboard side. This Suction will tend to pull the ship
to starboard towards the nearer bank. However, the Suction forces are not uniformly
distributed along the ship’s length, and their resultant acts somewhere abaft amidships.
This is equivalent to a force acting aft of the Centre of Gravity which also creates a
Turning Moment, deflecting the ship’s head away from the bank - in this case to port (Fig
2-7 Position 3). In practice this Turning Moment overrides bodily Suction towards the
bank and the ship will start moving away from it - sometimes so violently that a sheer
toward the opposite bank is generated. A ship being deflected away from a solid bank
or wall is sometimes said to be being ‘pushed off by the bow Pressure Zone’. A
convenient analogy but not an exact description of the cause of this phenomenon.
Fig 2-7. Bank Effect - (Suction Aft of C of G) Turning Ship Away from Bank
c. Smelling the Ground. A similar situation to Bank Effect arises with a submerged
bank or shoal. Some rivers and canals have channels that shelve steeply on one side
only. Passing close to an unseen shallow patch may produce the effect known as
Smelling the Ground, where the sudden change of the water flow caused by the
submerged obstruction generates unequal Pressure on either side, which causes the ship
to sheer unexpectedly away from the underwater slope that it is passing.
2-12
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BR 45(6)
d. Wave Generation in Canals. Some of the propulsion energy of a ship making way
generates a wave pattern ahead and astern of the ship. In shallow confined water, such
a canal or a narrow river, the behaviour of the wave pattern is enhanced both ahead and
astern of the ship (see below) and a greater loss of speed will be experienced compared
to transit through open water of the same depth. Speed limits in canals and rivers, take
the possibility of producing high energy waves (which may damage banks,
installations and moored craft) into account, and must be strictly observed.
• Ahead of the Ship. Passage in a shallow canal or river at too high a speed can
cause a high energy Wave of Translation to be generated ahead of the ship. A
Wave of Translation moves at a speed depending on the square root of the
depth and can travel many miles ahead of the ship, with the potential to cause
damage to the waterway itself and disruption to other users, at that distance.
• Astern of the Ship. Passage in a shallow canal or river at too high a speed can
also cause a substantially enhanced stern wave pattern, which also has
potential to cause damage to the waterway itself and disruption to other users.
In addition, when own ship slows down, the stern wave can overtake it and can
cause shiphandling difficulties at a time when delicate manoeuvring may be
taking place.
e. Canal Speed. The shallow water in a canal or river reduces the efficiency of the
rudders and propulsion; propeller rpm can reduce by 15%-20%, often leading to more
power being applied. Proximity to the canal bottom causes turbulence around the
propellers, which affects their thrust and interferes with the slipstream on the rudders (see
also Para 0206c). Increasing propulsion power adds to the turbulence, generating larger
bow and stern waves, increasing Squat (see Para 0209) and thus making the vessel still
less controllable. For a given canal, a ship has a critical speed, known as Canal
Speed, which cannot be exceeded safely as handling and steering become erratic.
Speed limits in canals take Canal Speed into account and must be strictly observed.
f. Reverse Flow in Canals. A ship under way in a narrow canal pushes a body of
water ahead of it. Eventually, this will have to flow back again past the ship to equalise
the level in the canal. This additional flow will increase the effects of the Bernoulli
Phenomenon (see Para 0110) between the canal bottom, banks and the ship.
g. Passing Ships Secured Alongside. Large ships underway passing vessels secured
alongside in harbours, canals and rivers should proceed as slowly as possible to reduce
the Suction and heeling effect of Interaction. Interaction has caused the moored vessels
to Surge at their berth and damage or part mooring lines. Similarly, ships secured
alongside in berths where passing traffic may cause this effect should ensure that the
moorings lines are at optimum adjustment to avoid surging or parting. In a narrow canal,
these effects are greatly enhanced and special precautions are needed (see Para 0364).
Note. Ships secured at Fountain Lake Jetty 1 and North West Wall in the Portsmouth Naval
Base are particularly vulnerable to the Interaction effects of very large cross-channel ferries
passing nearby. These large ferries are sometimes constrained by weather conditions and
steerage-way requirements to pass close to these berths at speeds up to 10 knots, which can
cause some surging and heeling of the ships secured alongside.
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0211. Shallow Water Effect (SWE) - Interaction with Other Ships

When two ships pass close to each other Interaction will occur as a result of the change
in water flows and thus change in the Pressure and Suction between them (see the Bernoulli
Phenomenon at Para 0110). This will be exaggerated by shallow water and by disparity in ship
sizes where the effect on a small ship will be greater than that on a large ship.
a. RAS Operations - General. When planning RAS (Replenishment at Sea)

operations, the normal approach distances and speeds (see Para 0212c and Chapter 5) are
perfectly safe in deep water. However, if the water is shallow, modifications may be
required and in certain circumstances (eg very large vessels in very shallow water) safe
abeam RAS operations may not be possible at all; an Astern RAS may be the only option.
b. RAS Operations - SWE Onset Depth. The Shallow Water Effect Onset Depth
must always be considered before deciding to conduct a RAS. This is calculated using a
formula based on that at Para 0204a, but using the combined Displacement of the RAS
group rather than just own ship (also allowing for Deep, Medium or Light Condition
of the RFA - see Annex 2B, Fig 2B-1), as follows:
c. RAS Operations in Depths less than 100% SWE Onset Depth. Significant
Interaction will be experienced if depths are shallower than 70% SWE Onset Depth, but
with particular care (see CAUTION below and options at Para 0511c), RAS operations
can be conducted at depths of 50% SWE Onset Depth. At standard distances apart,
evidence indicates control will be lost by 40% SWE Onset Depth. Graphical versions of
the formula at Para 0211b for Underway Replenishment Groups (URG) are at Annex 2A.
CAUTION
RAS operations at depths below 100% SWE Onset Depth may be conducted, but
particular care is needed, especially between 70% and 50% SWE Onset Depths
d. Overtaking - Shallow Open Water. In shallow water, special care must be taken
when overtaking as Interaction can have effect over substantial distances and has the
potential to pull ships together (as in a RAS approach which is too close) and make them
heel. This also affects certain OOW manoeuvres, such a reversing a column of ships
from the rear or exchanging Stations in a column, where there can be a real risk of
collision (see BR 134 Case 207). Anchored ships should be passed at a reasonable
distance so that Interaction between the two ships is minimised and any complication
due to the Yawing movement of the anchored ship is avoided. See Chapters 3-5.
e. Overtaking and Passing - Shallow Confined Water. In shallow confined water

such as a canal, the Interaction effects of overtaking will be enhanced further and the
utmost care must be taken. Safe overtaking in these circumstances may not be possible.
The Interaction between two ships passing on reciprocal courses in shallow confined
waters (eg a canal or narrow river) tends to keep them apart as they approach and pass
each other, so there is usually little risk of collision, providing they keep each other fine
on their respective bows during the approach. See Chapter 3, Section 6.
f. Passing Ships Secured Alongside. See Paras 0210g and 0364g.
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BR 45(6)
0212. Interaction in RAS Operations
a. Effect of Interaction on Two Ships Close Abeam. Two (or more) ships moving
through the water close abeam of each other (see Fig 2-8) will experience various effects
on their handling due to Interaction forces (see Para 0203), which may result in
changes in: relative speed, speed over the ground, acceleration and deceleration
characteristics, Yawing, steering control, Lateral Separation, underkeel clearance,
Vibration characteristics, shape and size of the wake. As a result, the amount of
wheel a ship will carry when close abeam another will vary with the following factors:
• Lateral Separation. The ships will be drawn bodily together because the
zone of reduced Pressure lying amidships between them. The Interaction
forces between the ships increase the closer they come together, because this
closes up the stream-lines and increases the Pressure and Suction differentials
(see Para 0211).
• Yaw. With similar sized ships (as in Fig 2-8), an outward Yaw may occur
naturally when they are abreast each other because the higher Pressure Zones
forward (see Para 0202) will force the bows outwards. With dissimilar sized
ships, the boundaries of the Pressure and Suction Zones will not coincide and
Interaction effects may be more pronounced and less predictable; in general,
the smaller ship will feel these more strongly than the larger ship.
• Speed. The Interaction forces between the ships vary with the square of the
speed (see Para 0203) ie greater Interaction forces will be experienced at
higher speeds.
• Depth of Water. The Interaction forces between ships increases as the depth
of water shallows, because the sea bed closes up the stream-lines and increases
the Pressure and Suction differentials (see Para 0211).
• Squat. Squat for the combined unit will tend to be greater than as individual
units, but the amount is insignificant in water depths used for RAS.
Fig 2-8. Effect on Flow Stream Lines (thus Pressure & Suction) of Two Ships Close Abeam
b. Positions of Stability and Instability. When carrying out RAS operations, it is

important for ships:
• Either to avoid positions of instability where the Interaction effects are NOT
in balance (eg make a Beam Approach - see Para 0513).
• Or to pass through them as quickly as possible (eg a fast approach from astern)
to achieve a position of stability where the Interaction effects ARE in balance.
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BR 45(6)
(0212) c. Effect of Interaction on Two Ships - Fast Approach from Astern. The normal
method of RAS Fast Approach is for the Approaching Ship (‘A’) to approach from astern
of the Delivering Ship (‘B’), on a parallel course with a Lateral Separation from it, and
with a speed advantage of 8-10 knots (see Para 0511). As ‘A’ approaches ‘B’, the
Interaction forces will vary (see Fig 2-9 and Paras 0212d-g). The phases of the Yawing
moment and lateral forces during a Fast Approach are mostly opposite to each other (see
Fig 2-9); this affects both Lateral Separation and steering. The purpose of the RAS
Fast Approach is to pass through areas of instability quickly (see Para 0212b).
Fig 2-9. Interaction Forces on Both Ships - with Ship ‘A’ Approaching Ship ‘B’
from Astern (and also Overshooting Station)
d. Sequence of Interaction Effects During Fast Approach. The sequence of effects

experienced by the Approaching Ship (‘A’) are as follows (see Fig 2-9):
• Fig 2-9, Position 1. Before “A’s” bow comes abreast “B’s” stern, “A’s” bow
Pressure Zone will encounter “B’s” stern Pressure Zone, which will cause
“A’s” bow to Yaw away from “B’s” stern.
• Fig 2-9, Positions 2, 2¼ and 2½ . When “A’s” bow reaches “B’s” stern and
the midships Suction Zone (Position 2 at Fig 2-9), “A’s” bow will Yaw sharply
inwards and both ships will be repelled laterally; as ‘A’ normally has an 8-10
knot speed advantage over ‘B’, the Yaw has a much greater effect than the
lateral force. This Yaw must be countered immediately by the helmsman.
At Position 2¼ the lateral forces change direction and are in the same direction
as Yaw, until Position 2½. In this period, if ships have insufficient Lateral
Separation, Interaction forces causing Yaw may exceed the maximum
Turning Moment of the rudder and a collision will follow (see Para 0511c).
2-16
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BR 45(6)
(0212d) • Fig 2-9, Position 3. When abeam, the midships Suction Zone will attract both
ships bodily towards each other and make them heel. The bow and stern
Pressure Zones counter this, but as the bow Pressure Zone is more powerful
than the stern Pressure Zone (see Para 0202), this produces a Yaw outwards
in ships of similar size. If ‘A’ is significantly shorter than ‘B’ it will be
necessary to maintain this angle out by using rudder.
e. Effect of Interaction on Two Ships - Overshooting Fast Approach. If ‘A’

significantly overshoots its Station abeam ship ‘B’, a dangerous situation can occur with
the outward Yawing moment reversing direction suddenly (see Fig 2-9, Position 3¾);
there is also an increase in “A’s” relative speed as it clears the faster-moving water flow
in the midships Suction Zone. At Position 4 of Fig 2-9, the Interaction force Yawing
moment can easily exceed the maximum rudder effect available to counter it and ‘A’ may
be dragged the round “B’s” bows with very serious results (see Fig 2-10). In 1971, an
MCMV was dragged around a destroyer’s bow in this way, was capsized and then sank
with the loss of 13 lives. Under no circumstances should ‘A’ allow a RAS Fast
Approach to overshoot to Positions 3¾, 4 or 5 at Fig 2-9 (see WARNING below).
WARNING
OVERSHOOTING THE RAS STATION ABEAM OR

DISENGAGING DIRECTLY AHEAD CAN CAUSE A
SERIOUS COLLISION AND ENDANGER PERSONNEL
f. Effect of Interaction on Two Ships - Disengaging Ahead. If ‘A’ mistakenly tries

to disengage directly ahead, an exactly similar situation to that of the overshot approach
occurs (see Para 0212e above and Fig 2-10). On disengaging, ‘A’ must NOT attempt
to power out ahead of ‘B’ to Positions 3¾, 4 or 5 at Fig 2-9 (see WARNING above).
In 1990 a frigate attempted this manoeuvre from alongside a large tanker (see BR 134
Case 205) and despite full power on both engines was dragged around the bows of the
tanker. Although the frigate survived, it was very seriously damaged.
Fig 2-10. Uncontrollable Sheer in Ship ‘A’ Caused by Moving Too Far Ahead on Ship ‘B’
g. Effect of Interaction on Delivering Ship (‘B’). The lateral forces on both ships
are in phase but the Yawing moment is ¼ cycle ahead in ‘B’. Ship‘B’ may thus predict
the influence of an approaching ship (‘A’) on its own steering using Fig 2-9 / Para 0212d.
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2-18
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BR 45(6)
SHALLOW WATER EFFECT ONSET DEPTHS DURING RAS
1. The following graphs show the application of the Shallow Water Effect (SWE) formula
introduced at Para 0211b (see Note below) for selected pairs of ships. Fig 2A-1 shows the 100%
SWE Onset Depths against speed and ship pairs / combined displacement, while Fig 2A-2 plots
the 50% and 100% SWE Onset Depths against speed and ship pairs / combined displacement.
2. Annex 2B gives the displacement ranges of Light, Medium and Deep Conditions for
RFAs.
Fig 2A-1. 100% SWE Onset Depths versus
Speed and Ship Pairs/Combined Displacement
Note. The graphs are calculated from the following formula:
2A-1
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BR 45(6)
Fig 2A-2. 50% and 100% SWE Onset Depths versus

Speed and Ship Pairs/Combined Displacement
Note. The graphs are calculated from the following formula:
2A-2
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BR 45(6)
RFA LIGHT, MEDIUM AND DEEP CONDITION DISPLACEMENT RANGES
1. Fig 2BA-1 gives the displacement ranges of Light, Medium and Deep Conditions for
RFAs.
SHIP/CLASS LIGHT CONDITION MEDIUM DEEP CONDITION

(TONNES) CONDITION (TONNES)
(TONNES)
ARGUS 18100-21400 21400-24800 24800-28100
FORT (AFS) 15300-18000 18000-20800 20800-23500
FORT (AOR) 19200-23400 23400-27500 27500-31600
ROVER 5100-7200 7200-9400 9400-11500
DILIGENCE 5900-7500 7500-9100 9100-10800
LSL (PER, GER) 3600-4300 4300-5100 5100-5800
LSL (TRIST) 4300-5000 5000-5700 5700-6400
LSL (GAL) 5700-6700 6700-7700 7700-8800
BAYLEAF 7700-17700 17700-27700 27700-37700
LEAF (ORA,BRA) 7600-18700 18700-29800 29800-40900
OAKLEAF 12300-24800 24800-37200 37200-49600
LSDA (BAY) Data not yet available Data not yet available Data not yet available |
WAVE Data not yet available Data not yet available Data not yet available
Fig 2B-1. Displacement Ranges of Light, Medium and Deep Conditions for RFAs
2B-1
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2B-2
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SHIPHANDLING IN CONFINED WATERS
CHAPTER 3
CONTENTS
Para
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0301
SECTION 1
PREPARATIONS, PRACTICE AND CONNING FOR SHIPHANDLING
Study of Equipment, Systems, Structure and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0302

Shiphandling Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0303
Choice of Conning Officer - Simple Alongsides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0304
Moving between Conning Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0305
Choice of Conning Orders when Approaching a Jetty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0306
SECTION 2
TURNING IN A CONFINED SPACE AND STERNBOARDS
Turning Short in a Ship with a Single Propeller - In Calm Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0310

Turning Short in a Ship with a Single Propeller - In a Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0311
Turning at Rest and Turning Short in a Twin FPP-fitted Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0312
Turning at Rest and Turning Short in a Twin CPP-fitted Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0313
Turning Short on an Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0314
Dredging an Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0315
Tug Leading a Ship through Narrow Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0316
Sternboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0317
Use of Natural Transits when Turning in Confined Spaces and During Sternboards . . 0318
SECTION 3
BERTHING ALONGSIDE AND LEAVING A JETTY
Berthing Lines - Names and Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0320

Berth Markings in UK Naval Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0321
Berthing Lines - Management when Alongside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0322
Berthing Lines - Procedures for Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0323
Berthing Lines - Using Springs When Manoeuvring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0324
The Effect of Wind Sheer and Current/Tidal Stream on Berthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0325
Twin Propeller Ship - General Guidance and Calm Weather Berthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0326
Twin Propeller Ship - Berthing with an Onshore Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0327
Twin Propeller Ship - Berthing with an Offshore Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0328
Single Propeller Ship - Berthing Alongside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0329
Leaving an Alongside Berth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0330
Berthing Alongside a Ship at Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0331
Berthing Alongside a Ship Underway and Stopped in the Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0332
Slipping from a Ship at Anchor or Underway and Stopped in the Water . . . . . . . . . . . 0333
Use of Natural Transits when Berthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0334
3-1
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SECTION 4
BERTHING STERN-TO AND ALONGSIDE WITH ANCHORS
Para
Planning for Stern-To Berthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0340
Twin Propeller Ship - Approach to a Stern-To Berth (non-Bow Dome fitted Ship) . . . 0341
Twin Propeller Ship - Approach to a Stern-To Berth (Bow Dome fitted Ship) . . . . . . . 0342
Single Propeller Ship - Approach to a Stern-To Berth (non-Bow Dome fitted Ship) . . 0343
Leaving a Stern-To Berth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0344
Using an Anchor to Assist Berthing and Unberthing Alongside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0345
SECTION 5
USE OF TUGS IN SHIPHANDLING
Principles for Employment of Tugs and Pilots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0350

Types of Tug - Capabilities and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0351
Methods of Operating Tugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0352
Positioning and Usage of Tugs (Including Cold Moves) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0353
Girding of Tugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0354
Methods of Controlling Tugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0355
Methods of Securing Tugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0356
Securing Tug Hawsers at Long and Short Stay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0357
SECTION 6
BREAKWATERS, LOCKS, CANAL AND RIVERS
Passing Between Breakwaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0360

Warping Through a Narrow Entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0361
Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0362
Major Lock Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0363
Manoeuvring and Mooring in a Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0364
River Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0365
SECTION 7
ANCHORING AND BUOY WORK
Anchoring - Planning and Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0370

The Effects of Ship Construction on Anchoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0371
Approaching an Anchor Berth in a Wind and/or Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0372
Anchoring in Deep Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0373
Anchoring in Heavy Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0374
Weighing Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0375
Securing to a Single Buoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0376
Slipping from a Single Buoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0377
Securing Between Head-and-Stern Buoys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0378
Slipping from Head-and-Stern Buoys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0379
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SECTION 8
WAKE WAVES (ALSO KNOWN AS WASH)

Para
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0380
Wake Wave (Wash) Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0381
Effect of Wake Wave Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0382
Wake Wave Persistence and Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0383
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0384
SECTION 9
UNCONVENTIONAL METHODS AND UNEXPECTED EVENTS
Unconventional Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0390

Strategies for Dealing with the Unexpected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0391
Annex 3A Wind Forces on RN Warships and RFAs

Annex 3B Tidal Stream / Current Forces on RN Warships and RFAs
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3-4
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CHAPTER 3
0301. Introduction
This chapter provides generic guidance for confined water shiphandling and draws on
the theoretical material established at Chapters 1 & 2. Class-specific shiphandling guidance
for RN ships and RFAs is at Parts 2-5 of this book.
SECTION 1
PREPARATIONS, PRACTICE AND CONNING FOR SHIPHANDLING
0302. Study of Equipment, Systems, Structure and Procedures

Before handling the ship, any officer who may be required to manoeuvre the ship
(whether at Command, NO or OOW level) should study the relevant equipment / systems fitted
and the procedures for their use. The following generic check-off list provides a starting point
but may require additional items in certain ships. With many of these items, the Navigational
Data Book (RNS 2677) may provide very useful information and should always be consulted.
• Capabilities and limitations of propulsion systems and procedures for their use,
including methods of control (eg Bridge Control, MCR/SCC Control, Local Control
relevant Conning orders, speeds obtained from particular lever/revolution settings,
use of propulsion power (and rudders) for turning the ship in a confined space,
distances at which speed or power is altered when going alongside or when
anchoring, distance per knot for ‘Loss and Gain of speed’).
• Capabilities and limitations of steering systems and procedures for their use,
including methods of control (eg Bridge Control (Manual and Auto) , SSP Control,
Local Handwheel (or equivalent) Steering, Hand Pump Steering, relevant conning
orders, minimum speeds ahead and astern at which the ship can be steered, use of
rudders (and propulsion power) for turning the ship in a confined space, turning
data and any rudder limitations).
• Layout and functionality of Bridge instruments/equipment and procedures for use.
• Layout and functionality of Bridge communications (internal and external) including
emergency facilities, together with procedures for use.
• Structural and environmental data: (eg conning positions, heights of eye, shadow
areas, hull form above and below water, wind/water ratio, the ship’s attitude to
the wind when stopped, the effect of wind on going ahead and astern, leeway
expected, any projections from the ship’s side, the positions of fairleads and
winches, catamarans positions (avoiding Stabilisers and masker belts if fitted), tug
securing points, anchor/cable/buoywork facilities, anchoring limitations (eg Bow
Dome restrictions), and Towing (forward and aft) arrangements).
• Predicted Pressure and Suction Zones, Squat, Canal Effect and Interaction
experienced between ships, and the ship’s preferred RAS approach methods.
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BR 45(6)
0303. Shiphandling Practice
a. Ashore - Using a Simulator. Realistic shiphandling practice be obtained in the

AMETHYST Bridge Simulator at SMOPS HMS DRYAD. AMETHYST is capable of
simulating various RN and RFA ship types, both in HM Naval Base ports and some other
geographic areas. The simulation uses environmental effects, realistic hydrodynamic and
geophysical and data, and can also include the effect of tugs pushing or pulling.
b. At Sea - Using a Marker Buoy in Open Water. A free-floating marker buoy in

open water is useful for obtaining a ‘feel’ for the ship’s handling characteristics. The
marker buoy should be easily visible but without significant windage. It can provide a
datum for maintaining control at slow speed, stopping and holding the ship, Turning at
Rest and Turning Short. It will also show how the wind will affect the ship, both when
stopped and while making a Sternboard.
c. At Sea - Conducting Man OverBoard (MOB) Exercises. ‘Man OverBoard’

(MOB) exercises should be carried out frequently, partly to keep the skills of the
Swimmer of the Watch (SOW) and Seaboat crews up to a high standard, but also to keep
all the OOWs ‘in practice’ for Williamson turn and ‘Admiralty Sweep’ methods. The
Navigation Data Book (RNS 2677) should contain guidance of the optimum
manoeuvring methods to be adopted in various wind / weather scenarios. Records should
be kept by the NO to ensure all OOWs obtain regular practice in these evolutions.
0304. Choice of Conning Officer - Simple Alongsides

The usual practice for a change of Conning officer for a ‘simple alongside’ is for the NO
to Con while piloting the ship until the final turn to the berth, at which the CO takes the Con.
0305. Moving between Conning Positions

The choice of Conning positions and the timing of any move between them (eg moving
from Centre Line to Bridge Wing) is of the utmost importance when shiphandling in confined
waters or when close to other ships. The timing of movements between Conning positions
should be addressed at the planning stage, as follows:
• During Berthing: after a swing away from the jetty has been initiated and astern
power ordered.
• During Unberthing: when the ship is pointing into safe water at a steady speed.
• After a RAS Fast / Medium Approach: when the relative positions of the ship are
stable (see Paras 0511b and 0512). It is possible to Con during a RAS from inside
the Bridge in some classes of ship, and if so, this move may not be necessary.
• During Towing: after the ship has stopped close to the Casualty (see Para 0523r).
0306. Choice of Conning Orders when Approaching a Jetty

For the final approach to a jetty, the CO may decide to give wheel orders rather than
ordering courses to steer. This is to avoid the risk of the helmsman using large amounts of wheel
and a swing in the wrong direction being created by accident, close to a jetty.
Note. Paras 0304 - 0306 are repeated in BR 45 Volume 4, at Paras 0812b(2)-(4).
0307-0309. Spare
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SECTION 2
TURNING IN A CONFINED SPACE AND STERNBOARDS
0310. Turning Short in a Ship with a Single Propeller - In Calm Weather

In RN ships with single propellers, Fixed Pitch Propellers (FPPs) are Right-handed and
Controlled Pitch Propellers (CPPs) are Left-handed (see Paras 0121c and 0121d), and the
following guidance refers to this configuration. Some RFAs have a Right-handed CPP.
a. Turning Short - Bows to Starboard (RN Ships). It is not possible to Cast or Turn
at Rest in a ship with a single propeller. However, a ship with a single propeller can
make a turn in a limited area (Turning Short), provided there is sufficient space for it to
make slight sternway and headway. When there is no wind, it is easier to turn a ship with
a single right-hand FPP or a single left-hand CCP to starboard. The method to be used
takes advantage of the powerful lateral thrust from Paddlewheel Effect when going astern
and the wash from the propeller on the rudder when going ahead (see Fig 3-1). The key
to success with this manoeuvre is to use large amounts of power (but see Para
0204b), while not letting undue headway or sternway build up as a result.
• On arriving in the turning position at slow speed, apply full starboard wheel
and a hard kick ahead to start a swing to starboard (Fig 3-1, Position 1).
• Apply plenty of astern power with rudder amidships (Fig 3-1, Position 2). The
Paddlewheel Effect from both a CPP and an FPP both assist by kicking the
stern to port (see Para 0124a). Apply port rudder as sternway develops.
• Rudder amidships (Fig 3-1, Position 3) and apply plenty of ahead power with
full starboard rudder. Reduce power when the ship gathers headway (Fig 3-1,
Position 4). Paddlewheel Effect assists this turn in CPP ships and hinders it
in FPP ships (see Para 0124b), but the effect is small compared to the strong
turning effect of propeller wash over the rudder kicking the stern to port.
• If necessary, repeat the whole procedure before the ship gathers too much
headway. A ship with a single propeller has to back-and-fill in this way
(sometimes more than once) in order to turn in a confined space.
Fig 3-1. Single FPP/CPP-fitted Ship Turning Short, Assisted by Paddlewheel Effect
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(0310) b. Turning Short - Bows to Port (RN Ships). Turning Short to port is more difficult
in (an RN) single FPP / CPP fitted ship, as the favourable astern power Paddlewheel
Effects of the turn to starboard (see Para 0310a) now works against the turn. The
procedure to be adopted is similar to that at Para 0310a but will take longer, with more
sea room required.
• When applying astern power, Paddlewheel Effect from an FPP and a CPP
will both work against the turn (see Para 0124a).
• When applying ahead power Paddlewheel Effect hinders this turn in CPP
ships and assists it in FPP ships (see Para 0124b), but the effect is small
compared to the strong turning effect of propeller wash over the rudder kicking
the stern to starboard (bows to port). However, turning a ship fitted with a
CPP is slightly more difficult than turning a ship with an FPP.
0311. Turning Short in a Ship with a Single Propeller - In a Wind

In RN ships with single propellers, Fixed Pitch Propellers (FPPs) are Right-handed and
Controlled Pitch Propellers (CPPs) are Left-handed (see Paras 0121c and 0121d), and the
following guidance refers to this configuration.
a. Turning Short - General Effect of the Wind. When stopped in the water, or with
headway and experiencing Wind Sheer because of the application of astern power (see
Para 0138), the ship will tend to turn beam-on to the wind. Once appreciable sternway
has developed, the stern normally flies boldly up into the wind.
b. Attempting to Turn a Single FPP/CPP-Fitted Ship In To Wind. At Fig 3-2

(Position 1) a single FPP/CPP-fitted ship approaches a turning area with a strong wind
on the starboard beam. If a turn to starboard is attempted as for calm weather (Para
0310a) and the ship fails to turn through the wind, headway is lost with the wind still
from starboard (Fig 3-2, Position 2). On applying astern power, the stern’s tendency to
seek the wind counteracts Paddlewheel Effect and the ship returns to its original attitude,
but further downwind (Fig 3-2, Position 3). A single FPP/CPP-fitted ship can
normally only Turn Short into the wind if there is sufficiently sea room ahead to
turn the ship through the wind in the initial phase of the manoeuvre.
Fig 3-2. Single FPP/CPP-fitted Ship Attempting to Turn Short into Wind
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c. Turning a Single FPP/CPP-Fitted Ship Out of Wind. In wind strengths above

about 15 knots, the wind-seeking tendency of the stern when making sternway (see Para
0311a) will normally overcome any contrary Paddlewheel Effect. In general, it will be
found that a ship with a single propeller can Turn Short out of wind either to port
or starboard. At Fig 3-3 (Position 1) a single FPP/CPP-fitted ship approaches a turning
area at slow speed, with a strong wind on the starboard beam, and makes a turn out of
wind to port.
• At Fig 3-3 (Position 1), start the turn from a slow speed with full port rudder
and a hard kick ahead.
• When astern power is applied (Fig 3-3, Approaching Position 2), Paddlewheel
Effect will hinder the turn to port (see Para 0310b).
• Apply plenty of astern power with rudder amidships (Fig 3-3, Position 2). As
astern power comes on, the adverse Paddlewheel Effect will be countered and
probably overcome by the tendency of the stern to fly up into the wind,
particularly if starboard rudder is applied as sternway builds up.
• When sufficient ground astern has been made into wind (Fig 3-3, Position 3),
place rudder amidships, then apply plenty of ahead power and full port rudder
to complete the turn.
• It is essential to make enough ground into wind before coming ahead as
the ship will make substantial Leeway in the final phase of the turn.
Reduce power when the ship gathers headway (Fig 3-3, Position 4).
Fig 3-3. Single FPP/CPP-fitted Ship Turning Short Out of Wind
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0312. Turning at Rest and Turning Short in a Twin FPP-fitted Ship
a. Turning Forces. In a twin FPP-fitted ship, with engines set at sufficient power
ahead / astern and full rudder applied, Paddlewheel Effect, Pressure and Suction, Lateral
Wash, the Turning Moment from shaft thrust and the turning effect of the rudder
(provided there is a good flow of water over it) all assist the turn (see Paras 0122 and
0125a). In moderate winds, a turn into wind is usually best to give room for any Leeway
and in these conditions the combination of forces is normally sufficient for Turning at
Rest to be achieved (see Fig 3-4). Where necessary (eg to open up the line of a berth)
turning out of wind may be appropriate, especially if using tug(s) to assist.
Fig 3-4. Twin FPP-fitted Ship Turning at Rest
b. FF/DD Turning at Rest and Turning Short. A Turn at Rest can be achieved from
a stationary position (Casting) but it is more efficient to start with headway. In nil-wind
conditions, if an FF/DD sized ship starts a turn with full rudder, 4-5 knots headway and
the inboard engine astern at 10-15 knots, it should have a zero log speed after turning
about 90°, although this will vary by class. Equalizing power on both shafts will then
achieve Turning at Rest for the remainder of the turn. However, if sea room is available,
an FF/DD may Turn Short by starting at 8-10 knots with full rudder and bold astern
power on the inboard shaft to achieve a log speed of 3 knots. The Pivot Point will
remain forward and assist Turning Short, particularly into wind (see Paras 0137-0138).
c. Strong Winds. In the event of strong winds, even with maximum engine power,
it is possible that a twin FPP-fitted ship Turning at Rest or Turning Short into wind may
find the turn ‘stalls’ at the beam-to-wind position due to the size of the Wind Sheer effect
(see Para 0138). If ‘stalling’ is likely, it is usually better to manoeuvre in a similar
manner to the single propeller ‘out of wind’ Turning Short procedure at Para 0311c. If
there is not sufficient sea room for this, the use of an anchor may be considered (see Para
0314), or preferably, the use of a tug secured through the Bullring. The use of a tug (see
Para 0313d) will always speed up turning manoeuvres and will be able to pull the bows
into wind, through the beam-to-wind stalling position and complete the turn.
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0313. Turning at Rest and Turning Short in a Twin CPP-fitted Ship
a. Turning Forces - Turning at Rest. In a twin CPP-fitted ship, with engines set at
the same power ahead and astern and appropriate rudder applied, only the small forces
of Pressure and Suction, and the Turning Moment from shaft thrust, together with the
large turning effect of the rudder assist the turn (see Paras 0122 and 0125b). If power
astern is set considerably greater than power ahead astern, then some Paddlewheel Effect
and Lateral Wash will assist the turn, but only at the expense of the much larger turning
effect created by a good water flow over the rudders. As a result of these limitations,
even in quite moderate winds, the combination of turning forces may not be sufficient
for Turning at Rest to be achieved in a twin CPP-fitted ship, due to ‘stalling’ of the ship
in the beam-to-wind position (see Para 0313c).
b. Turning at Rest and Turning Short. Despite the reduced turning forces produced
by CPPs, the procedures for a twin FPP-fitted ship Turning at Rest and Turning Short
(see Para 0312b opposite) apply equally to a CPP-fitted ship. However, manoeuvres are
much harder to achieve than in equivalent FPP-fitted ships, especially in strong winds.
c. Strong Winds. The problem of ‘stalling’ at the beam-to-wind position (see Para
0313a) is exacerbated in strong winds, even when maximum engine power is applied.
Modern CPP-fitted slab-sided FF/DDs with large windages are particularly vulnerable
to this problem. If there is insufficient sea room to manoeuvre in a similar manner to the
single propeller ‘turning out of wind’ procedure at Para 0311c, then tugs (see Para
0313d) or an anchor (see Para 0314) may have to be used. If none of theses options are
available the ship should not be placed in a position where the manoeuvre is necessary.
d. Tugs. A tug secured through the Bullring and pulling at Red / Green 90 will greatly
assist the process of Turning at Rest and Turning Short in all weather conditions (see Fig
3-5). A tug employed in this way will allow the manoeuvre to be completed much more
quickly than would be possible with a FF/DD’s engines and rudders alone. In UK Naval
Base ports, powerful tugs with well trained crews are provided for all moves of major
warships. The use of tugs in these circumstances, to assist warships when manoeuvring
in harbour, is a seamanlike procedure and is to be encouraged.
Fig 3-5. Turning at Rest into Wind with a Tug Secured Through the Bullring
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0314. Turning Short on an Anchor

Turning Short on an Anchor is to let go an anchor and turn round it at slow speed with
the cable taut at short stay; it is used when manoeuvring room is limited, but great care is needed.
a. Capabilities and Limitations. There are several points which need to be carefully
considered if planning to carry out this manoeuvre:
• Ships with Bow Domes must NOT carry out this evolution, and care must be
taken in ships which have other Fixed Domes to prevent the cable running
under the bow and causing damage to the Fixed Dome.
CAUTION
Ships with Bow Domes may NOT turn on an anchor and those with other
Fixed Domes must take care to prevent the cable damaging them.
• The anchor must not be let go in a position where anchoring is prohibited, or
pick up power / telephone cables, or foul moorings / other ships’ anchors.
• The evolution must be carried out at very slow speed and the cable tautened
gradually. The cable will grow aft throughout the turn and may be nipped at
the after edge of the Hawsepipe. If the ship’s speed is too high, the strain on
the cable may cause it to part.
• On completion of the turn, the ship will need to be controlled over the anchor
while the capstan is connected and the anchor weighed. If manoeuvring room
and environmental conditions are sufficiently tight to require an anchor in the
first place, it may be that to hold the ship steady for the time required to weigh
anchor may be difficult.
b. Procedure. If an anchor is to be used to turn the ship, the following procedure

should be used.
• Approach the ‘let go’ position very slowly.
• Apply rudder in the required direction, and once the ship is turning, THEN let
go the anchor on the side to which it is turning.
• Reduce or stop propulsion power to allow only sufficient cable to run out to
hold the bows - the amount needed is usually not more than twice the depth of
water and may only be marginally more than the depth of water, depending on
the nature of the bottom.
• Control the strain on the cable by use of the brake. As the way comes off the
ship, allow the cable to tauten gradually.
• When the cable is steady and taut, apply very slow speed ahead with full
rudder.
• The ship will turn around the anchor and should be stopped on the required
heading.
• The anchor can then be weighed as quickly as possible, while the ship is held
steady on the engines, against any wind and tidal stream.
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0315. Dredging an Anchor

Dragging an anchor along the sea bed at very short stay to control the bow against wind
or stream when manoeuvring (eg berthing) is known as Dredging an Anchor. Due to the advent
of Bow Domes and modern anchors with high holding power relative to the size of the ship, this
technique is unlikely to be used in most RN warships, where it is more likely to cause a sheer to
one side rather than control the bow. However, Dredging an Anchor is quite widely used by large
merchant ships where the holding power of the anchor is relatively small compared to the size
and Kinetic Energy of the ship making way at slow speed, and where a steadying force when
manoeuvring near a jetty is useful. In this situation, driving against one or two anchors underfoot
moves the Pivot Point right forward (see Para 0137) and thus increases the Turning Moment
produced by the rudders; it also helps to control the ship’s speed. Dredging an Anchor may thus
have an application in large RN warships and in RFAs, but should always be used with caution.
Anchors must not be let go in a position where anchoring is prohibited, or where they might pick
up power / telephone cables, or foul moorings / other ships’ anchors.
0316. Tug Leading a Ship through Narrow Channels

Tugs can be useful to help ships to negotiate narrow and tortuous channels. A tug ahead
on a hawser through the Bullring will considerably reduce the normal radius of the ship’s
Turning Circle. The tug will move over to the inner bow before reaching a turn and be in
position to steady the ship as it comes out of the turn. For a very large ship in a narrow channel,
a second tug aft on a line through a stern fairlead may be required to augment the turning power
of the tug ahead, and the Indirect Towing Method may well be adopted by the after tug (see Para
0352b). The ship being led must exercise restraint with speed to avoid over-running the tug. With
a conventional propeller tug this can lead to Girding and the sinking of the tug (see Para 0354).
0317. Sternboards
Sternboards have applications in unberthing, berthing stern-to, operating tugs, avoidance
of Girding tugs, anchoring and buoywork. Specific guidance for the conduct of Sternboards
during these evolutions are as follows:
• Unberthing (see Paras 0330 and 0333)
• Berthing Stern-to (see Paras 0340-0342)
• Operating tugs (see Paras 0352)
• Girding tugs (see Para 0354)
• Anchoring (see Para 0372)
• Buoywork (see Para 0377 and 0378)
0318. Use of Natural Transits when Turning in Confined Spaces and During Sternboards
When Turning at Rest, it is important to keep a continuous watch on the planned
Clearing Bearings, so that the ship does not creep into shallow water. However, the observation
of any natural transits ahead and abeam will give the alert shiphandler a very early indication of
left/right or ahead/astern movement respectively, without recourse to a compass repeater. This
technique is also very useful during Sternboards, particularly to guard against the natural
tendency to stop a Sternboard earlier than planned. When using uncharted natural transits, it is
essential NOT to select objects that might move (eg parked vehicles, or a white ‘rock’ which
turns out to be a sheep. Whilst this might sound an obvious precaution, it is a mistake which has
been made many times in all generations!).
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SECTION 3
BERTHING ALONGSIDE AND LEAVING A JETTY
0320. Berthing Lines - Names and Purposes

As well as keeping a warship secured to the jetty, berthing lines are an essential aid for
bringing a ship alongside. Well planned use of the various berthing lines will add to the ease and
speed of bringing a ship alongside and enable it to be manoeuvred to a suitable angle for leaving
a berth. The names of berthing lines used by RN warships are shown at Fig 3-6. Berthing lines
are divided into three categories: Head and Stern Ropes, Springs and Breasts. Springs were
traditionally made of wire (now being replaced by ‘HMPE’- High Modulus PolyEthylene - see
Para 0322c), do not stretch under load and are used to check or prevent the movement of the ship
ahead or astern at the berth. Breasts are used to restrict lateral movement to or from the jetty and
require careful adjustment if the tidal range at the berth is substantial. Head and Stern Ropes
provide a combination of these effects and stretch under load. In larger ships, pairs of Springs
and Breasts may be grouped together in different parts of the ship and are then prefixed by this
position (eg Forward Fore Spring / Forward Back Spring / Forward Breast, and After Fore
Spring / After Back Spring / After Breast). See also BR 67.
Fig 3-6. Positions and Names of Berthing Lines in a Major RN Warship
0321. Berth Markings in UK Naval Bases

For ships coming alongside in UK Naval Bases, the allocated berths are marked out by
flags and lights at Table 3-1:
Table 3-1. Marking of Allocated Berths in HM Dockyard Ports

Time Bow Bridge Stern
Day Red Flag* Green Flag Blue Flag*
Night Fixed Red Light* Fixed Green Light Fixed Blue Light*
* These marks are optional
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0322. Berthing Lines - Management when Alongside
a. Doubling Up and Marrying. Once secured alongside, it is normal practice to

‘double up’ all berthing lines, ensuring that both lines in each pair are ‘married’ and thus
take the strain equally. Similarly it is important that the Head Rope / Back Spring and
Stern Rope / Fore Spring combinations take any fore and aft strain equally.
b. Choice of Fairleads for Springs. Before doubling up, the fairleads used for Springs
during berthing might be altered for the time alongside or in preparation for departure
(see Para 0324b).
c. Adjustment of Lines for Tidal Range. In berths with a large tidal range it may be
necessary to adjust berthing lines from time to time to avoid over-tightness (which may
part them) or too much slack (which may surging along the jetty). This is labour
intensive, and in modern lean-manned ships not always easy to achieve. Thus achieving
the optimum adjustment of lines at the beginning is important.
• Springs. Traditionally made of wire, Springs are being replaced by a man-
made ‘HMPE’- High Modulus PolyEthylene. HMPE is a high-strength, low-
stretch man made fibre rope (see BR 67 Chapter 3). Due to their resistance to
stretching, Springs are vulnerable to the effect of large tidal ranges. Rigging
Springs with ‘long’ leads to bollards on the jetty as far away as reasonably
possible, minimises the effect of large tidal ranges and thus the risks of undue
slackness or parting.
• Head Ropes and Stern Ropes. Constructed of synthetic fibre, Head and Stern
Ropes are affected by large tidal ranges, but their ability to stretch minimises
the risk of parting. Rigging Head and Stern Ropes with long leads is
recommended.
• Breasts. Due to their relatively short span, Breasts normally have to be
adjusted from time to time where there is a large tidal range. Exceptionally,
it may be possible to rig Breasts for all stages of a tidal range if very wide
(CVS) berthing catamarans are in use.
d. Spring Hawsers, Hurricane Hawsers and Chain Cable. Spring Hawsers

(carried by ships) and Hurricane Hawsers (supplied by HM Naval Bases) are steel wire
ropes with a heavy section of polyamide (previously manila) cordage inserted in the mid
part to give weight and thus a damping effect. They may be rigged fore and aft, to give
a damping effect to movement when berthing on exposed jetties. In some harbours which
are vulnerable to severe weather (eg Portland Harbour), it may be necessary to rig the
ships chain anchor cable forward and aft to provide additional holding power and
damping.
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0323. Berthing Lines - Procedures for Use
a. Order of Lines to be Passed. The berthing lines initially needed to bring a major
warship to its berth are the Head Rope and Fore Spring, followed by the Stern Rope and
the Back Spring. The choice of whether to pass the Head Rope or Fore Spring first will
depend on the circumstances, and should be briefed in advance. On many occasions the
Head Rope will be the more appropriate to pass first, as it can be Hove In from the
capstan. However, when approaching a very short jetty, with dolphins ahead and astern
for the Head Rope and Stern Rope (eg NATO fuelling jetty at Campbeltown or the
UHAF facility at Portsmouth), then the Fore Spring will be needed first.
b. Preparation and Passing of Lines. Before approaching the jetty, each berthing
line should be faked ready for running and its bollard eye should be led through the
correct fairlead and brought back inboard so that a Heaving Line can be bent on quickly.
When making an alongside, the bow must be brought sufficiently close to the jetty to
pass Heaving Lines. When passed, and the eye is over the bollard ashore, the Head Rope
is brought to the capstan, but is normally kept slack until the ship has been turned
parallel or stern slightly towards the jetty to enable the Stern Rope to be passed from the
quarterdeck to the shore. The choice of fairlead for the Fore Spring is critical; the
further aft it is the more any leverage from the Fore Spring will bring the ship in bodily
sideways to the jetty, and conversely, the further forward it is the more any such leverage
will bring the bow into the jetty (see Para 0324).
c. Limitations of Berthing Lines. The size of major RN warships (FF/DDs) has

gradually increased over the past 30 years (eg at full load, a Leander Class FF displaced
2,800 tonnes, compared to a Type 22 Batch 3 at 4,900 tonnes in the same condition).
However, the size of berthing lines in use has not increased by the same proportion. Thus
great care is needed to avoid placing berthing lines under undue strain while
manoeuvring on or off a jetty. In particular, the Fore Springs are extremely vulnerable
to parting and every effort should be made to use engines ahead and astern to minimise
the strain on a Fore Spring, if using it as a point of leverage.
d. Commands for Working Berthing Lines. Prompt, efficient handling of wires and
ropes by upper deck crews is essential and the following standard terms (see also BR 67
Para 03013) should be used when working berthing lines:
• Pass. ‘Pass’ means either throw a line across or to pay out a line on a
Messenger (eg “Pass a Heaving Line” or “Pass the Back Spring” ).
• Down Slack. Down Slack means bring a line as taut as possible by hand and
keep it taut without putting strain on it.
• Bring to. Bring to means take turns of a berthing line round a capstan.
• Turn up. Turn up means take turns of a berthing line round bollards.
• Heave in (Hove-in when completed) / Veer. Heave-in / Veer means haul-in
/ ease-out a line using power on a capstan.
• Surge. Surge means ease out a line round a capstan or bollards while keeping
it under control.
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0324. Berthing Lines - Using Springs When Manoeuvring
a. Use for Manoeuvring. The stern (or bow) of a ship can be swung out at an angle
to a jetty by exerting propulsion power against a taut Spring as a point of leverage, but
extreme care is needed to avoid over-stressing the Spring. Recently constructed jetties
in UK Naval Base Ports only allow fixed Yokohama fenders to be used, which limits
the use of Springs and increases the need for tug assistance.
• Use of Fore Spring for Manoeuvring. Springing the stern in or out, by using
the Fore Spring, is a commonly used technique in RN warships.
• Use of Back Spring for Manoeuvring. It is rare for a twin-screw RN
warship to spring the bows out by placing weight on the Back Spring, as the
propeller blades are proud of the line of the hull. Such a manoeuvre risks the
blades striking the jetty or the shallow water often encountered at its base,
unless wide berthing catamarans are well placed right aft. However in certain
circumstances this technique might be appropriate (eg see Chapter 20, Para
2023 - CASTLE class) and it is often used in single screw ships.
b. Choice of Fairlead. The position of the fairlead through which the Spring is led
is very important as this changes the point of leverage and thus the action of the Spring.
There are 3 possible variants:
• Springing the Stern Out. To achieve maximum leverage to spring the stern
out, rig the Fore Spring from as far forward as possible, ideally through the
Bullring, ensuring it has a reasonably long lead on the jetty and runs as nearly
parallel to the line of the jetty as possible. If supplied, berthing catamarans
need to be carefully placed for departure and ships with Bow Domes must
ensure that the dome does not touch the jetty when springing off (see Fig 3-7).
Fig 3-7. Springing Out - Spring Rigged from Bullring for Maximum Leverage Out
• Dual Purpose - Springing the Stern In or Out. A fairlead is normally

available on the ship’s shoulder, which allows the Fore Spring to work either
to spring the stern in or out depending on the leverage of the engines and
rudder angle set. This fairlead is normally used for Springs when securing and
doubling-up after the ship is alongside. If a different position for the Spring is
needed for leaving the jetty (eg through the Bullring), this is usually rigged
just before sailing, together with the re-siting of any berthing catamarans.
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• Springing the Stern In. If berthing on a very short jetty where the ship
overhangs significantly and takes the Head and Stern Ropes from dolphins,
(eg many NATO fuelling depots) it may only be possible to pass a Fore Spring
in the initial stages of berthing. If an offshore wind occurs and tugs are not
available, the berthing problem is doubly difficult. A solution is to rig the Fore
Spring from as far aft towards the Centre of Gravity as reasonably possible,
although it is rare to find a suitable fairlead even as far aft as the Bridge.
Gentle engine power against such a Fore Spring will bring the ship bodily
sideways in to the jetty (see Fig 3-8). Great care is needed to avoid to over-
straining the Fore Spring and it is usual to use the engines ahead and astern,
assisted by the rudder, to achieve the leverage required without parting the
wire. This technique is also very useful in berthing on ordinary jetties in
offshore winds (see Paras 0327 and 0328).
Fig 3-8. Springing In - Spring Rigged from Bridge Area for Maximum Leverage In
0325. The Effect of Wind Sheer and Current/Tidal Stream on Berthing
a. Wind Sheer. A full explanation of Wind Sheer and its effect on berthing is at Para
0138. Specific measures to counter the effects of onshore/offshore winds while berthing
/ unberthing are contained at Paras 0327, 0328 and 0330.
b. Current/Tidal Stream. Information on how currents, tidal streams and eddies run
at jetties is contained in some Tidal Stream Atlases, the Sailing Directions (NPs 1-72)
and in Tidal Streams in the Approaches to HM Naval Bases (NP167). If the stream runs
parallel to the jetty, it can be used to control the lateral movement of the ship, provided
the wind is not too strong. Once the ship has been stopped off the berth, the bow may
be canted slightly across the stream which will then move the ship laterally towards (or
away from) the jetty. This technique is unlikely to work effectively if there are eddies
through a pile jetty, or if the effect of wind is stronger than the lateral movement
generated by canting across the stream.
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0326. Twin Propeller Ship - General Guidance and Calm Weather Berthing
a. Line of Approach. A good alongside is almost always set up by a well planned line
of approach. Conversely, it is very difficult to achieve a good alongside if the approach
line is incorrect. In calm weather, approach angles will normally vary between 8° - 15°
depending on the class of ship (see Fig 3-9). The Bridge marker flag/light (see Para
0321) usually makes a convenient aiming point but if stemming the tidal stream or
current, ship’ head will need to be aimed upstream to achieve a steady Bearing on the
marker flag. During the approach, progressively reduce speed (see slowing-down
guidance in the Navigational Data Book), while also keeping the ship on the selected
line. Take any stream and eddies into account as the ship slows down and gently round-
out at the end of the approach to turn nearly parallel to the berth. Avoid rounding-out
too early to avoid difficulty in passing Heaving Lines.
Fig 3-9. Berthing in Calm Conditions with No Stream - Aiming at Marker Flag
b. Controlling the Ship in the Final Stages of the Approach. Approach speeds for
FF/DDs are usually 10 kn at 1 mile, 6 knots at 5 cables and 2 knots at 2 cables. The final
stage of any approach is by far the most difficult. The following points are relevant:
• Start Final Turn Before Using Astern Power. Especially in CPP-fitted ships
where sideways forces from the propellers are limited (see Paras 0122, 0125), it is
normal practice to use the rudders to start a gentle swing away from the jetty
BEFORE applying astern power.
• Sideways Forces. As the ship slows off the berth, such sideways forces from the
propellers as are available (see Para 0122) may be used to advantage, but the largest
turning force available will usually be a good flow of water from an ahead engine
over the rudder. This is most effective when the ship is stopped or almost stopped
off the berth with one engine ahead, the other astern and full rudder applied.
• Avoidance of Berthing Collisions. If still moving and a berthing collision is
possible or imminent, it is usually better to stop the ship by using plenty of astern
power rather than attempting to steer out of it by using ahead power and the rudders.
• Propeller Wash as a Buffer. On a solid jetty, the wash from the inboard propeller
running astern will eventually act as a buffer between the ship and the jetty, but the
ship has to be stopped in the water or moving slightly astern for this to have much
effect.
• Zero Pitch. Note that Zero Pitch should be avoided in CPP-fitted ships until
stopped alongside the jetty (see Para 0132).
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c. Protecting the Dome, Propellers and Other Fittings. Bow Domes, midships
masker belts (where fitted), Stabilisers and propellers are all vulnerable to damage in
the final stages of berthing alongside.
• Bow Domes. Unless berthing catamarans are placed to protect the Bow Dome,
ships so fitted usually use shallow approach angles of around 8° with a
maximum of about 11°, although this depends on the flair of the bow, the
height of the jetty and the ship’s draught forward (see Fig 3-10 below and
specific class advice at Parts 2-5).
• Masker Belts and Stabilisers. In ships with a midships masker belt, care
must be taken not to damage this by scraping along the jetty or berthing
catamarans. Stabilisers are also at risk if there are no berthing catamarans.
• Fouling Propellers with Berthing Lines. Berthing lines aft must be clear of
the water to prevent any risk of them fouling the inboard propeller while it is
rotating. If lines are reported in the water near the propeller, the shaft must
be stopped immediately and (with CPPs) the Shaft Brake applied.
• Propellers Striking the Jetty. Where there are no berthing catamarans, the
tips of the inboard propeller may touch the jetty, irrespective of the presence
of the propeller guard, particularly if the ship develops a slight (even
momentary) heel away from the jetty.
Fig 3-10. Type 22 Batch III - Maximum Berthing Angle to a Vertical Jetty without Cats
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0327. Twin Propeller Ship - Berthing with an Onshore Wind

When berthing with an onshore wind, the ship should be stopped parallel to the jetty
about 10 metres off the catamarans. This is close enough to prevent the ship gathering Leeway
and berthing heavily, and far enough away to provide a margin of safety in the execution of the
approach. If there is a strong wind (above 15-18 knots depending on class) or it is a large ship,
or has a high freeboard, tugs should used to let the ship gently down on to the berth.
a. Berthing in a Moderate Onshore Wind. An 8° - 15° approach angle (similar to

the calm weather approach - see Para 0326a) should be used, but the aiming point for the
line of approach should be moved along the jetty by 2 metres forward of the Bridge
marker flag/light for every knot of wind (see Fig 3-11). A higher approach speed may
be used to reduce the effect of Leeway while closing the jetty, but it should be noted that
if this option is selected, earlier or greater astern power (or both) will also be needed to
stop the ship. Above a wind of 15-18 knots, tugs should be used to assist berthing (see
Para 0327b) but nothing is lost by securing a tug on a ‘lazy’ hawser on the shoulder in
winds of less than 15 knots; such a precaution may be invaluable to hold or pull the bow
away from the jetty if the approach does not work out as planned (see Para 0352).
Fig 3-11. Berthing in Moderate Onshore Wind - Aiming Ahead of Marker Flag
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b. Berthing in a Strong Onshore Wind (Using Tugs). For most FF/DDs, berthing
alongside without tugs is no longer prudent in onshore winds above 15-18 knots, unless
an anchor is used to hold the bow (see Para 0327c). Depending on the ship’s windage,
depth of water and any dangers near the berth, it may be wise to secure and use tugs in
lesser winds. If tugs are to be used they should be secured early (ideally about 7-8 cables
from the berth) with speed reduced to no more than about 6 knots. If only one tug is
available it is best secured on the shoulder to assist controlling the bow while using the
propellers and rudders to control the stern. If two tugs are available, the most effective
one should be secured forward and the other aft. Aim to stop the ship parallel to the
berth far enough off to give time for the tugs to take position to windward and
manoeuvre to let the ship gently down on to the berth (see Fig 3-12). Once the ship
starts to move sideways the (greater) Virtual Mass of the ship and water system (see Para
0206) will require much greater tug power to arrest than might be imagined. Therefore
it is important to have tugs that are sufficiently powerful to check the ship’s Virtual Mass
Leeway. In particular, the use of conventional twin-screw tugs with the Push-Pull
method should be avoided in these circumstances. With smaller ships (eg MCMVs)
or where only one tug is available, the single tug is best secured on the shoulder to
control the bow, with the stern being controlled by the rudders and propellers.
Fig 3-12. Berthing in Strong Onshore Wind - Tug Controlled Approach
c. Berthing in a Strong Onshore Wind (Using Anchor). With an onshore or strong

onshore wind, another alternative is to stop upwind of the jetty and parallel to it, and let
go an anchor. This also has the advantage of allowing the bow to be hauled clear of the
jetty on departure. See Para 0345 for more detailed information on the procedures
to be employed.
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0328. Twin Propeller Ship - Berthing with an Offshore Wind
a. Moderate Wind Directly Offshore (No Tugs). When berthing without tugs in a
wind directly off the berth, if possible steepen the line of approach, aiming at the Bridge
marker flag. Ships without Bow Domes should add up to 1° to the standard angle of
approach for every knot of wind speed (see Fig 3-13). Ships fitted with a Bow Dome
should use an approach angle which does not exceed the limits required to
safeguard the Bow Dome, and should thus consider using tugs as at Para 0328b. The
standard approach speed (log speed) should be used, but engine power may need to be
increased to counter the effect of the wind. When the bow is close to the jetty,
manoeuvre boldly to swing the bow away while Heaving Lines are passed. Wind Sheer
will help turn the bows away from the jetty if the wind is forward of the beam and
towards the jetty if the wind is aft of the beam (see Para 0138). Pass the Fore Spring
first (rigged from a fairlead well aft towards the Centre of Gravity - see Para 0322b), so
that it may be used to hold the ship bodily up to the jetty while the Head and Stern Ropes
are passed and Hove-in. If no suitable fairlead is available to rig the Fore Spring in this
way, the alternative is to pass the Head Rope first, and as soon as it has been brought to
the capstan, use the engines to work the stern in towards the jetty, Veering on the Head
Rope to allow the ship to turn. Pass the Stern Rope when the quarterdeck is within range
of the jetty and then turn the ship parallel to it by heaving in on the forward capstan. The
ship may then be worked close in to the jetty by the use of engines and capstan(s).
Fig 3-13. Berthing with Moderate Offshore Wind - Steeper Angle, Aiming at Marker Flag
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b. Moderate Wind Directly Offshore (Tugs Available). When berthing with tugs
in a wind directly off the berth, the same initial technique should be adopted as in Para
0328a, although the steeper approach angle is not so important. Ships fitted with a Bow
Dome should use an approach angle which does not exceed the limits required to
safeguard the Bow Dome. When the ship stops off the berth, the one or both tugs can
be used in Push-Pull to hold the ship up to the jetty, instead of working the ship into the
wind with lines and engines. If the bow tug is an ADEPT Class (TUTT) and tows on a
winch (see Para 0352a), it can be secured in good time (similar to securing for an onshore
wind - see Para 0327b), on a ‘lazy’ hawser on the shoulder (see Fig 3-14). Should Wind
Sheer produce an uncontrolled turn towards the jetty at the last moment, the TUTT can
be used to pull the bow off in time to avoid a berthing collision and then reposition
quickly in Push-Pull to hold the bow up to the jetty while lines are passed. A
conventional (twin screw) tug or a SUTT can also be used to achieve this but would be
secured Push-Pull, lying alongside the ship, and would ‘Pull-Back’ (ie directly aft in
relation to the ship) if needed to check a bow swing into the jetty (this method is not
shown at Fig 3-14, but see Para 0352c and Fig 3-21).
Fig 3-14. Berthing with Moderate Offshore Wind - Standard Angle, With Tugs
c. Strong Wind Directly Offshore. When berthing in a strong wind directly off the
berth it is unlikely that a modern FF/DD with a large windage will be able to achieve a
successful alongside without some assistance from one or two tugs. The same initial
techniques should be adopted for berthing in strong offshore winds as in Paras 0328a/b.
Ships fitted with a Bow Dome should use an approach angle which does not exceed
the limits required to safeguard the Bow Dome and are thus advised to use tugs. If
no tugs are available, a very steep approach angle, more power to work the stern up to
the jetty and extremely swift handling of lines may be needed. CASTLE class ships
regularly berth at South Georgia in very strong winds by this method, making the
approach to the jetty at up to 90°, passing the Stern Rope to shore over the bow, while
working the stern up to the jetty with the propellers and rudders (see Chapter 20, Para
2022). If sufficient tugs are available (eg in UK Naval Base Ports), they should be
secured and used as in Para 0328b, although if a choice exists, care should be taken to
ensure that the tugs selected are sufficiently powerful (see Para 0351) to push the ship
up to the jetty against a strong wind (see Annexes 3A and 3B).
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(0328) d. Wind Blowing Off the Jetty from the Quarter. Berthing with a wind blowing off
the jetty from the inboard quarter is the most difficult situation of all and a broad angle
of approach may put the ship in an very awkward position. This is firstly because Wind
Sheer will try to turn the bows into the jetty as soon as astern power has been applied (see
Para 0138) and secondly after the Fore Spring and/or Head Rope have been passed the
wind will push the entire hull outwards and make it difficult to work the stern towards
the jetty. With a wind on the inboard quarter, if at all possible, secure and use tugs as at
Para 0328b / Fig 3-14 and approach at either a standard or a shallow angle. However,
if tugs are not available, a shallow angle (see Fig 3-15) will minimise the risks of Wind
Sheer and being blown outwards off the berth, but leaves little room for error on the
approach. If other ships are berthed short of the allocated berth, a standard approach may
be required, and if this is so, there is a strong case for the use of tugs. See Para 0352c for
the Pull-Back method of using a single tug to counter the risk of a swing caused by Wind
Sheer.
Fig 3-15. Berthing with Wind on Inboard Quarter - Shallow Angle (No Tugs)
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0329. Single Propeller Ship - Berthing Alongside

Applying propulsion power astern in an RN warship with a single propeller will force the
stern to port (see Paras 0121c/d and 0124). This makes berthing port-side-to easier than
starboard-side-to with different techniques required. See Para 0345 for the use of an anchor.
a. Berthing Port-Side-To. In calm weather, a ship with a single propeller should

approach a port-side-to berth at an angle of 15° to the jetty, and head for the Bridge
marker flag. The final stage of the approach should be made at slow speed, but with
sufficient way to keep the ship under control and to bring the bow close enough to the
jetty to pass Heaving Lines. As the Head Rope or Fore Spring is being passed, astern
power should be applied to take off any residual headway and swing the bow away from
the jetty. This will bring the stern towards the jetty and, when it is close enough, the aft
Heaving Lines and then the Stern Rope and Back Spring should be passed. The rate of
swing is controlled by holding on / Veering the Head Rope as required or by use of the
Bow Thruster (if fitted). Once the Stern Rope has been passed, the ship is brought
parallel to the jetty and then Hove-in close alongside with the forward and after capstans
or a Bow Thruster (if fitted). If no after capstan is fitted, the use of a small tug to push
the ship up to the jetty is most helpful. During this process, if it is not already aligned,
the ship may be moved gently ahead or astern to align the ship with the Bridge marker
on the jetty. The principles for approaching in an onshore wind (Para 0327) and an
offshore wind (Para 0328) also apply to a single propeller ship, but tug assistance will
almost always be required in these circumstances.
b. Berthing Starboard-Side-To. In calm weather, a ship with a single propeller

should approach a starboard-side-to berth at a finer angle of approach (eg 10°), aiming
at the centre of the berth (see Fig 3-16). As the bow approaches the jetty, full port rudder
is applied (with a short burst of ahead power if necessary) to swing the bow away from
the jetty, which will also bring the stern up towards it. Then, just before the ship is
parallel to the jetty, astern power is applied, which will counter the swing and stop the
ship parallel to the jetty. As in coming alongside port-side-to (see Para 0329a), the Head
Rope, or the Bow Thruster (if fitted), can be used to check the swing. Once stopped close
to the jetty the final adjustment of position may be made as in Para 0329a. The
principles for approaching in an onshore wind (Para 0327) and an offshore wind (Para
0328) also apply to a single propeller ship, but tug assistance will almost always be
required in these circumstances.
Fig 3-16. Single Propeller Ship - Berthing Starboard-Side-To (Calm Weather)
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0330. Leaving an Alongside Berth

The plan for leaving a jetty will depend on factors including: the ship’s size and windage,
single or twin CPP / FPPs, whether a Bow Dome or Bow Thruster is fitted, presence of ships in
adjacent berths, any other obstructions in the harbour, wind and stream prevailing, availability /
size / effectiveness of tugs and the method of fendering used. Recently constructed jetties in UK
Naval Base Ports only allow fixed Yokohama fenders to be used, which limit the use of Springs.
a. Twin Propeller Ship - (No Tugs). Springing the bows out by leaning on the Back
Spring is rarely prudent (see Para 0324a). It is normally best to spring the stern out and
Sternboard (see Para 0324b). It is important to decide how far to spring the stern out
before letting go and making the Sternboard. If other ships are berthed astern or if there
is an onshore wind, it will be necessary to spring out to a relatively wide angle (see also
Para 0390 - Unconventional Methods). With an onshore wind, this angle needs to allow
for dropping back towards the jetty as the Fore Spring is slackened and let go, before
astern power begins to have effect; even after astern power has taken effect, extra
allowance for Leeway must be made. In general when making a Sternboard in these
circumstances it is advisable to use plenty of astern power as soon as the Fore Spring is
confirmed clear of any possibility of snagging on obstructions. A difficult shiphandling
situation can develop if these factors are not properly considered. Ships fitted with Bow
Domes are normally only able to spring out to about 8° unless wide berthing
catamarans can be placed to provide additional protection for the dome; for this
reason, it is usually necessary for tugs to assist Bow Dome fitted ships to unberth.
b. Single Propeller Ship - (No Tugs). In a single propeller ship, either the bows or
stern may normally be sprung out without risk although it is much more common to
spring the stern out, unless there is a tidal stream running from ahead. Similar
considerations apply as in Para 0330a (above), with the addition of the Paddlewheel
Effect of the single propeller which will have a very significant effect on the plan. From
a port-side-to berth, the stern must be sprung out to a considerable angle to allow for the
Paddlewheel Effect kicking the stern to port (back towards the jetty) when astern power
is applied. When leaving a starboard-side-to berth by going astern, it is not necessary to
spring the stern out so far because it will move away from the jetty as soon as astern
power is used. Plenty of fenders should be in place to prevent the bow scraping along
the jetty as it may prove difficult to keep the bow away from the jetty when the ship starts
to make a Sternboard (but see also Para 0390 - Unconventional Methods).
c. Departures using Tugs. In a twin propeller ship with one tug secured on the
shoulder to control the bow, the engines and rudder may be used very effectively to work
the ship out, keeping it parallel to the jetty. With a single propeller ship and one tug on
the shoulder, the engine may have to be used ahead with full rudder to control the stern;
although some headway may be gathered it should not be allowed to become significant.
A Bow Thruster (if fitted) may also be used to assist, and if so, the tug may be more
useful pulling amidships. If two tug are used, one should be secured forward and the
other aft to achieve a straight pull off the jetty. With an onshore wind, the ship should
be pulled far enough off to allow it to manoeuvre clear, after letting the tugs go.
d. Departure with an Offshore Wind. In an offshore wind it may be possible to let

go aft and allow the stern to swing out until a suitable angle for a Sternboard is achieved.
e. Departures using an Anchor. See Para 0345 for further details.
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0331. Berthing Alongside a Ship at Anchor

Berthing alongside a ship at anchor in calm weather is similar to going alongside a jetty
(see Para 0326), except that the anchored ship is free to swing around its anchor and the pressure
cushion ahead of the ship berthing will push the receiving ships’s stern away, if the approach is
made too fast and at too fine an angle. This manoeuvre is difficult for a single screw ship.
a. Approach (Calm Conditions). The approach in a twin propeller ship should be

made at slow speed and at an angle of about 15°-20°, aiming at the receiving ships’s
bow. When nearly in position, the approaching ship (especially if CPP-fitted) should
use its rudders to generate a very gentle swing away from receiving ship before applying
astern power on the outer propeller. Use of astern power on the inboard propeller may
force the receiving ship’s stern away. Berthing lines, particularly the after ones, should
be passed and secured as quickly as possible. When alongside each other, the ships
should be kept apart by berthing catamarans or Yokohama type fenders. During the
approach, each ship should be well fendered, especially in the midships area where the
first contact is likely to occur.
b. Approach (Wind Conditions). A wind will make the manoeuvre more difficult
because the anchored (receiving) ship will probably be Yawing (Fig 3-17, Positions 1-2).
As the receiving ship reaches the limit of its Yaw to one side, it comes up into the wind
and Surges ahead; it then drops back and Yaws towards the other side. The movements
of the receiving ship (Fig 3-17, Positions 1 to 2) should be carefully observed from the
approaching ship to determine the extent of the Yaw over a reasonable period of time,
before any approach is made. The approaching ship should be stopped just outside the
limit of the Yaw, pointing a little across the wind towards the receiving ship. As the
anchored ship comes to the limit of the Yaw (Fig 3-17, Position 2), the receiving ship
should edge towards it in order to manoeuvre alongside as the receiving ship begins to
Yaw away (in the opposite direction towards Fig 3-17, Position 1). This manoeuvre
requires good judgement and smart handling of the berthing lines and fenders. The
receiving ship may let go a second anchor underfoot to reduce the Yaw’s magnitude.
Fig 3-17. Berthing Alongside a Ship at Anchor Which is Yawing
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0332. Berthing Alongside a Ship Underway and Stopped in the Water

Berthing alongside a ship underway is similar to berthing alongside a ship at anchor (see
Para 0331) except that in anything other than calm conditions, the receiving ship will be drifting
downwind rather than Yawing. Any stream or current will affect both ships equally and may be
discounted.
a. Drift Rate. The receiving ship should stop in the water to allow a stable state to be
achieved before the approaching ship makes any attempt to berth. The stable state will
be indicated by a steady ship’s head which should be frequently reported to the
approaching ship. Note that the attitude of the receiving ship to the prevailing wind will
depend on the hull and superstructure shape (see Para 0138b). In addition to Leeway, if
the receiving ship does not settle exactly beam to wind, a certain amount of headway or
sternway should be anticipated. The approaching ship should establish the Drift Rate
over a reasonable period of time before committing itself to an approach. Great
care is required and if the Drift Rate of the receiving ship is deemed to be excessive,
consideration should be given to aborting the evolution. It will probably be preferable
to berth on the downwind side, particularly if berthing alongside a larger ship where
some degree of shelter will be found.
b. Approach. The approach will be similar to that for berthing alongside a jetty in a
offshore wind, in that the aim point should be ahead of the desired berthing position to
allow for the Leeway of the receiving vessel. The approaching ship should intend to stop
on a parallel heading about 10 metres off the receiving vessel. Constant reports of
heading and Drift Rate from the receiving ship are necessary and the approaching ship
should continuously monitor its Bearing as the approach is made. The effects of entering
the receiving ship’s lee must be carefully considered and good fendering is vital. As for
berthing on an anchored ship (Para 0331), when secured alongside each other, the ships
should be kept apart by berthing catamarans or Yokohama type fenders.
c. Alternative Approach with Bow Thruster Fitted Ships. For more manoeuvrable
vessels fitted with a Bow Thruster, an alternative approach is to stop parallel to the
receiving ship but further off, and use the Bow Thruster with the main engines and
rudder, to work the ship bodily sideways towards the receiving ship. If the closing rate
is excessive, this method can be used in reverse, to work the approaching ship away
(sideways) from the receiving ship and thus reduce the rate of closing.
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0333. Slipping from a Ship at Anchor or Underway and Stopped in the Water
a. Slipping from a Ship at Anchor. When slipping from alongside a ship at anchor,
it is useless to try to spring off because both ships will pivot together around the cable
of the anchored ship. The correct procedure in calm weather is to let go all berthing lines
at the same time and the two ships will soon drift apart. In a small ship, this can be
helped by bearing off forward and aft. If there is a wind, it is best to let go forward and
hold on aft until the bows have drifted far enough apart to Slip the remaining lines aft and
apply ahead power. Care must be taken to keep the after berthing lines out of the water.
The inner propeller of the departing ship must not be allowed to foul the anchored ship
and if there is any risk of this the shaft should be held stopped by the Shaft Brake.
b. Slipping from a Ship Underway and Stopped in the Water. When slipping from
the lee side of a ship underway and stopped in the water, any attempt to spring off will
turn both ships into wind and sea. Depending on the Swell and/or Sea State this will
normally increase the vertical movement between the two hulls, possibly leading to
damage. If the Drift Rate is high, it will be difficult to attain the necessary Lateral
Separation at the stern for a safe departure. In this situation, a fast Sternboard may be
required in order to reduce the risk of the stopped ship being set down upon the departing
ship. If the (stopped) upwind ship is fitted with a Bow Thruster it may be preferable to
let go all lines, and using main engines and rudder as well, for it to work sideways
upwind to counteract the Drift Rate before the departure. If the departing ship is also
fitted with a Bow Thruster, this may usefully be used with the engines and rudder to work
the ships apart.
0334. Natural Transits when Berthing

When Conning from the Centre Line, the sideways movement of the jackstaff against
marks ashore gives an estimate of the rate of turn or the sideways movement of the ship. In a
CVS, the Pin Mast may be erected to provide a reference point directly ahead of the pelorus.
However when berthing, the use of other natural transits are generally more useful, as follows:
a. Distance to Run. When approaching a berth, distance to run may often be estimated
without requiring access to the compass repeater (and so disturbing the Conning officer),
by observing any charted natural transits which are conveniently positioned on or near
the beam. The NO should provide regular reports on the distance to the berth.
b. Sideways Movement. The sideways movement being experienced on the final

approach to the berth can best be estimated by observing a natural transit between the
berthing flag (Bridge position) and a convenient object behind it, using binoculars. This
will give an accurate indication of whether the Bridge is approaching the jetty on a steady
Bearing or not. The NO should provide frequent reports on this transit movement.
c. Uncharted Natural Transits - Precaution. When using uncharted natural transits,

it is essential NOT to select object that might move (eg parked vehicles about to
move, or a white ‘rock’ which turns out to be a sheep. Whilst this might sound an obvious
precaution, it is a mistake which has been made many times in all generations!).
0335-0339. Spare
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SECTION 4
BERTHING STERN-TO AND ALONGSIDE WITH ANCHORS
0340. Planning for Stern-To Berthing
a. Outline of Method. In well protected harbours where space is at a premium, a ship

may have to berth stern to the jetty. This is achieved by laying one or two anchors off the
berth to hold the bow and turning at right angles, Sternboarding and securing the stern
to the jetty by berthing lines. Some ports provide permanent ground tackle (sometimes
known as Corpo Mortos) which replace the anchor(s) after berthing. Permanent ground
tackle is particularly helpful to warships which can only deploy one anchor and which
could not otherwise berth stern-to. Stern-to berthing is only used in harbours where
there is a small range of tide, most commonly in the Mediterranean, so it is often called
a Mediterranean Moor. Where ground tackle is provided, the port authority will usually
arrange a boat or other means to transfer the Messenger for the head moorings, after a
ship has first used its own anchor(s) and cable(s) to berth. It is then possible to Heave-in
the ground tackle from the sea bed, and weigh the ship’s anchors and cables with the
assistance of a barge provided by the port. However, a Mediterranean Moor will not be
safe if a gale blows from abeam and the ship may need to sail before the weather breaks.
b. Planning Let Go Position for Anchor(s). The first consideration is where to let
go the anchors, which will also affect the departure (see Para 0344); the critical factor
here is the length of cable available on each anchor. The anchors should be far enough
away from the jetty for the ship to swing clear of other ships when they are being
weighed during departure, but they must not be so far offshore that the stern of the ship
cannot reach the jetty when cable has been Veered. The anchors must also avoid fouling
any permanent ground tackle. The angle between the cables should be about 50 degrees
in order to hold the bow firmly on a span if there is a cross breeze. The amount of cable
required to reach from the cable locker to the waterline, the length of the gangway aft and
a margin for error should all be allowed for when assessing how much cable to use.
c. Calculation of Running Approach and Let Go Position (no Bow Dome). For a
ship with two anchors and no Bow Dome, the best line of approach for a running moor
to a stern-to berth is parallel to the jetty at the calculated distance offshore for letting go
the anchors. For a vessel of 135 metres (443 feet) with 7 shackles on the shorter cable,
plan to use 4 shackles (110 metres / 360 feet) on each cable with an angle of 50o between
them. On these assumptions, the anchors should be 90 metres (300 feet) apart on a line
240 metres (789 feet) from the jetty (summarised at Fig 3-18). This may be arrived at by
careful plotting on a chart or calculating as follows:
• Anchors either side of the centre line = Sin 25° x 110 metres = 45 metres (150 feet)
• Line of anchors to stem = Cos 25° x 110 metres = 100 metres (330 feet)
• Length of ship = 135 metres (443 feet)
• Allowance for gangway = 5 metres (16 feet)
• TOTAL = 100 + 135 + 5 = 240 metres (789 feet)
Once the anchors are correctly laid, the stern is manoeuvred to the jetty (see Fig 3-18).
Details of the procedure to be followed for this type of stern-to berthing are at Para 0341.
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Fig 3-18. Summary of Stern-To Berthing - Positions of Anchors (non-Bow Dome)
d. Calculation of Dropping Approach and Let Go Position (Bow Dome). Ships with
a Bow Dome cannot carry out a Running Anchorage and usually have only one anchor
available. In this case, the ship approaches parallel to the jetty about 200-300 metres off,
clear of other ships and cables. When the berth is at approximately Red /Green 45, the
ship executes a 90° turn and stops with the stern 400-500 metres from the jetty, directly
opposite the berth. A short Sternboard is then made to the jetty. Using a similar
calculation to that at Para 0340c (for a ship of 135 metres), a single anchor with between
4-6 shackles of cable is let go at between 245-300 metres from the jetty (see Fig 3-19).
Details of the procedure to be followed for this type of stern-to berthing are at Para 0342.
Fig 3-19. Summary of Stern-To Berthing - Positions of Anchor (Bow Dome)
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0341. Twin Propeller Ship - Approach to a Stern-To Berth (Non-Bow Dome fitted Ship)
a. Berthing in Calm Weather (Non-Bow Dome fitted Ship). In calm weather, a ship
with two anchors but without a Bow Dome, should approach on a line parallel to the jetty
and execute the following procedure (see Fig 3-18):
• Let go the first anchor in the pre-planned spot (see Para 0340c). On letting go,
turn towards the first anchor to start the stern swinging towards the jetty and
also to prevent the cable under-running the ship (particularly if a Fixed
Dome is fitted), while moving slowly towards the second let go position.
• When the ship is stopped in the correct position (see Para 0340c), let go the
second anchor and manoeuvre the stern towards the jetty. As the stern turns
towards the jetty, bring the bow to the centre line of the berth by Veering more
slowly on one or other cable.
• The quarterdeck officer must make frequent reports of the distance between
stern and jetty as the ship gets closer. The cable may be held to slow down
movement astern as the stern approaches the berth.
• When close enough, berthing lines are passed from aft. The seaboat should
normally be used to pass a Messenger for the berthing lines, but given prior
permission from the port authorities, a gun-line may be fired instead.
• It will normally be best to move the ship into the final position by adjusting the
cables and berthing lines. When secured, both anchors should be taking
moderate strain with the cables standing well out of the water so that the
gangway may be rigged securely in the gap remaining aft.
• If provided, bring permanent ground tackle inboard and secure it (see Para
0342b). When the permanent ground tackle has been secured, recover the
anchor(s) and cable. Assistance from the port will be required to do this and
it may be helpful to have buoyed the anchors initially (see Para 0342b).
b. Berthing with Onshore Wind (Non-Bow Dome fitted Ship). With a directly
onshore wind, once the anchors have been let go, the wind will turn the ship stern on to
the jetty and it can then be let down on the berth by Veering on the cables.
c. Berthing with Offshore Wind (Non-Bow Dome fitted Ship). With an offshore
wind, with the bows held by anchors, the stern will tend to fall across the wind and this
must be countered by lateral thrust from the propellers or the use of a tug.
d. Berthing with Wind from Astern (Non-Bow Dome fitted Ship). With a wind
blowing parallel to the jetty from astern, use the wind to help turn the ship at right angles
to the jetty as the first anchor is let go. On going astern, the stern may turn into wind,
and if so, this will help to move the ship slightly up wind of the line of the berth.
e. Berthing with Wind from Ahead (Non-Bow Dome fitted Ship). If the wind is
from ahead and parallel to the jetty, the ship should adopt the Dropping Anchorage
procedure normally used by Bow Dome fitted ships (see Paras 0340d and 0342). The
ship lets go the windward anchor first. The span between the anchors will be reduced.
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0342. Twin Propeller Ship - Approach to a Stern-To Berth (Bow Dome fitted Ship)
a. Berthing in Calm Weather (Bow Dome fitted Ship). Ships with a Bow Dome can
normally use only one anchor and must do so when either stopped or making sternway,
and thus adopt an alternative method of approach. Such ships must be provided with
permanent ground tackle (see Para 0342b), as a single anchor is not sufficient to hold the
bow steady in a crosswind. In calm weather, ships should approach on the line parallel
to the jetty and execute the following procedure (see Fig 3-19):
• Follow a track parallel to the jetty about 200-300 metres off, clear of other
ships and their cables, and with room for the stern to swing in during the turn.
• When the berth is at about Red/Green 90, make a turn of 90° away from the
jetty and stop the ship stern-to the jetty with the stern about 400-500 metres off
the berth. Make a slow Sternboard to the jetty and let go the anchor in the pre-
planned spot (see Para 0340d). A tug will be helpful to control the bow.
• Thereafter the procedure is similar to that at Para 0341a (from 3rd bullet point).
b. Securing Permanent Ground Tackle and Recovery of Anchor(s). Permanent

ground tackle provided in certain ports for Mediterranean Moors normally consists of
lengths of chain cable fixed to the sea bed with wire Messengers run to the jetty. Once
the ship is in position and held by the anchor(s) and berthing lines, the wire Messengers
are brought to the ship either using a boat provided by the port or the ship’s seaboat. The
Messengers are Hove-in to the focsle by capstan; the windward one should be brought
in first and secured to the bollards using a bollard strop and Blake Slip. The wire
Messengers are long and should be faked down on deck. Once the ground tackle has been
secured, the Messengers should be passed outboard and returned to the jetty. The
procedure is then repeated for the leeward side. The port will normally provide a barge
to assist in retrieving the anchor(s) and, subject to advice from the port, it may be helpful
to buoy the anchors when letting them go. It is wise to pass a Breast to adjacent ships (if
possible) to hold the bow during the process of retrieving the anchor(s).
c. Berthing with Onshore Wind (Bow Dome fitted Ship). With a directly onshore
wind, a tug will be helpful to prevent the bow paying off during the Sternboard. Once
the anchor has been let go, the ship can be let down on the berth by Veering on the cable.
d. Berthing with Offshore Wind (Bow Dome fitted Ship). With an offshore wind
with the bows held by anchors, the stern will tend to fall across the wind and this must
be countered by lateral thrust from the propellers or the use of a tug.
e. Berthing with Wind from Astern (Bow Dome fitted Ship). With a wind blowing
parallel to the jetty from astern, on going astern the stern may turn into wind, and if so,
this will help to move the ship slightly up wind of the line of the berth before it arrives
in position. A tug will be helpful to hold the bow up to the wind.
f. Berthing with Wind from Ahead (Bow Dome fitted Ship). If the wind is from
ahead and parallel to the jetty, on going astern the stern may turn into wind, and this will
help to move the ship slightly up wind of the line of the berth before it arrives in position.
A tug will be helpful to hold the bow up to the wind.
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0343. Single Propeller Ship - Approach to a Stern-To Berth (Non-Bow Dome fitted Ship)
a. Berthing in Calm Weather (Non-Bow Dome fitted Ship). Berthing a single

propeller ship stern-to, even in calm weather, requires good judgement and it is advisable
to have a tug standing by. A ship with two anchors but without a Bow Dome should, in
principle, follow the procedure for a twin propeller ship at Para 0341 / Fig 3-18 with the
some modifications (emphasized below by emboldening). As the stern of RN single
propeller warships kick to port when astern power is applied (see Para 0124), this factor
should be used to advantage whenever possible by planning the manoeuvre so that the
movement of the stern after dropping both anchors is to port. In calm weather, the ship
should approach on the line parallel to the jetty and execute the following procedure:
• Let go the first anchor in the pre-planned spot (see Para 0340c).
• After letting go, the ship should turn gently towards the first anchor to start the
stern swinging towards the jetty and also to prevent the cable under-running
the ship, while moving slowly towards the second let go position.
• When the ship is stopped in the correct position (see Para 0340c), let go the
second anchor, hold on to the cable of the first anchor and turn against it
(ideally bows to starboard, stern to port) by applying ahead power to
create wash over the rudder and by using the Paddlewheel Effect from
astern power to manoeuvre the stern towards the jetty. If the initial turn
has to be made against Paddlewheel Effect, it may be necessary to use a tug
to assist.
• As the stern turns towards the jetty, bring the bow to the centre line of the berth
by Veering more slowly on one or other cable, and by the use of a tug if
necessary.
• Thereafter the procedure is similar to that at Para 0341a (from 3rd bullet point).
b. Berthing in Conditions of Wind (Non-Bow Dome fitted Ship). The guidance for
a twin-propeller ship at Paras 0341b-0341e is broadly applicable, although greater use of
a tug may be necessary to compensate for the lack of manoeuvrability of a single
propeller ship.
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0344. Leaving a Stern-To Berth
a. Planning. The intentions for departure should be considered when planning the
arrival (see Para 0340b), as once laid, the position of the anchors cannot be changed. This
consideration is mitigated if permanent ground tackle (see Para 0342b) is used but the
underlying principle remains valid. The wind prevailing at the time of departure, the
presence of nearby ships and the position of their anchors and cables also affect the
leaving plan but in many cases these factors will be unknown until shortly before
departure. If the anchor(s) prove extremely difficult to weigh or become fouled, the
option of buoying and slipping the cable must be considered, but only as a last resort.
b. Options for Weighing Anchors / Slipping Ground Tackle. When planning the
departure, the choice of which anchor to weigh first is the most important point to decide.
The assistance of a tug to control the bow during the departure is extremely helpful. If
available, there should be no hesitation in using a tug for this purpose and to assist in any
turn necessary as the ship make its exit from the berth and into the main channel.
• Anchors at different distances. If the two anchors are different distances
offshore, it will probably be better to weigh the nearer anchor first. If there is
not sufficient room to swing, the ship must be held on a safe heading during
weighing, either by a tug or if no tug is available, against the second anchor.
This latter action may result in the cables crossing while weighing and both
cables becoming fouled. The further anchor may be weighed first, but this
does not remove the problem of weighing the nearer one, particularly if
swinging room is constrained and the ship has to be held on a specific heading
while doing so.
• Anchors at Equal Distances. With two anchors at equal distances from the
shore, it is best to weigh the leeward anchor first, holding the ship slightly
upwind on the windward anchor to prevent the lee cable from under running
the ship. When the lee anchor is aweigh, Heave-in on the windward cable and
point the ship in the direction for departure.
• Slipping Permanent Ground Tackle. Permanent ground tackle (see Para
0342b) is normally fixed with the sea-bed moorings at an equal distance from
the bow. Thus slipping permanent ground tackle follows the principle of
weighing anchors at equal distance (ie Slip the leeward tackle first, followed
immediately by the windward tackle).
c. Options for Slipping the Stern Ropes. When leaving a berth the leeward Stern
Rope should be slipped first. The windward Stern Rope may be retained to help control
the sideways movement of the stern as the anchor cables are being Hove-in, but opinion
among shiphandlers is divided on the merits of this, as a ship does not have to move very
far forward before the Stern Rope loses its lateral control effect. In addition, the Stern
Rope will prevent the use of the propellers when it is let go in the water and thus, for both
these reasons, there is a case for slipping it first. When secured with permanent ground
tackle instead of anchors (see Para 0342b) it is normally best to Slip both Stern Ropes
before slipping the ground tackle, due to the speed and ease with the ground tackle can
be slipped (see Para 0344b).
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0345. Using an Anchor to Assist Berthing and Unberthing Alongside

When berthing alongside in onshore winds or when the departure may be against the wind
without tugs, it can be useful to let go an anchor before going alongside. This helps to control
the bow during berthing and allows the bow to hauled clear of the jetty on departure.
a. Instructions Common to all Methods. Careful pilotage is needed to let the anchor
go in exactly the right position so when the ship is secured alongside, the cable should
grow abeam with up to 4 shackles of cable run out; this amount allows the cable to be
lowered to the sea bed after the ship has berthed, without exhausting the supply of cable.
If the anchor is let go too far off it will mean weighing and re-anchoring, or if it is let go
too close there may be insufficient distance for the anchor to bed in and hold the bow
before the ship reaches the jetty. The anchor itself should be buoyed. Care must be
taken not to foul underwater cables or to anchor in an area where this is prohibited.
b. Onshore Wind. Given the preparations at Para 0345a above, with an onshore or
strong onshore wind, the ship should be stopped upwind of the jetty and parallel to it, and
an anchor let go underfoot, ideally from the centre-line Hawsepipe or side facing away
from the jetty. The ship may then be held parallel to the jetty and lowered down onto it
by Veering cable and controlling the stern with the propellers and rudders. Single
propeller ships may require a tug to control the stern. See also Para 0327c.
c. Calm Weather and Offshore Wind: Non-Bow Dome fitted Ships. Given the
preparations at Para 0345a above, in calm weather, a non-Bow Dome fitted ship may
approach at a steep angle (up to 90°) to the jetty, while pointing to the head of the berth.
On letting go the anchor (ideally from the side facing away from the jetty), the rudder is
put over to swing the bows away from the jetty and astern power applied. As the way of
the ship is reduced the cable is braked to assist the swing of the bows, and a headrope is
passed ashore and used to prevent the bows swinging out too far. Fine judgement is
required to ensure the stern does not swing in too hard. The ship should be eventually
stopped a little more than half a ships length ahead of the berth, when a stern line is
passed ashore and the ship is backed stern first into the berth.
d. Calm Weather and Offshore Wind: All Ships. Given the preparations at Para
0345a above, in calm weather or moderate offshore winds, ships with or without a Bow
Dome may adopt the procedure at Para 0345b (Onshore Wind) with the exception that
it may be necessary to pass a headrope ashore or use a tug on the bow in order to push the
bow into the jetty while Veering cable. The stern may be worked in by using the
propellers and rudders. Single propeller ships may also require a tug to control the stern.
e. Departure from Alongside with an Anchor Down. When leaving from alongside
with an anchor down, the stern may be worked out by using the engines or hauled out by
a tug, while at the same time heaving in on the cable forward. If fitted with twin
propellers, the easiest method is to work the stern out with the engines, as this can be
balanced exactly against the cable with the minium of difficulty. In calm conditions or
with an offshore wind, the position of the bows may be controlled by using a forward
Breast to prevent the ship from over-running its anchor.
0346-0349. Spare
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SECTION 5
USE OF TUGS IN SHIPHANDLING
0350. Principles for Employment of Tugs and Pilots
a. Availability of Tugs and Pilots. Tugs are always provided in UK Naval Base Ports
in support of harbour movements for all but the very smallest of RN warships. An
Admiralty Pilot is always available in UK Naval Base Ports to assist, even at relatively
short notice (an Admiralty Pilot is provided automatically for the movements of RN
capital warships, RFAs and foreign warships). In commercial ports, tugs and a Pilot
should normally be provided as part of the visit arrangements.
b. Use of Tugs and Pilots in UK Naval Base Ports. Although an ability to berth,
unberth and manoeuvre in harbour without outside assistance should be retained as an
operational capability, modern ships, particularly FF/DDs fitted with Bow Domes and
CPPs, are inherently less robust and less manoeuvrable in harbour than similar ships of
an earlier generation (eg LEANDER class FFs). This means that on an increasing
number of occasions, it will be prudent to secure and use tugs to assist berthing,
unberthing and in other manoeuvres in UK Naval Base Ports. If the CO and/or NO
are not experienced in using and controlling tugs for this purpose, the services of an
Admiralty Pilot should be requested. Admiralty Pilots are highly trained and experienced
in manoeuvring warships and RFAs under all conditions. As well as contributing to the
safe conduct of a manoeuvre, an Admiralty Pilot inevitably provides a wealth of
knowledge and experience in the process, and exposure to this may also be regarded as
a form of on-job-training for ship’s officers which should be encouraged. COs should
have no hesitation in using an Admiralty Pilot and/or tugs in UK Naval Base Ports
if the situation warrants it, or if they are in any doubt about whether the situation
warrants it.
c. Use of Tugs and Pilots in Commercial and Foreign Ports. The situation in UK
commercial and other foreign ports is less clear cut. While many such ports have Pilots
and tugs which operate to very high standards, it is an unfortunate fact that some are not
familiar with the special requirements of handling thin-skinned warships which also have
expensive and vulnerable underwater projections. Tugs which regularly handle heavy
merchant ships are often high powered, with a Bollard Pull well in excess of warship
requirements. They can be very robust in their manoeuvres and are also often used to
operating semi-autonomously with the minimum of control. Without very firm briefing
and control of such tugs, their over-zealous manoeuvres can (and sometimes do) result
in unnecessary damage to warships. In such situations, the CO and NO will need to brief
local Pilots carefully, liaise very closely with them during the manoeuvres, monitor their
instructions to tugs and monitor the tugs themselves to ensure they are obeying the
Pilot’s instructions.
d. Communication with Tugs. The normal means of controlling tugs is by VHF (see
also Para 0355b - ‘Use of GMDSS hand-held VHF radios to control tugs’) but hand
signals are also used in UK Naval Base Ports. Whistle signals are a further option, but
this method is not in general use and could now only be used after a detailed briefing of
all concerned. Details of tug control methods and orders are at Paras 0352 and 0355.
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0351. Types of Tug - Capabilities and Limitations
a. Naval Base Ports. Tug services in UK Naval Base Ports are now provided under
contract to MoD(N). However, (in 2002) the majority of tugs operating in UK Naval
Base Ports are still the MoD-owned IMPULSE, ADEPT, DOG, FELICITY and TRITON
classes. Their capabilities are at Table 3-2.
b. Nomenclature. Where tugs have Voith-Schneider Propulsion (VSP), they are often
referred to by the number of VSP units fitted: eg a ‘SUTT’ (Single Unit Tractor Tug) or
a ‘TUTT’ (Twin Unit Tractor Tug). Azimuth Drive is also known as Z Drive.
Table 3-2. Capabilities of MoD-owned Tugs.

Class Bollard Pull Propulsion Length / Max Max Tow Main Use
(Type) Draught Speed Speed
IMPULSE 38 tonnes aft Twin Stern 32.5 m 12 kn 8 kn SSBN / SSN / Other
(Z Drive) 36 tonnes fwd Azimuth Drive. 4.0 m Capital / Major
Bow Thruster Ships.
Cold Moves.
ADEPT 27.5 tonnes Twin VSP 38.1 m 12 kn 8 kn Capital ships / FF /
(TUTT) (fitted fwd) 4.6 m DD / SM / RFA.
Cold Moves.
DOG 16 tonnes aft Conventional 28.7 m 9 kn 6 kn Supporting TUTT.
12 tonnes fwd twin propellers 3.8 m Barges.
FELICITY 5.5 tonnes Single VSP 23.8 m 8 kn 5 kn Supporting TUTT.
(SUTT) (fitted fwd) 3.4 m Minor War Vessels.
Barges.
TRITON 3 tonnes Single VSP 17.0 m 6 kn 4 kn Minor War Vessels.
(SUTT) (fitted fwd) 2.0 m Barges.
c. Manoeuvrability of Conventional Twin Propeller and VSP Tugs.

• Conventional Twin Propeller. Propeller-driven tugs exert more thrust for a
given engine power than VSP-fitted tugs and manoeuvre best on a taut hawser,
but are vulnerable to Girding. They can push effectively against the hull if the
ship is stopped. The pulling power of conventional tugs (eg DOG class) is
much reduced when pulling stern first (ie pulling-off when secured for Push-
Pull). Further details are at Para 0352c.
• VSP and Z Drive Tugs. VSP and Z Drive tugs are more manoeuvrable than
conventional tugs and can thrust in any direction (see Paras 0126-0127). VSP-
fitted tugs, and Stern Azimuth Drive (Z Drive) tugs Towing over the bow, are
almost invulnerable to Girding due to the relative positions of the towing
point and the propulsion units. However, Stern Azimuth Drive (Z Drive) tugs
Towing over the stern are vulnerable to Girding. VSP-fitted tugs always secure
with their stern towards the vessel being Towed or pushed and ADEPT class
tugs tow on a winch; Z Drive tugs may secure in either direction and
IMPULSE class tugs Tow on a winch forward. Tugs Towing on a winch can
Heave-in or Veer the Tow during the task. Further details are at Para 0352.
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d. Likely Tug Power Against Likely Power Requirement. When planning the use
of tugs it is important to assess their likely pull against the likely power required. It
should be noted that the Bollard Pull in Table 3-2 are in ideal conditions when the tug
is pulling at 90° against a static vessel. If some of the tug’s power has to be diverted to
maintain Station on a moving ship, or if the pull is not exactly at 90° to the direction of
pull required, then the effective pull will be considerably less and may easily reduce to
50% or less of that at Table 3-2.
e. Practical Effect of Ship’s Headway On Tug Performance and Safety. Due to

the diversion of some tug power to maintain Station on a moving ship, the choice of
ship’s speed while tugs are connected is a major consideration.
• Connecting and Lead Tug Speed - Rule of Thumb. As a rule of thumb,
when connecting tugs or using a bow tug to lead a ship, the ships speed should
not exceed two-thirds of the tugs maximum free running speed and ideally it
should be less (see Table 3-2).
• Running Connected - Not Towing. If it is essential to run with a tug secured
at higher speeds than two-thirds of the tugs maximum (eg with a TUTT in the
bow of a CVS entering Portsmouth in westerly winds), the tug will not be able
to pull and may have difficulty in keeping Station. It is thus essential to pass
all course alterations to the tug before applying wheel, to assist it
maintaining Station.
• Over-Running and Girding. In an extreme situation, to avoid being over-run
(TUTT/SUTT) or Girding (conventional tug), the tug may have to Slip the Tow
from its Towing Hook (an emergency action), or in a TUTT Towing from the
winch drum, Veer considerable amounts of Towing wire. Girding is a
catastrophic situation for a tug and in the past has often involved loss of
life. With a conventional tug on a hawser, the risk of Girding the tug through
excessive speed must always be considered very carefully (see Para 0354).
f. Theoretical Calculation of Pull Required. Graphs for the lateral forces generated
by wind on the beam of selected RN warships and RFAs are at Annex 3A. From this it
will be seen that it would require 50 tonnes of Bollard Pull (ie 2 ADEPT class TUTTs)
to hold a CVS stationary against a 25 knot beam wind. This assumes that the CVS has
little or no headway and that the tugs are positioned at the 90° position. Similar graphs
showing the effect of tidal stream are at Annex 3B and show that the same 50 tonnes of
Bollard Pull would be needed to hold a CVS against a 2.3 knot tidal stream in nil wind.
g. Practical Assessment of Tug Requirements. There is a risk of over-simplification

in the application of the theoretical graphs at Annexes 3A and 3B. In practice, ships are
rarely stopped dead in the water, tugs are rarely at the 90° pull angle, the tug power is
also used to accelerate or decelerate the ship and so has to overcome its inertia or Kinetic
Energy, as well as overcome the effects of wind and stream. In reality, the decision on
the right level of tug support for a particular move ends up being a subjective judgement
based on local knowledge and experience, supported by calculations from Table 3-2 (or
similar data for other tugs) and Annexes 3A and 3B. COs and NOs should not hesitate
to consult the QHM/Chief Admiralty Pilot (in Naval Base Ports) or Harbour Master/Chief
Pilot (in other ports) as appropriate, in good time to agree the necessary level of tug and
Pilot support for any particular move.
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0352. Methods of Operating Tugs

Tugs can operate in one of 4 methods: by being secured with a hawser so that they can
Tow (the ‘Towing’ and ‘Indirect Towing’ methods), by being secured with the bows close to the
ship’s side (the Push-Pull method), or by pushing without being secured.
a. Towing Method. When the Towing method is used, the tug can pull on a taut
hawser to exert thrust in the required direction and can pivot about the hawser to change
the direction of thrust. When a tug’s hawser is taken to a winch drum (eg IMPULSE
Class Stern Azimuth Drive (Z Drive) tug Towing over the bow, or an ADEPT class
TUTT), the wire can be Hove-in until the tug is touching the ship’s side and effectively
changes to the Push-Pull method; other types of tug cannot push until the hawser is
released and the tug re-secures under another method. When Towing over the stern on a
hawser with either a conventional tug or a Stern Azimuth Drive (Z Drive) tug, the risk of
Girding the tug must always be considered carefully (see Para 0354).
WARNING
1. GIRDING A TUG WILL NORMALLY CAUSE IT TO

SINK AND MAY RESULT IN LOSS OF LIFE.
2. AVOIDANCE OF GIRDING A TUG IS PRIMARILY THE

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE SHIP BEING ASSISTED.
b. Indirect Towing Method. VSP-fitted tugs Towing on a winch aft (eg ADEPT class
TUTTs), or Stern Azimuth Drive (Z Drive) tugs Towing on a winch over the bow (eg
IMPULSE Class), may be used for Indirect Towing. With Indirect Towing, instead of
pulling directly down the line of the hawser, the tug drives ‘into the hawser’ at about 90°
to the line of the hawser, provided the ship has 3-6 knots head/stern way. The tug’s pull
acts on the ship at the maximum distance from the Pivot Point and has maximum turning
effect (see Para 0137). Indirect Towing is used when manoeuvring large surface ships
and is particularly effective when controlling the bow of a ship during a Sternboard (see
Fig 3-20).
Fig 3-20. Indirect Towing - TUTT ‘Driving into the Hawser’ to Control Sternboard
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c. Push-Pull Method. Conventional propeller tugs in commercial harbours do not

normally operate the Push-Pull method and it only used in this type of tug in UK Naval
Base Ports. When the Push-Pull method is used in a conventional propeller tug, its bow
is secured close to the ship, enabling the tug to thrust ahead and astern. The tug normally
lays comfortably alongside the ship at speeds up to 6 knots as it makes the approach to
a berth. VSP -fitted tugs adopt this method with ease but normally secure by the stern.
• Pull-Off / Push-On. The more usual variant of the Push-Pull method is for
the tug to work around to the 90° position from where it can Push-On or Pull-
off as required (see Fig 3-14 at Para 0328b). Conventional tugs have to use one
propeller ahead and one astern to do this and it can take time, particularly if the
ship still some headway. A SUTT/TUTT can use its lateral thrust to reposition
quickly from the laying-alongside position and Push-On or Pull-off as
required. Conventional tugs often ‘lean’ on the ship in the process of moving
to the 90° position, which can be awkward if there is a need to Pull-off quickly.
In addition, the astern power of a conventional propeller tug is limited and also
tends to lift the tug’s stern in the water, so further reducing the available thrust
to Pull-off. When a tug is operating in Push-Pull, the tug’s effective Bollard
Pull is greatly reduced if the ship retains more than about 1 knot of headway,
or there is more than this amount of stream when manoeuvring a ship to or
from a jetty (ie speed zero over the ground).
• Pull-Back. If no TUTT is available, a conventional propeller tug or SUTT (eg
DOG class / FELICITYclass) can be used with little delay and great effect, to
Pull-Back from the Push-Pull laying-alongside position, provided the ship
has headway. By applying astern power from the laying-alongside position,
the tug acts as an ‘outboard forward engine’ which pulls the ship’s bow away
from the jetty and also slows the ship. This option is very useful if berthing in
conditions when Wind Sheer might cause a sharp turn towards the jetty in the
final stages (see Paras 0138, 0328b/c/d and Fig 3-21), and when only one
conventional propeller tug or SUTT is available.
Fig 3-21. Push-Pull Method - Single Tug ‘Pulling Back’ - from Alongside Position
d. Push-On Method. It is possible for any tug to Push-On to a ship and this method
is widely used by commercial tugs, which may or may not secure. If not secured, the ship
must be absolutely stopped in the water for it to be effective. In UK Naval Base Ports the
Push-Pull method is preferred to the Push-On method when not secured.
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0353. Positioning and Usage of Tugs (Including Cold Moves)
a. Planning Factors. Planning of a tug assisted movement should include

consideration of the following factors:
• Pilotage Plan (route into / out of harbour and to / from berth)
• Physical layout of the berth and the method of fendering used
• Presence of nearby ships and scheduled movements of other shipping
• Wind and Tidal Stream
• Whether ship’s engines and rudders are available to assist, and if so how
• Number, size, type and effectiveness of tugs available
• Day or Night, and whether the sun will cause dazzle affecting the movement
• Local knowledge and whether a Pilot is to be embarked or not
b. Planning Process. The planning process should result in up to 5 outputs, which are
considered in more detail at Para 0353c-f below:
• Whether or not to use tug(s)
• How to position the tug(s)
• How to secure and operate the tug(s)
• How to communicate with and brief the tug(s)
• How to exercise control of the tug(s) (ie radio or hand signals)
c. Whether or Not to Use Tug(s). This decision will depend on all the circumstances
of the individual case. However, the CO who elects to secure 2 tugs and makes a perfect
alongside will rarely excite any comment, whereas the CO who chooses to make a
‘heroic’ alongside without tugs in less than perfect conditions and hits the jetty causing
millions of pounds of damage to the Bow Dome, becomes the focus of a vast amount of
unwanted interest.
d. How to Position the Tug(s). This decision will largely depend on the conditions
of wind and stream, the complexity of the manoeuvre and the number / type / power of
the available tugs. When the ship’s engines and rudders are available (Hot Move), the
bow will generally be less easy control than the stern. Therefore, as a general principle,
a single tug should normally be positioned on the bow, and if two tugs are available the
more effective tug (a function of manoeuvrability and power) should be forward.
Methods of operating tugs are contained at Para 0352 and their recommended positioning
is at the appropriate paragraph of Chapter 3 for each type of manoeuvre. The positioning
of tugs for Cold Moves is assessed separately at Para 0353g.
e. How to Secure and Operate the Tug(s). The choices are limited to Towing on a
hawser, and Push-Pull (in UK Naval Base Ports) / Push-On (in commercial ports).
Guidance on the merits of each method of operating tugs for particular situations is at
Para 0352 and in the appropriate paragraph of Chapter 3 for each type of manoeuvre.
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f. How to Communicate, Brief and Exercise Control of the Tug(s). The method
chosen will depend on whether a Pilot is embarked.
• No Pilot Embarked. In UK Naval Base Ports, the usual method of tug
briefing and control is by VHF, with control by hand signals as an alternative
(by arrangement), using the standard procedures and orders at Para 0355. The
NO should brief the tugs personally, in plenty of time. In UK Naval Base
Ports, an Admiralty Pilot should always be embarked if the CO and/or
NO are inexperienced in controlling tugs.
• Admiralty Pilot Embarked. When an Admiralty Pilot is embarked it is
normally best to control the tugs through the Admiralty Pilot, who will also
provide wise counsel on the whole berthing / unberthing / tug usage plan. The
Admiralty Pilot should also brief the tugs. Admiralty Pilots have a wealth of
experience and knowledge of handling warships and RFAs with tugs in
confined waters; much may be learnt by ship’s officers about tug handling
from working with an Admiralty Pilot and this may be regarded as a form of
on-job-training.
• Local Pilot Embarked. If a local pilot is present, it is normally best to control
the tugs through the Pilot, particularly in foreign ports where there may be
language or terminology problems with the local tugs. The local Pilot should
also brief the tugs. If briefing and control of tugs is deputed to the local Pilot
it is essential that the Pilot’s instructions to the tugs comply with the CO’s
requirements, and that the tugs’ execution of them (or not!), are monitored by
an experienced officer (usually on the blind side of the ship) who is also aware
of what has actually been ordered by the local Pilot. This may require an
additional hand-held VHF set or a discrete verbal relay of command / Pilot
intentions to the observing officer. It should be remembered that tugs in
commercial ports may be used to handling only large merchant ships and thus
unused to the special requirements of thin-skinned warships with vulnerable
underwater structures and fittings; as a result, it is not unusual for such tugs to
manoeuvre very robustly with the possibility of damage to the warship.
g. Cold Moves. Cold Moves (when the ship’s engines and rudders are NOT available)
are conducted by an Admiralty Pilot with MoD-contracted tugs on the authority of the
QHM in a UK Naval Base Port or HM Dockyard Port. The ships state must be in
accordance with FLOO 18336. The QHM will remain accountable for the safe
movement of the ship throughout (QRRN 1922.3). The Admiralty Pilot is responsible
to QHM for conducting such a move and for arranging sufficient tugs to take the ship
safely from berth to berth. Cold Moves, particularly when moving to and from non-tidal
water in Naval Bases, can involve very complicated tug manoeuvres which are outside
the scope of this book. The Chief Admiralty Pilot in each UK Naval Base Port is always
available to brief ships on an individual basis for each movement.
Note. FLOO 18336 must be consulted in detail, but in summary it concerns: ship’s stability,
rudder position, state of awnings, state of sonar domes and logs, ship’s side being clear and
upper deck in normal stowed state (eg guns, boats, screen doors etc), state of Stabiliser fins,
propeller warning boards, provision of working hands and berthing lines, and signals to be
displayed during the move.
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0354. Girding of Tugs
a. Towing Points. Conventional tugs, and Stern Azimuth Drive (Z Drive) tugs which
are Towing over the stern, normally Tow from a Towing Hook positioned approximately
amidships close to the Pivot Point position when static. With the propellers/rudders or
Z Drives placed some distance aft of the Towing Hook, the tug is manoeuvrable and can
pivot around the Towing Hook, provided that the Tow remains in the astern sector
between Red 135° to Green 135° (see two examples at Figs 3-22a / 3-22b, Position 1).
b. Cause of Girding. If the ship being assisted gathers too much way, a conventional
or Z Drive tug using a hawser will be unable to keep Station, even at full power. As the
tug drops further out of Station, the angle of the Tow grows towards the tug’s beam, the
available turning power of the tug reduces further and it starts to heel dangerously (see
Figs 3-22a / 3-22b, Position 2). Unless the ship checks its way, the angle of the Tow will
continue to move forward until it approaches the beam of the tug. The tug is then in
imminent danger of being capsized, which is known as Girding (or in the Merchant Navy
‘Girting’), and may have to ‘Slip’ the hawser (see Figs 3-22a / 3-22b, Position 3).
Fig 3-22a. Girding of Conventional Propeller or Z Drive Tug, Towing over the Stern (1)
Fig 3-22b. Girding of Conventional Propeller or Z Drive Tugs, Towing over the Stern (2)
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c. Effect of Girding. If a tug is Girded, it will almost always sink with the strong
possibility of loss of life. All tugs have the facility to operate an Emergency Slip on the
Towing Hook, but traditionally, tug Masters have been extremely reluctant to ‘Slip’ the
hawser, out of their sense of responsibility to the ship being assisted. Note that ‘Slip’ is
an emergency order, not to be confused with the routine order ‘Let Go’ (see Para 0356d).
The primary responsibility for avoiding Girding rests with the ship being assisted.
WARNING
1. GIRDING A TUG WILL NORMALLY CAUSE IT TO

SINK AND MAY RESULT IN LOSS OF LIFE.
2. AVOIDANCE OF GIRDING A TUG IS PRIMARILY

THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE SHIP BEING
ASSISTED.
d. Avoidance of Girding. Girding can be avoided by ensuring that the ship being
assisted does not gather too much way. The possibility of Girding a tug may be judged
by: (1) monitoring the angle at which the hawser is growing from the tug, relative
to its centre-line, (2) whether it is having difficulty maintaining Station. The hawser
should ideally be parallel to the tug’s Centre Line but should never be allowed to grow
further forward than Red 135° or Green 135°. An example of correct use of tugs is at
Fig 3-23 (compare to Fig 3-22b). If the line of the hawser is allowed to grow too far
forward on the tug, the ship being assisted must take bold, prompt action to check its
way, normally by applying a sharp burst of engine power in the opposite direction to the
ship’s way (see Fig 3-23, Position 2). See also Para 0330c (Departures Using Tugs).
Fig 3-23. Correct Use of Conventional Propeller or Z Drive Tugs, Towing over the Stern
e. Voith-Schneider Propulsion (VSP) Tugs. VSP-fitted tugs have their VSPs well
forward (see Para 0126) and hawser from a position well aft. Due to this configuration,
VSP-fitted tugs are most unlikely to be Girded under any circumstances but can be
dragged out of Station in the same way as a conventional propeller tug, and may fall
heavily against the ship’s side, causing substantial damage to the ship and tug.
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0355. Methods of Controlling Tugs
a. VHF. In UK Naval Base Ports, the following standard VHF orders (Table 3-3) are
normally used for controlling tugs. Prefix all VHF orders with the tug’s name, pass the
minimum number of instructions necessary and say what to do, not how to do it.
Table 3-3. VHF Voice Orders for Tugs in UK Naval Base Ports
CATEGORY ORDERS USED
Securing: To Tow ‘Secure your hawser to my port/starboard bow/quarter or
to my bullring/stern’
Push-Pull ‘Secure your bow/stern to my port/starboard bow/quarter

or abreast turret/bridge etc’
Control Orders: General ‘Push’ / ‘Pull’ / ‘Stop’
(Alongside as ‘Ahead’ / ‘Astern’ / ‘Stop’

an engine tug):
Power Orders ‘Dead Slow’ / ‘Slow’ / ‘Half'’ / ‘Full’
Direction Orders ‘Take my bow to port/starboard’
‘Take my stern to port/starboard’
‘Take me ahead/astern’
‘Letting Go’ (Routine) ‘Stand by to let go, let me know when you are ready’
Tug: ‘Ready for letting go’
‘Let Go’
Tug: ‘Letting go now / All gone and clear’
Finishing with Tugs ‘Finished, thank you’ (as a signal for dismissal)
‘Slipping’ a tug on a ‘Stand by to Slip’, let me know when you are ready’
hawser (Emergency) Tug: ‘Ready to Slip’
‘Slip’
(Note: ‘Slip’ is an Tug: ‘Slipping now’
emergency order - see Tug: (When appropriate) ‘All gone and clear’
WARNING opposite)
Note. If ‘Slipping’ is initiated by the tug, due to the urgency
of the emergency, the above procedure may have to be
abbreviated to a single call warning the ship that ‘Slipping’
is being attempted (normally from the emergency release on
the Towing Hook), and in extremis, even that may not be
possible.
b. Use of VHF Hand Held Radios to Control Tugs

The use of GMDSS hand-held VHF radios to communicate with tugs is perfectly
acceptable, PROVIDED a spare radio is immediately available to replace a defective unit. Both
radio batteries should be fully charged and checked as part of the pre-sea/entering harbour checks.
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c. Visual and Sound Signals. In UK Naval Base Ports, the following standard visual
signals (Table 3-4) may be used for controlling tugs, provided the tug crews have been
warned to expect them. With visual signals, where more than one tug is being used, the
tug may be identified by pointing at it before giving the visual signal. The sound signals
at Table 3-4 have fallen into disuse and should not be used unless approved by
QHM and all participants have been fully briefed in advance.
Table 3-4. Visual (and Sound) Orders for Tugs in UK Naval Base Ports
VISUAL SOUND ACTION
SIGNALS SIGNALS
(Not currently TUG ON TUG PUSH-PULL
in use) HAWSER
Wave one arm in One blast Tow ship to starboard Push or pull ship to
direction required* starboard
Wave one arm in Two blasts Tow ship to port Push or pull ship to port
direction required*
Move both arms up Three blasts Tow easy Push / pull easy
and down from
horizontal
Hold both arms Four short blasts Stop Towing Stop pushing / pulling
vertically above
head
Cross and re-cross Long-short-long Let go the Tow Let go securing lines
arms above head blast
Note. * Number of arm movements to indicate power: 1 = SLOW, 2 = HALF, 3 = FULL.
WARNING
‘SLIP THE TUG’ IS AN EMERGENCY

ORDER WHICH MAY REQUIRE THE TOW
TO BE RELEASED UNDER TENSION
CAUSING SERIOUS RISK TO PERSONNEL
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0356. Methods of Securing Tugs

Ships should secure tug lines by the following methods so that they can be handled,
secured and slipped quickly (see also BR 67 Chapter 4). Whenever tugs are being employed, the
Command, Pilot and tug Masters must know exactly how hawsers have been secured.
a. Securing the Hawser of a Tug. All conventional tugs have arrangements for
slipping hawsers from their end. When using tugs for Towing (see Para 0352), ships
should have axes ready on deck to cut the hawsers in an emergency.
• UK Naval Base Tugs. UK Naval Base tugs have an eye on the outboard end
of their hawsers. The hawsers should be led through a fairlead and the eye put
directly onto the bollard or bits. The practice of securing to Bollard-Strops
and Slips has been discontinued in UK Naval Bases since 2000.
• Commercial Tugs. Slips may be required in some ports and their availability
should be included in the LOGREQ. Commercial tugs may require to use
ship’s hawsers, or if the tugs provide their own, these hawsers may not be
fitted with an eye and should be turned up round bollards and racked.
b. Securing a Tug Positioned for Push-Pull. A tug that is positioned for the Push-
Pull method (see Para 0352) will normally pass one or more Headropes to the ship to
help maintain its position against the effect of stream or the ship moving ahead or astern.
These lines need not be secured to slips, but they must be let go quickly when required.
c. Securing a Tug Positioned for Push-On. A tug (normally commercial) that

operates using the Push-On method (see Para 0352) may or may not elect to secure. If
securing, the same procedure applies as for Push-Pull (see Para 0356b)
d. ‘Let Go the Tug’ and ‘Slip the Tug’. The order ‘Let go the (aft/fwd) tug’ should
be the normal usage for releasing tugs. ‘Slip the Tug’ is an emergency order which
may require the very dangerous procedure of releasing the hawser under tension.
If cutting a hawser with an axe in an emergency, the person doing so must stand as far
back as possible and be prepared for part of the hawser to flick back as the tension is
released. A hawser released under strain from a ship may also fly back onto the crew of
the tug, particularly if the ship has a high freeboard and the tug is close by; conversely,
if the tug operates its emergency Towing Slip, the hawser may fly back and strike
personnel on the ship. When a hawser is turned up around bollards, if under tension, it
has the potential to take charge of the upper deck team surging it and to cause horrific
injuries. Therefore, except in emergencies, a hawser should not be under tension (ie
it should be slack) before it is removed from bollards and ‘Let Go’.
WARNING
‘SLIP THE TUG’ IS AN EMERGENCY

ORDER WHICH MAY REQUIRE THE TOW
TO BE RELEASED UNDER TENSION
CAUSING SERIOUS RISK TO PERSONNEL
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0357. Securing Tug Hawsers at Long and Short Stay
a. Consideration of Tug Hawser’s Stay. When securing a tug on a hawser

consideration needs to be given to the length of stay to be used. In most cases,
particularly when a VSP or Z Drive tug is Towing on its winch and can Heave-in or Veer
at will, the tug Master will address this issue. However it also should be considered by
the Command and discussed with the Pilot, if one is embarked. In certain circumstances
the tug(s) may need to be instructed on the length of stay required.
b. Choice of Short or Long Stay. The advantages and disadvantages of using hawsers
at short and long stays are listed below, and from this, it will be seen that a hawser at long
stay is usually more effective unless there are constraints of space which limit its use.
(1) Short Stay.

• The tug can pull in confined spaces (eg narrow entrances and corners etc).
• In high freeboard ships, the lead of the hawser can be sharply downwards,
tending to lift the tug’s stern and restrict its pulling power.
• Propeller wash from the tug may reach the ship being Towed and reduce
the effectiveness of the pull.
• It is more difficult for the tug to position itself accurately.
(2) Long Stay.

• The tug may not have enough room in confined spaces (eg narrow
entrances and corners etc) to pull and may be forced to stop pulling or
even let go and recover the hawser.
• In high freeboard ships, the lead of the hawser is nearer to the horizontal
and the tug can pull more effectively.
• Propeller wash from the tug from the tug is unlikely to reach the ship
being Towed and so the effectiveness of the pull will not be reduced.
• It is easier for the tug to position itself accurately.
0358-0359. Spare
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SECTION 6
BREAKWATERS, LOCKS, CANALS AND RIVERS
0360. Passing Between Breakwaters
a. Ideal Approach Course. A ship passing through an entrance between breakwaters

should ideally do so on a steady course, on a track at right angles to the line joining the
breakwater heads with sufficient speed to steer easily and maintain its heading.
b. Cross-Wind and/or Cross-Tidal Stream. If there is a cross-wind and/or a cross-

tidal stream, the ship should steer a course to make good the optimum line through the
entrance but on an approach track slightly on the up-wind side of the centre line. This
ensures that the ship does not drop down-wind of the centre line, particularly if it has to
slow down on approaching the breakwater entrance. If the ship is long and the entrance
relatively narrow, a crabwise approach may occupy much of the width available. In this
case, once the bows are inside the entrance it may be necessary to use the rudders to
throw the stern clear of the down-wind/stream breakwater (see Fig 3-24). The slower the
approach, the steeper will be the course needed to make good the optimum line.
Fig 3-24. A Long Ship Passing through a Narrow Entrance with Cross-Wind/Stream
c. Dredging an Anchor. The possibility exists of Dredging an Anchor to hold the

bow up to the wind or stream. However, this technique suffers from many limitations
with modern warships and is not generally used (see Para 0315).
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0361. Warping Through a Narrow Entrance
a. Application. The technique of using a Warp to assist a turn through a narrow

entrance is normally only applicable to smaller vessels, of Minor War Vessel size or
below. The reason for this limitation is the relative strength of berthing lines supplied in
modern RN Major Warships (see Para 0323c). In addition, this manoeuvre relies on the
use of a single Fore-Spring; should it part, a larger ship operating without tugs may be
placed in considerable danger of grounding or a berthing collision. However, in an
appropriately sized vessel, the technique can be extremely useful and is often essential
for Fleet Tender-sized craft when entering small fishing harbours (eg Moray Firth -
Lossiemouth Harbour).
b. Method. Provided that the water is deep enough and is free from obstructions, the
vessel should approach the entrance by running parallel to one of the breakwaters and
pass a Warp rigged as Fore Spring to a suitable bollard at the entrance (see Fig 3-25,
Position 1). The vessel should then come gently ahead and while keeping the Warp with
some weight on it, use rudders and engines to start the turn (see Fig 3-25, Position 2).
Great care must be taken not to allow the Warp to go slack and then bar-taught; this
may result in it being over-strained and possibly parting. The vessel should then
continue the turn against the Warp until a safe heading has been achieved, when it should
be slipped and recovered (see Fig 3-25, Position 3). If no unberthing party is available,
the Warp may be rigged on the bight so that it may be slipped from inboard and
recovered; however, if this method is to be used there is a risk of it snagging on some
obstruction on the jetty or injuring any bystanders.
Fig 3-25. Warping a Small Vessel Through a Narrow Entrance in Confined Conditions
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0362. Locks
a. Purpose. Locks are used to retain water in non-tidal basins, canals or river systems
and for raising or lowering ships within those systems (eg Panama Canal). Locks can
vary greatly in size and ease of access and so the physical features of each lock, together
with the likely wind and tidal stream conditions, should be assessed carefully before the
ship is committed to enter. The most difficult to enter are those leading from a river to
an enclosed harbour complex where the locks are at an angle to the river, the ship has to
move across the stream or current and it may be necessary to turn before the approach is
made. The direction of the wind may be an added complication. It is usual to embark
a Pilot before entering a lock.
b. Ideal Entry and Berthing - Without Tugs. If the approach is straightforward and
conditions benign, the ship should shape on a steady course, on a track at parallel to the
line of the lock with sufficient speed to maintain its heading. It should then move
steadily into the lock at slow speed and pass berthing lines ashore, which should be kept
slack until the ship is off the berthing position. When approaching the required berthing
position in the lock, gentle astern power should be used to take the way off; depths in
locks are usually quite shallow and in this confined situation Shallow Water Effect can
greatly reduce the effectiveness of astern power (see Para 0206b). The Fore Spring in
particular should be kept slack; accidental snubbing of the Fore Spring will bring the
bows into the lock wall very sharply and throw the stern across to the other side of the
lock. When stopped off the berth, the ship may be brought closer to the lock wall by
heaving in on the Head Rope and Stern Rope. In most locks the ship will usually secure
to the lock wall with its own berthing lines and use its own fenders.
c. Cross-Wind and/or Cross-Tidal Stream - Without Tugs. In conditions of a

cross-wind and/or cross-tidal stream, the restricted space inside the lock still requires that
the ship remain aligned with the line of the lock. Tugs can assist greatly in this situation
(see Para 0362e), but if not available, the ship should be kept slightly up-wind/up-stream
of the lock’s centre line and as nearly parallel to it as possible, while maintaining track
during the approach (and when inside the lock). If the bow is in the lock and stern is still
in a cross-stream, a sheer may develop. Sufficient speed is needed to maintain positive
steering control until berthing lines have been passed to shore and can be used to control
the ship. A Head Rope should be passed as soon as possible to the upwind side of the
lock to control the bow; this will be moved from bollard to bollard ashore as the ship
moves into the lock. Thereafter berthing within the lock is similar to that at Para 0362b.
d. Entering a Lock from an Access Basin. The approach to a large lock is often via
an Access Basin, which is an area protected by the arms of a breakwater to provide a
sheltered approach to the lock. On moving into the Access Basin, if the bow is in the
slack water and stern is still in a cross-stream, a sheer may develop, so the ship must
either have sufficient speed to correct the sheer or be under the control of tugs. When in
the Access Basin the aim is to be on the centre line leading into the lock (or slightly
upwind of it) and to have reduced to a slow speed. Unless tugs are connected, the ship
should not normally be stopped in the Access Basin. The corners of a lock entrance can
cause considerable damage to a ship if it hits either of them, so the ship must be lined up
correctly and avoid sheers from sudden engine movements as it approaches the entrance.
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e. Use of Tugs. Unless the ship is small and the lock is large, it will usually be
necessary for a warship or RFA to secure one or more tugs to assist entry and berthing
in a lock, especially if there is a cross-wind and/or cross-tidal stream. This has the
advantage of reducing the speed otherwise necessary to maintain steering control,
particularly during the approach. When using tugs, ship’s speed should be kept to the
minimum to enable them to pull effectively. The number and type of tugs used will
depend on the circumstances of each case, but even a small tug on a hawser through the
Bullring can be most effective in controlling the bow, particularly if it is VSP or Azimuth
Drive type. A second tug on the stern is also extremely useful, and together with the bow
tug, can usually control any sheers caused by the stream and hold the ship bodily up to
the wind and parallel to the line of the lock during the approach, entry and berthing. The
stern tug may also be used to reduce the ship’s headway without risking the sheer that
will probably occur if a single propeller ship applies astern power. The securing and
intended use of tugs should be discussed with the Pilot at the earliest possible moment,
so that there is no confusion or misunderstanding, especially in foreign ports where there
may be a language barrier.
f. Berthing and Vertical Movement in Locks. The ship should have been able to
enter the lock without touching either side until it is stopped and secured ready for
flooding up or down. Four berthing lines are required from the ship: Head Rope, Fore
Spring, Back Spring and Stern Rope. As the walls of many locks are made of solid
concrete or stone, and are not usually equipped with fenders or catamarans, plenty of
ship’s fenders should be placed ready to use; if there is a choice, it is preferable to berth
on the windward wall to avoid the ship scraping on the fenders as the water level rises
or falls.
0363. Major Lock Systems
a. The Panama Canal Locks. There is a series of three locks up and three locks down
in the Panama Canal. These are very large and there is no difficulty in bringing a warship
into a lock. A ship is kept in the centre of each lock by berthing lines passed out each
side to motorised Mules running on tracks along the top of the lock walls. Once the ship
is secured, all movements in the first lock and to the subsequent locks are made by the
Mules. The Panama Canal Pilots who handle warships are generally experienced and it
is seldom necessary to intervene in the operation. See BR 45 Volume 4 Para 0816g for
guidance on the control of an RN warship transiting the Panama Canal.
b. European Rivers and Canals. Lock systems exist on a number of major European
rivers and canals, either at the coast to maintain the internal water level against tidal
variations (eg Noord Zee Canal to Amsterdam), or to enter dock and basin complexes
from which a heavy barge traffic emanates (eg River Scheldt near Antwerp).
Considerable volumes of cargo are transported across mainland Europe in self-propelled
barges which are very much longer and larger than found in UK. When approaching such
dock and basin complexes, vigilance is needed to spot any such barges entering or
leaving locks and turning into the river or canal, as this manoeuvre may take them across
the track of passing shipping.
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0364. Manoeuvring and Mooring in a Canal
a. Explanation of Canal Effect. An explanation of the principles of Squat in a

confined channel is at Para 0209 and Canal Effect is at Para 0210.
b. Maintaining Position in a Canal. For the reasons given at Para 0210, if a ship
remains in the centre of a canal with a symmetrical cross-section, using very little rudder,
it may be assumed that the Pressure distribution is equal on each side of the ship and that
it is following the optimum track. Speed should be moderate and well below Canal
Speed (see Para 0210e). Where a cross-wind is present, the ship may lie comfortably in
equilibrium slightly upwind of the centre-line. Conversely, if there is a need to carry a
large amount of wheel to keep on course, it indicates that the Pressure distribution is
unequal and that the ship is not on the optimum centre-line track. This may be due either
to uneven depths to one side in the canal bottom, or because the ship has approached too
close to one (possibly uneven) bank. In either case the ship may take a sheer away from
the obstruction or nearer bank, due to Smelling the Ground (see Para 0210c) or Bank
Effect (see Para 0210b) respectively. Before a sheer develops, the ship should be brought
gently back to the optimum centre-line track by easing the wheel slightly and allowing
the ship to settle in a position of equilibrium. The methods of a correcting a sheer in
a canal at Paras 0364c/d become progressively less attractive as each, more serious,
option is considered; taking a sheer in a canal is a case where prevention is much
better than cure.
c. Correcting a Sheer in a Canal - Using Rudder Alone. If the ship takes a sheer in
a canal due to Bank Effect (see Para 0210b) or Smelling the Ground (see Para 0210c), the
first action should be prompt use of the rudder(s) to counter it (see Fig 3-26).
Fig 3-26. Checking a Sheer to Port in a Canal by use of Rudder Alone
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d. Correcting a Severe Sheer in a Canal. If the sheer in a canal (see Para 0364c and
Fig 3-26) is severe, the use of rudder alone may not be sufficient and prompt use of the
engine(s), and in the worse case letting go one or both anchors, may be necessary to
prevent the ship striking the opposite bank. However, if remedial measures are
continued for too long, they may induce a sheer back in the opposite direction. If
the ship has to stop in the canal for whatever reason, the ships astern need to be
considered. In the Suez Canal (and others), ships travel in convoys; should one ship stop,
anchor or strike the bank, it may cause serious manoeuvring difficulties for those behind.
Several combinations of action are possible depending on the circumstances, as follows:
• Twin Propellers - Option 1. Practical experience has shown that increasing
propulsion power sharply for a short period on the side towards which the ship
is sheering with full rudder, while reducing power on the other side, is
effective in breaking a sheer and is probably the best method. However, this
method is only effective if the changes in power (at the propeller) can be made
very quickly, without adversely affecting the overall flow of water over the
rudders and thus steering control; for this reason Zero Pitch (or nearly Zero
Pitch) in a CPP-fitted ship is not recommended. It also suffers from the risk
that the ship’s overall speed might be increased. If the manoeuvre works and
the sheer is corrected, no harm is done but if it does not work and the ship
strikes the opposite bank at an increased speed, more damage will be caused
than would otherwise have been the case.
• Twin Propellers - Option 2. Applying astern power on the side away from
the sheer while maintaining or increasing ahead power on the side towards the
sheer with full rudder, may have unpredictable effects, partly because the
turbulence caused may upset the flow over the rudders, but also because the
Pivot Point may possibly move some way aft as a result of the astern power on
one propeller (see Para 0137c), possibly triggering a Wind Sheer effect (see
Para 0138). However, the use of astern power will probably reduce the ship’s
speed overall and thus reduce the damage in the event of striking the bank.
• Twin Propellers - Option 3. Applying astern power on both propellers and
letting go one anchor on the side away from the sheer may be necessary to
prevent the ship striking the opposite bank, but to be effective in a relatively
narrow canal, the action must be taken very promptly. If striking the opposite
bank appears inevitable, letting go the second anchor (if fitted) may possibly
reduce the impact and thus limit damage. In Bow Dome-fitted ships, letting go
the anchor with headway risks damage to the Bow Dome; this must be
balanced against the likely damage if the Bow Dome strikes the bank.
• Single Propeller - Option 1. Application of full rudder with a prompt and
substantial increase of ahead power for a short time may correct the sheer, but
suffers from the same risk of increasing speed overall as ‘Twin Propellers -
Option 1’ above.
• Single Propeller- Option 2. Applying astern power and letting go one or both
anchors (similar to ‘Twin Propellers - Option 3’ above) may be necessary to
stop the ship striking the opposite bank.
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(0364) e. Meeting Another Ship. Two ships meeting in a canal should steer to pass close to
each other (normally red to red) on more or less reciprocal courses, rather than incline
much towards their respective sides. On nearing each other, the zone of higher pressure
ahead of each ship will force their bows apart; on passing, they will parallel each other;
on separating, their sterns will be drawn together. These influences will counter the
effect of the nearer bank, and the two ships should have no difficulty in regaining the
centre of the channel when they have passed each other.
f. ‘Mooring-up’ on a Canal Bank. Provided the water alongside is deep enough and
a prepared jetty exists, a twin-propeller warship with underwater fittings in the forward
part of the ship may berth on a canal bank, but these factors usually preclude the
‘impromptu’ mooring-up on the bank itself which some single propeller merchant ships
can achieve with relative impunity. The Shallow Water Effect in such confined water (see
Para 0206b) requires speed to be reduced very gradually with the ship stopping abreast
the berth using as little astern power as possible. Warships of FF/DD size would normally
begin reducing speed when about a mile from the berth, but this will vary with the
tonnage and size of the ship concerned. Very manoeuvrable ships can be brought close
to the bank before berthing lines are sent ashore. Less manoeuvrable ships are usually
stopped in the centre of the canal off the berth, and then Warped alongside. Breasts are
usually sufficient to hold a ship alongside in a canal.
Note. Impromptu ‘mooring up’ on a canal bank to allow another ship to pass is now undertaken
infrequently, due to the difficulty of achieving it with very large modern commercial vessels.
g. Effect of a Passing Vessel on a ‘Moored-up’ Ship. A ship berthed on a canal bank

will Surge considerably before and after a the passage of a vessel and berthing lines will
NOT be able to hold it steady. The moored-up ship should therefore be free to move and
hawsers should be slackened as the oncoming/passing vessel approaches. The oncoming
vessel should reduce to a very slow speed and keep to the centre of the canal, even if this
entails passing close, to avoid the risk of taking a dangerous sheer as it approaches. The
sequence of movements of the moored ship during the surging process and the available
countermeasures are as follows, assuming that its bow is pointing at the oncoming vessel:
• The moored ship’s bows are repelled towards the bank as the oncoming bow
Pressure Wave reaches it. This can be controlled by a kick ahead on the
offshore propeller (twin-propeller ships) with full rudder away from the bank.
• The moored ship then Surges ahead and its bow is drawn away from the bank
by the oncoming vessel’s midships Suction Zone. This can be controlled by a
kick astern on the offshore propeller (twin-propeller ships).
• As the oncoming ship’s sternwave reaches the moored ship’s bow, ahead
movement stops and its stern is sucked out from the bank. This can be
controlled by a kick ahead on the offshore propeller (twin-propeller ships)
with full rudder away from the bank.
• Finally, as the oncoming ship’s sternwave passes the moored ship’s stern, the
moored ship Surges astern and tries to follow in the wake of the passing vessel.
This can be controlled by a kick ahead on the offshore propeller (twin-
propeller ships) with full rudder away from the bank.
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0365. River Navigation
a. Passage Plan. A passage plan is always necessary for a river transit, with all
courses, Clearing Bearings etc laid on the chart in advance. Publications should be
consulted and parallel index lines plotted on the chart and radar display. If there have
been strong winds, buoys may have dragged and lights extinguished and, indeed the line
of channels may have changed. Due to these factors, if no Pilot is to be embarked, the
approach to an estuary and the passage of a river should be made with particular care.
b. Reduced Visibility. If there is reduced visibility (fog or river mist), it may be safer
to wait at anchor until it clears rather than to attempt the passage of an unfamiliar and
perhaps crowded river where the banks may not provide clear radar echoes and thus a
safe means of conducting Blind Pilotage.
c. Crossing a Bar. There is often a sandbank or bar in the approaches to an estuary.

This may limit the times of entry to certain states of the tide. In the most extreme cases
a ship may be restricted to entering during the periods of spring tides, twice a month. The
time of the required height of tide should be calculated carefully and, if the depths are
critical, a margin should be allowed and the ship should cross at slow speed.
d. River and Estuary Hazards. Unlike a canal, a river may have no visible banks at
certain stages of the tide, its turns may range from slight curvature to hairpin bends and
the depths will be uneven. Rivers may also be obstructed by fishing boats in the stream
and in tropical waters, by fishing stakes at the edges. Successful navigation of a river or
estuary depends on using all the navigation marks to the full and particularly being able
to discern from the overall pattern of buoys if any individual buoy has moved from its
correct position (eg Thames Estuary).
e. Depths and Streams. Shiphandling in a river will be much affected by the depths
of water and the strength and direction of the streams. The heights of tide for different
points along the river should be calculated (taking any vertical datum shifts into account)
and the resolved direction and flow of tidal stream and current should be estimated on
every reach and particularly on each bend of the river. The direction and rate of the
resolved stream is likely to change significantly at bends and back eddies may also occur.
f. Bubble Times and ETAs. ‘Bubble Times’ should be calculated for a series of
intermediate points to the ETA for the arrival/departure point at the mouth of the river,
the ETA at any areas of critical depth and/or stream during the river passage and the ETA
at the berth itself. The resolved strength and direction of the stream on each leg should
be used to calculate these ‘Bubble Times’ and it will be found convenient to calculate
them for each bend of the river. Well planned ‘Bubble Times’ allow progress up or down
river to be monitored with ease and speed adjusted to achieve a perfect ETA. The points
at which fresh water sources enter the main river should be marked so that their effect on
the stream can be anticipated.
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(0365) g. Rounding a Bend Where There is Little Current. As the ship approaches a bend
in a river (or canal), it will tend to swing away from the outer bank and little or no wheel
may be needed to carry the ship round. Sometimes, if the ship approaches the bend on
the outer side of the channel, it may be necessary to use opposite wheel to keep it safely
in the channel as it rounds the bend. On the other hand, if a ship approaches the bend too
close to the inner bank, there is a danger that it may take a sheer towards the outer bank.
If there is little or no current, a ship should generally keep to the centre of the channel,
and keep slightly to the outside of the bend; it will then be found that very little rudder
is required. Fine judgement is therefore required in selecting the best course to follow.
h. Rounding a Bend in a Strong Current. In rivers, the current or tidal stream

normally runs strongest and deepest along the outer bank of a bend, and there may be
slack water, or even a reverse current, along the inner bank. The degree to which these
effects will affect the ship depends on its length in relation to the width of the navigable
channel. Local knowledge from a Pilot is usually invaluable. As a general rule, ships
should not pass each other on sharp bends, especially with strong currents.
• Moving Upstream. When a ship is moving upstream round a bend the current
may tend to throw the bows outwards (see Fig 3-27a), thus counteracting the
tendency of the bows to move away from the outer bank. Under such
circumstances, plenty of wheel in the direction of the bend may be required but
the ship must also avoid approaching too close to the inner bank.
• Moving Downstream. When a ship is moving downstream, particularly if it
is over towards the inner side of the bend, the current will tend to push the
stern strongly towards the outer bank (see Fig 3-27b). It may therefore be
necessary to apply opposite wheel in good time to prevent this and steady on
the course for the next reach.
Fig 3-27a. Rounding a Bend - Upstream Fig 3-27b. Rounding a Bend - Downstream
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(0365) i. Rounding a Bend with Wind. Most ships making headway tend to ‘seek the wind’
(see Para 0138c), so a ship will turn round a bend in the river more quickly if the wind
is from ahead on the inner side. Conversely, if the wind is from ahead on the outer side,
it will start to turn more slowly. This must be allowed for when applying rudder.
• Moving Upstream - Wind on Outer Bow. If the stream is from ahead, the
combined effect of stream on the inner bow and wind on the outer bow will
hold up the start of the turn and may put the ship in a difficult situation on a
sharp bend (see Fig 5-28a). In this case the turn should be started early and
with more wheel than usual. Once the ship is turning the wheel may be reduced
if required to achieve the planned track.
• Moving Downstream - Wind on Inner Quarter. When proceeding down
stream, if the wind is from aft on the inner side, current and wind will tend to
swing the stern towards the outer bank. The first action should be to use wheel
boldly to check any swing. If this is not sufficient, a twin propeller ship could
apply astern power on the outer propeller and increased power ahead in the
inner propeller (see Fig 5-28b). A single propeller ship rounding a bend to
starboard under these conditions (not shown below) must keep the swing
firmly under control using wheel and ahead engine power throughout the turn
because the ultimate correction of going astern will only accentuate the swing
of the stern towards the bank and thus be counter-productive.
Fig 3-28a. Rounding a Bend - Upstream Fig 3-28b. Rounding a Bend - Downstream
with Wind on Outer Bow with Wind on Inner Quarter
j. Summary. River navigation is a quite distinct technique. However, it requires the

same degree of care in planning and execution as ordinary Pilotage, particularly in large
powerful rivers (eg River Thames, Mississippi River, Rio de la Plata etc).
CAUTION
River navigation requires the same degree of care

in planning and execution as ordinary pilotage.
0366-0369. Spare
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SECTION 7
ANCHORING AND BUOY WORK
0370. Anchoring - Planning and Execution

This section is concerned with the shiphandling element of anchoring and buoy work for
single ships. ‘Anchoring in Company’ is described in Chapter 4 (Handling Ships in Company)
and should be consulted if anchoring a group of ships in formation, particularly if they are of
different classes. Detailed guidance for the navigational planning and execution of anchoring are
at BR 45 Volume 1 Chapter 14 (pages 383 to 404). The formulae given at BR 45 Volume 1 (page
386) should be used to calculate the amount of cable required for anchoring in various depths,
recognising that the length arrived at may have to be modified to allow for the holding power of
the sea bed, the weather conditions and the swinging room available. A list of terms and
expressions used in anchor work is at BR 67 Para 02017.
0371. The Effects of Ship Construction on Anchoring

Ships without hull-mounted Fixed Domes (including Bow Domes) may carry out either
a Running Anchorage (ie letting go with headway) or a Dropping Anchorage (ie letting go with
sternway). To avoid the anchor cable damaging Fixed Domes (including Bow Domes), ships
so fitted may ONLY carry out Dropping Anchorages. A typical anchor configuration in a Bow
Dome fitted ship (Type 22 BIII) is at Fig 3-29. Dropping Anchorages require more careful
shiphandling during the approach than Running Anchorages. There are a wide variety of anchor
fits in the fleet. The Type 42 has only a starboard Hawsepipe, so it is not always possible to
anchor it with the windward anchor, which is generally preferable. Bow Dome fitted ships usually
have a single centre-line Hawsepipe so the choice of the weather anchor does not arise unless it
is necessary to use the Sheet Anchor, which is fitted in a Hawsepipe to starboard. The Sheet
Anchor is only for emergency use as it has a minimal clearance from the Bow Dome. There is
also a requirement to attach a braid-line bridle to take strain from the chain cable in those ships
with Bow Domes (eg Type 22 Batch 3 and Type 23), to avoid risk of damage to the Bow Dome.
Fig 3-29. Type 22 BIII - Anchor and Bow Dome Configuration
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0372. Approaching an Anchor Berth in a Wind and/or Stream

The weather anchor should be used in ships with sided Hawsepipes so that the cable does
not foul the stem as the ship drifts to leeward after anchoring. The effect of tidal stream on a ship
is much greater than that of wind (see graphs at Annexes 3A and 3B).
a. Moderate Wind on the Beam. During the approach to a Dropping Anchorage, if

the wind is not right ahead, approach upwind of the anchoring position to allow for
increased Leeway as the ship stops and gathers sternway before the anchor is let go. Bold
alterations of course may be needed to achieve this during the final stages of the
approach, especially if the wind is on the beam.
b. Strong Wind on the Beam. If the wind is very strong, it is advisable to approach
the anchoring position head-to-wind. When the ship is stopped head-to-wind for a
Dropping Anchorage in these conditions, its head will pay off rapidly and it will try to
swing beam-on to the wind; this should be controlled by the engines and cable while
making the Sternboard. To give the anchor a chance of embedding and holding, allow
a length of cable more than twice the depth of water to run out freely, and then brake the
cable carefully. The gentle pull of the cable from a position well forward of the Pivot
Point should bring the ship head-to-wind while the remainder of the cable is run out,
without dragging the anchor.
c. Anchoring Head to Stream. Unless the wind is strong and the stream weak, due
to the relative strengths of their effects, it is usually preferable to anchor head-to-stream.
When making a Dropping Anchorage head-to-stream the cable should be run out while
carefully using the brake to keep the ship head-to-stream as it comes astern. Sternway
may be finally stopped with the engines.
d. Anchoring into the Resultant of Wind and Stream. If wind and stream are from
different directions and the wind is relatively strong, the resultant effect must be
estimated (see graphs at Annexes 3A and 3b) and an approach on this heading used.
0373. Anchoring in Deep Water

When anchoring in deep water (over 27 m), there is a risk that if the anchor and cable is
let go in the normal way, sufficient Kinetic Energy will be generated to cause physical damage
to the anchor when it strikes the sea bed. In these circumstances, the ship should be stopped or
ideally given slight sternway while the cable is Veered to within approximately 18m of the bottom
(in Bow Dome fitted ships headway is NOT permitted while cable is Veered or let go). The
cable holder may then be disconnected and the remainder of the cable let go in the usual way.
This whole process is, of necessity, quite long and drawn-out particularly if there are any
difficulties disconnecting the cable holder while it bears considerable weight. During the time
between starting to Veer cable and the moment when the anchor reaches the sea-bed and digs in,
the ship may drift some distance and is constrained in its ability to manouevre throughout. It is
thus essential that the ship has sufficient sea-room to complete the evolution without danger from
other navigational hazards, traffic or other anchored ships in the vicinity. Precision anchorages
are rarely possible in these circumstances. In deep water (over 27 metres), if the depth of water
requires more shackles of cable than are available (see BR 45 Volume 1 page 386), the
anchor is not providing its maximum holding pull and should the weather deteriorate, it
may be necessary to weigh and proceed.
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0374. Anchoring in Heavy Weather
a. Likelihood of Strong Winds at Anchor. If already at anchor and strong winds are
likely, the first action is to decide whether to weigh and proceed or to remain at anchor.
If remaining at anchor, maximum usable cable should then be Veered on the anchor
already laid. This ensures that the stresses of Yawing or Pitching are absorbed as much
as possible by the spring of the cable. Veering more cable also allows the pull on the
anchor to be kept as nearly horizontal as possible. The main propulsion machinery
should be brought to immediate notice. If not already done so, an anchor watch should
be set and the second anchor (if fitted) made ready for letting go.
b. Yawing - Figure of Eight. Even in a steady gale a ship will not always point dead
into wind and may start a Yaw which will cause it to sail through the water. The
combined actions of the wind and the pull of its cable will make the ship continue to Yaw
from one side to the other, and trace the figure-of-eight path shown at Fig 3-30 (Positions
1-4). It will be seen from this that a large area of the ship is presented to the wind for
much of the Yaw pattern, increasing the load on the cable and the chance of the first
anchor breaking out. This is most likely to occur at the end of each Yaw when the ship
falls back and maximum pull is placed on the anchor and cable. If possible, Yawing
should be prevented.
c. Reducing Yaw with a Second Anchor. The two ways of reducing a Yaw are to let
go a second anchor underfoot at the end of the Yaw (Fig 3-30, Position 3), or to let it go
in the middle of the Yaw (Fig 3-30, Position 2). Neither of these methods are normally
appropriate in a Bow Dome fitted ship (see Para 0371). Letting go a second anchor
at the end of the Yaw is preferable; this method has been shown to be effective in helping
to prevent the first anchor breaking out when the ship reaches the critical point at the end
of the Yaw. Once the second anchor has been let go, a short length of the second cable
is Veered to enable the second anchor to hold at short stay. If this does not prevent
dragging, more cable should be Veered or the ship should weigh anchor and proceed.
Fig 3-30. Figure-of-Eight Yawing Pattern of Ship at a Single Anchor in a Strong Wind
and Preferred / Alternative Let Go Positions for a Second Anchor (Non-Bow Dome Ships)
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d. Methods of Anchoring Using Two Anchors. If it is expected that the ship will
have to ride out a strong and prolonged gale, the first decision is whether to anchor at all;
it is usually best to remain underway and ride out the storm. However, if equipped with
two anchors and if it is decided to anchor, there are two methods of doing so. Neither
of these methods are normally appropriate in Bow Dome fitted ships (see Para 0371).
• Long Stay and Short Stay. The first method is to lay out one anchor at long
stay and let go a second underfoot (see Para 0374a-c); this is usually the best
option as it minimises the chance of the cables fouling each other.
• Both Anchors at Long Stay. The second, and more hazardous method, is to
let go two anchors at long stay so that when the ship is riding to the cables, the
angle between them will be about with about 20° (see Para 0374e and BR 67
Para 02002). This option is likely to result in fouled cables, unless the stay
at anchor is short (ie before a change in wind or tidal stream causes the
ship to swing and foul its cables).
e. Anchoring with Two Anchors, Both at Long Stay. If anchoring using two
anchors, both at long stay, the approach should be made with the wind a little forward
of the beam (see Fig 3-31, Position 1), and the weather anchor should be let go first while
there is headway on the ship. The ship should be brought to rest when about a third of
the amount of cable that is intended to be used has run out (Fig 3-31, Position 2). At this
point the lee anchor is let go, both cables are run out together and middled, at the
intended length of cable to be used, while the ship swings head to wind. This method of
anchoring makes use of the maximum holding power of the two anchors, but there is the
danger of the cables crossing if the wind shifts direction. If this occurs and the anchors
start to drag, the ship may be placed in a very dangerous situation, perhaps being forced
to drive into the bight or break and Slip both cables (see Paras 0374f and 0375). The
substantial risk of fouling both anchor cables when anchoring with two anchors at
long stay should be carefully considered before this method is chosen.
Fig 3-31 Using Two Anchors at Long Stay in a Strong Wind (Non-Bow Dome Ships)
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(0374) f. Driving Into the Bight of the Cables when Dragging. When anchoring with two
anchors at long stay, the ship may still start to drag. If this happens, the ship may be
driven on the engines up to windward between the anchors, until the cables are growing
aft on either quarter and then held there on the engines, using gentle ahead power.
Further dragging should be prevented by the use of the engines. The constricting effect
of the cables assist in keeping the ship stationary and head to wind until the weather
moderates. The ship’s position should be fixed frequently. A similar technique may be
used with a single anchor (eg Type 22 Batch 3, T23 and T42) but is harder to control.
0375. Weighing Anchor
a. Weighing Anchor in Normal Conditions. It is not usually necessary to use the

engines to help heaving the cable in to short stay unless there is a very strong wind or
stream (see Para 0375 b/c), or the weight of the cable in deep water (see Para 0373) is
absorbing much of the cable holder’s power. The engines may have to be used to point
the ship when the cable is at short stay to prevent the cable growing across the stem, and
also to turn the ship towards the departure course in a restricted anchorage.
b. Weighing a Single Anchor in Very Strong Winds or Stream. If the ship has to
weigh anchor in a very strong wind or stream, the engines should be used to take the
strain off the anchor and cable as it is Hove-in. If the strain is not taken off the cable, the
anchor may begin to Come Home (ie drag towards the ship as the cable is Hove-in), and
this will cause the ship to start drifting rapidly to leeward.
c. Weighing a Single Anchor if Dragging - Head to Wind. If a single anchor is

dragging with the ship head-to a very strong wind (ie the anchor still exerting some pull),
the engines should be used to bring the ship to windward, if necessary dragging the
anchor along the bottom until the ship is in a safe position to weigh, and either proceed
to sea or anchor again (but see also Para 0375d). Ships fitted with Bow Domes should
ensure that the cable does not grow aft, as serious damage may then result to the Bow
Dome.
d. Weighing a Single Anchor if Dragging - Beam to Wind. If a single anchor is

dragging with the ship beam-on to a very strong wind, it may be difficult to get the ship
head-into-wind to weigh anchor. In these circumstances, if sea-room allows, the engines
can be put ahead and the ship may be driven round its anchor. The (limited) pull of the
dragging anchor on the bow might be sufficient to bring the ship up into the wind, so that
it can be brought to windward of the anchor and then drift down on it while weighing.
Ships with Bow Domes or ships with high windage forward may not be able to use
this method. The alternative is to attempt a similar manoeuvre by going astern instead
of ahead, relying on the tendency of ships’ sterns to fly up into wind when moving.
e. Breaking and Slipping Cable(s) in an Emergency. Where it is impossible to

weigh an anchor because of lack of sea room to leeward, difficulty in manoeuvring head
to wind or with the ship already dragging, the only safe course may be to Slip the cable
or cables and proceed to sea. When slipping a cable, the end should be buoyed for
subsequent recovery, making certain that the pendant is long enough to allow the anchor
buoy to watch at High Water and that it is of sufficient strength to recover the cable.
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f. Weighing Two Anchors in Very Strong Winds or Stream. If a ship is lying to two
anchors in a gale, either one of the anchors will be at long stay and the other underfoot
or the cables will be middled at long stay (see Paras 0374c/d/e).
• First Anchor at Long Stay and a Second Underfoot. A second anchor
underfoot can be weighed without difficulty and this should be done when the
wind moderates or if proceeding to sea; thereafter the problem becomes one
of weighing a single anchor (see Para 0375a-e). If the wind or stream begins
to change, and it is considered likely that this will cause the cables to foul each
other, the anchor underfoot may be weighed, and relaid when the ship has
swung to its new mean heading. In weighing and re-laying the second anchor
this there is a danger that the ship may Yaw excessively (see Para 0374c) and
the first anchor will start to drag as a result. The decision to risk fouling the
cables or triggering the first anchor to drag by temporarily weighing the second
anchor is sometimes finely balanced.
• Both Anchors at Long Stay. If the cables are middled at long stay, the best
method is to Heave-in both cables together so that the two anchors will be
weighed simultaneously. If the cables are still spanned at 20° apart this should
present no difficulty. If the ship has dragged so far as to bring both cables
together in the direction of the wind, this method will still give the best chance
of weighing them both, without one fouling the other. Where the lengths out
on each cable are not equal, both may still be Hove-in together, but it may be
preferable for the cable at longer stay to be Hove-in first, until middled with the
other and then both Hove-in together.
g. Allowing the Ship to Drag. Provided there is plenty of sea room to leeward and
the ship is not moving into danger or water too deep for the anchor(s) to hold, dragging
in itself does not always call for drastic emergency action such as slipping the cables.
Ships anchored in wide bays or open anchorages during prolonged storms have dragged
slowly and steadily for several days at up to a mile a day without harm. However, in some
areas, dragging in this way may impose extra strain on the cables from snatching as the
anchor catches on the sea bed. In this case, it may be necessary to take the strain off the
cable by use of the engines or driving into the bight if two anchors have been laid at long
stay (see Para 0374f), to weigh anchor (see Para 0375b/c/d/f) or in extremis, to Slip the
cable(s) (see Para 0375e/h).
h. Breaking and Slipping of Cables when Dragging. If the ship drags when two
anchors are laid, and it is considered necessary to weigh them, this may prove impossible
to achieve if manoeuvring difficulties occur (see Para 0375b-d). If the ship is already
dragging and there is a lack of sea room to leeward, the only safe action may be to Slip
the cable / cables (see Para 0375e).
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0376. Securing to a Single Buoy

In addition to the guidance below, it will often be found helpful to use a tug to hold the
bow to the buoy while connecting the picking-up rope and bridles. See also Para 0642m.
a. Navigational Plan for Approaching a Buoy. The navigational plan should include
careful reduction of speed during the approach so that the ship is brought to rest with the
Hawsepipe nearly over the buoy where the picking-up rope can be easily attached to the
buoy-ring. If the picking-up rope is not secured as soon as the ship comes to a stop at the
buoy, difficulty may be experienced in wind/stream conditions in holding the bows near
the buoy for any protracted length of time unless a tug is used to hold the bow. The
approach direction will depend on whether there is wind, stream or both, their relative
strengths and whether there are any geographical constraints. The options are as follows:
• Wind Only - Approach into wind (Tossing), or down wind (Hanging)
• Stream Only - Approach into Stream
• Wind and Stream - Approach into resultant of wind and stream
• Geographical Constraints - Approach modified as required by land etc
b. Approach to a Buoy with Wind but No Stream (Hanging and Tossing).

• Into Wind (Tossing). If there is a light to moderate wind but no stream, the
ship should approach the buoy into wind (this method is sometimes referred
to as ‘Tossing’). It should be possible to hold the bow at the buoy for long
enough to connect the picking-up rope, but numerous short engine movements
are often needed to hold the bow into the eye of the wind at the buoy. The
nickname for this method comes from the movement of the bow with the wind.
• Down Wind (Hanging). If the wind is strong, difficulty may be experienced
in preventing the bow falling off the wind when way is lost and it may be
easier to approach directly downwind (this method is sometimes referred to as
‘Hanging’). The stern seeks or ‘hangs’ into the wind when astern power is
applied, hence the origin of the nickname for this method. Although bold and
sustained use of the engines is sometimes needed, Hanging can often provide
the buoy jumpers with a longer safe period to connect the picking-up rope than
would be the case with Tossing in strong winds. However, it is usually
impossible to maintain the stern-to-wind attitude once the ship is secured to the
buoy by the picking-up rope, and shackling on the bridle will normally have
to wait until the ship has swung head-to wind; in a strong wind this does not
take long, particularly if the start of the swing is assisted by the engines.
c. Approach to a Buoy with Stream only. If there is stream but no wind, the ship
should approach the buoy into stream. Holding the bow to the buoy often requires
manoeuvres similar to those used in Tossing (see Para 0376b).
d. Approach to a Buoy with Wind and Stream. If the wind and stream are from
different directions, the resultant effect must be estimated (see graphs at Annexes 3A and
3b) and an approach adopted (see Fig 3-32 opposite) which will allow the ship to be held
at the buoy by use of the engines.
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Fig 3-32. Approaching a Buoy Allowing for the Resultant of Wind and Stream
e. Approach to a Buoy with Geographical Constraints. If there is no stream, but

lack of sea room prevents an up or down-wind approach, the ship may be stopped short
of the berth to windward. From this position, the boat taking the picking-up rope will
have the advantage of a down-wind passage to the buoy while the ship is turned slowly
into the wind to the buoy with slight headway (see Fig 3-33). The picking-up rope should
be connected as soon as possible. If stream is also present, the ship should stop in a
position where it may be turned to a heading into the resultant of wind and stream. If a
failed first attempt to secure the picking-up rope would result in risk to the ship from the
proximity of shoal water, as a precaution, one or two tugs should be secured in advance
and be ready to assist.
Fig 3-33. Approaching a Buoy with Wind and Geographical Constraints
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0377. Slipping from a Single Buoy

Whenever possible, a tug should stand by when slipping from a buoy.
a. Slipping with No Wind or Stream. If there is no wind or stream, the Slip rope is
let go and astern power applied to make a Sternboard well clear of the buoy before
coming ahead and turning in the required direction. To come ahead and turn with the
buoy too close under the bow risks fouling the propellers as the ship passes the buoy.
b. Slipping with Stream Only. In a tideway, the rudder can be used to turn the ship
towards the desired heading before slipping and the stream will then move the ship away
from the buoy before ahead power is applied.
c. Slipping with Wind Only. The bow will fall away from the wind as soon as the
slip-rope is let go. With the ship blowing clear of the buoy, ahead power may be applied
and if necessary the stern swung clear of the buoy by using the rudders.
d. Slipping with Wind and Stream. When slipping with wind and stream present,
the ship will move in the direction of the resultant vector (see Annex 3A and 3B). This
will usually allow the ship to come ahead as at Para 0377b/c, but if in doubt, a
Sternboard away from the buoy (as at Para 0377a) will resolve any difficulties.
e. Pointing Ship before Slipping from a Buoy. Where there is little room for
manoeuvring, a ship may be pointed in another direction to that in which it naturally lay.
This is done by rigging a second slip-rope from a position well aft (see BR 67 Para
02030d). The ship is Cast using the engines while head slip-rope is Surged, and
positioned in the required direction on the two slip-ropes. Both slip-ropes are let go,
leaving the ship ready to proceed on the required heading. In CPP-fitted ships the Shaft
Brake(s) should be applied on slipping, until there is no danger of fouling lines aft.
f. Breaking and Slipping the Cable. If buoy work is impossible due to weather, the
cables must be broken on deck and the bridles slipped. The buoy is likely to be to spring
back well clear of the ship on slipping and the ship may then manoeuvre clear.
0378. Securing Between Head-and-Stern Buoys

Except in benign conditions, one or two tugs are usually required to assist securing major
warship between head-and-stern buoys, not least because such buoys are normally close to shoal
water. The navigational planning required is similar to that at Para 0376a.
a. Approach in Benign Conditions (No Wind or Stream). In calm weather with no

stream or geographical constraints, the ship is stopped close to the head buoy and as
nearly as possible along the line of the head and stern buoys. Boats can then be sent
simultaneously with picking-up ropes to the head and stern buoys. The bridles and
sternropes may then be connected.
b. Approach to Two Buoys with Wind Only.

• Moderate Wind Up or Down the Berth. If there is a light or moderate
wind up or down the berth, the same method as at Para 0378a may be
used, except that a tug should be standing by to assist if required. Larger
ships will require more than one tug.
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• Wind on the Beam - Major and Capital Ships. If there is a beam wind,
the ship should be stopped parallel and to windward of the berth to allow
for drift to leeward while the picking-up ropes are made fast. In a major
warship, one (preferably two) tugs are required to control the rate of drift
and to hold the ship steady between the buoys while the picking up ropes
and bridles are secured. In a capital ship or RFA a minimum of two tugs
will be needed.
• Wind on the Beam - Small Ships. A small, manoeuvrable ship may
approach the head buoy down wind if there is sea room, secure to the head
buoy first and then allow the wind to carry the stern round to the stern
buoy (see Fig 3-34). The head buoy must be placed under the lee bow
first and the rate of swing controlled by working the engines. If it is
necessary to turn the ship before securing between two buoys, it is best to
turn first and make a Sternboard to the position between the buoys rather
than trying to turn during the approach.
Fig 3-34. Securing a Small, Manoeuvrable Ship between Two Buoys with Beam Wind
c. Approach to Two Buoys with Stream. Pairs of mooring buoys are usually
positioned parallel to the prevailing tidal stream and thus it is normally necessary to stem
the stream, while also manoeuvring as required for the wind (see Para 0377a/b).
However, due to the risk of the bow (or stern) heading across the stream while the ship
manoeuvres at the buoy, one (or preferably two) tugs should be secured to hold the ship
steady between the buoys while the picking up ropes and bridles are secured. In a capital
ship or RFA a minimum of two tugs will be needed.
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0379. Slipping from Head-and-Stern Buoys

A tug (or tugs) should normally stand by when slipping from head-and-stern buoys.
a. Slipping in Benign Conditions (No Wind or Stream). In benign conditions of no
wind or stream, the after slip-rope is usually let go and recovered before the forward slip-
rope is let go. This avoids the danger of fouling the propellers at a time when they may
be needed urgently for manoeuvring. In CPP-fitted ships the Shaft Brake(s) should be
applied while lines are in the water aft, unless it is clear that there is no danger of fouling.
Once all lines are clear the ship may manoeuvre away from the buoys as required.
b. Slipping with Stream Only. As pairs of mooring buoys are usually positioned
parallel to the prevailing tidal stream it is normally only necessary to let go the aft slip-
rope and then manoeuvre as in Para 0377b or 0377e. If a stream across the berth is
encountered, tug assistance may be required unless there is sufficient water to allow the
stern to swing downstream.
c. Slipping with Wind Only

• Leaving Directly Ahead or Astern with a Beam Wind. If there is a beam
wind, both slip-ropes are Surged until the ship lies to leeward of the berth, then
both slip-ropes are let go together. The ship may then come directly ahead or
astern, clear of the buoys. If there is sufficient water downwind, the ship may
leave in other directions by letting go the aft slip-rope first and following the
procedure at Para 0377c or 0377e. If there is insufficient water for this, tug
assistance will be required to pull the ship clear.
• Leaving with a Wind Ahead or Astern. With a headwind the after slip-rope
is usually let go and recovered before the forward slip-rope is let go.
Thereafter, the procedure is at Para 0377c or 0377e. If the wind is from astern,
the above procedure may also be followed, but if there in insufficient water for
the ship to swing around the head buoy, the forward slip-rope may be let go
first instead, thus allowing the ship to Sternboard into wind, keeping clear of
the buoys. Alternatively tug assistance may be used to pull the ship clear.
d. Slipping with Wind and Stream. If wind and stream are present, a combination
of any of the above methods may be necessary, depending on the relative strengths and
directions of the wind and stream. Tug assistance may be required.
e. Breaking and Slipping the Cables. If buoy work is impossible due to weather, it
may be possible Slip the sternrope and then break the bow cables on deck (see Para
0377f) or vice versa. If swinging room is restricted, head and stern buoys must be slipped
simultaneously, particularly if the wind is on the beam.
f. Pointing Ship before Slipping from a Buoy. To Cast the ship to another direction
to that in which it is lying before slipping, Slip from one buoy first, and provided there
is sufficient sea-room, adopt the procedure at Para 0377e. If there is not sufficient water
to allow the stern to drop down-wind / down-stream, tug assistance will be required to
manoeuvre the ship clear of the buoys and turn it to the required heading. In CPP-fitted
ships the Shaft Brake(s) should be applied while there are lines in the water aft, unless
it is clear that there is no danger of fouling.
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SECTION 8
WAKE WAVES (ALSO KNOWN AS WASH)
0380. Background
Incidents involving excessive ‘Wake Waves’ (also known as Wash) caused by ships
operating close to the shore or in areas of high shipping density have occurred from time to time.
Such incidents have recently assumed a higher profile, particularly in respect of increased
numbers of small recreational craft in UK / European waters, and greater use of shore areas for
recreational purposes by the general public (see BR 134, Case 502). It should be appreciated
that the real size and actual damage potential of a ship’s Wake Waves cannot be estimated
accurately just by visual observation from the Bridge (see Para 0382). The following
paragraphs are intended to help all officers who may keep a Bridge watch to understand the
generation of Wake Waves, to observe and predict their own ship’s Wake Waves in a variety of
conditions throughout the ship’s speed range, and thus enable a reasoned risk assessment to be
made with a better chance of reducing the possibility of such incidents occurring. This section
should thus be read by all officers holding a Navigational Watch Certificate (NWC) or who are
training for the award of an NWC.
0381. Wake Wave (Wash) Generation
a. Wake System Types and Movement. A ship moving through the water generates
waves as a result of 4 different Wake Systems, as follows:
• Bow Transverse Wake System - (wave travels forward)
• Stern Transverse Wake System - (wave travels forward)
• Bow Divergent Wake System - (wave travels outward)
• Stern Divergent Wake System - (wave travels outward)
Notes:
1. The Wake Waves created by the Bow Transverse and Stern Transverse Wake Systems are
athwartships waves, which travel forward in the same direction as the ship is moving.
2. The Wake Waves created by the Bow Divergent and Stern Divergent Wake Systems travel
outward at an angle from the bow and stern.
b. Factors Affecting the Generation of Wake Waves. The manner in which the 4
Wake Systems (see Para 0381a) interact is complicated and will often lead to intricate
reinforcement patterns. The Wake Waves created by a particular ship will vary in size and
power as the following 5 factors vary.
• Hull Form, Draught and Speed
• Trim
• Manoeuvre being carried out
• Depth of Water
• Bottom Contours
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0382. Effect of Wake Wave Factors

Awareness of the effect of each of the factors at Para 0381b can be used to assist in
making a practical and realistic risk assessment of Wake Waves. Three out of the 5 factors
below rely on a close examination of the chart, and thus simple visual observation of the
Wake Waves from the Bridge or Bridge Wing is not sufficient to make a proper risk
assessment.
a. Hull Form, Draught and Speed. The hull form itself is outside the control of those
operating the ship, except in amphibious ships and RFAs which can vary their draught
significantly. However, for a particular hull form, the effect of increased speed is to
create an increased size of Wake Waves. In general, ships with variable drafts will create
larger Wake Waves when at deeper draft than at shallower draft.
b. Trim. Significant Trim by the bow or stern will usually increase the size of Wake
Waves because the hull form is not being operated at its designed optimum state.
c. Manoeuvre Being Carried Out. When turning, a ship will generate a Stern
Divergent wave at roughly right angles to the stern. This effect is more pronounced at
higher speeds, although the wave generated will usually dissipate more quickly than a
‘steady course’ Wake Wave.
d. Depth of Water. The shallower the water depth in which the ship is operating, the
greater will be the size of the Wake Waves. This effect is magnified in depths shallower
than Shallow Water Effect 100% Onset Depth (see Para 0204), where a significant part
of the ship’s engine power is actually being used to create wave energy. Wake Waves
caused by excessive speed in shallow water can be large and potentially dangerous. See
also ‘Bottom Contours’ at Para 0382e below.
e. Bottom Contours. The effect of water depth on the size of Wake Waves is not
limited to the depth at the ship’s position. As the Wake Waves move towards shallow
water, if the bottom shelves smoothly, the waves will increase in height (amplitude) and
may eventually break to create surf. This is caused by the bottom of the waves being
slowed by friction with the sea bed, the top of the wave continuing at its original speed
and overtaking the lower part. The wave first steepens significantly and then the top
completely over-reaches the bottom and the wave breaks. This effect may be seen on any
smoothly shelving beach where large ocean waves are encountered. The practical effect
is that what may appear as in innocuous, moderate Wake Waves near the ship in relatively
deep water, may strike a beach or other coastal area in the form of high, breaking waves
of considerable force. In otherwise benign conditions, such waves may well catch
unsuspecting bathers (including small children paddling) completely by surprise, with
potentially serious consequences.
WARNING
EXCESSIVE WAKE WAVES CAN CAUSE SERIOUS

CONSEQUENCES TO SMALL CRAFT / COASTS
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0383. Wave Wake Persistence and Track
a. Factors Affecting Wave Wake (Wash) Persistence. Unlike wind-generated

waves, Wake Waves generated by ships are immediate, but once created, travel and persist
according to normal wave behaviour. The persistence (distance travelled) of Wake Waves
is influenced by 4 factors:
• Wave Size. The bigger the wave, the further it travels. Bow and Stern
Transverse Wake System waves travel in the direction of the ship. Even if the
ship slows or stops well short of a vulnerable area, if the ship is travelling at
speed, the Wake Waves may continue past the ship and into a risk area some
miles ahead. A travel distance of 3-4 nautical miles is not uncommon for
Wake Waves.
• Depth of Water. Smoothly shallowing water has a frictional effect on waves,
slowing the lower part of the waves and thus reducing the overall distance of
travel of the Wake Waves. However, this is often accompanied by a substantial
increase in wave amplitude (see Para 0382e) as the wave enters shoal water.
Wake Waves travelling from relatively deep water onto steeply shelving shores
do not have time to dissipate their energy in this way and so strike the shore
with nearly all their energy remaining.
• Tidal Stream. Although the effect of Tidal Stream is complicated, in general
terms, Wake Waves will travel slightly further down-stream than up-stream.
• Wind and Sea. In conditions of strong winds and rough seas, the Wake Waves
energy may be dissipated earlier than usual and absorbed within the general
turbulent movement of the sea. Conversely, in light winds with a calm sea,
such external dissipation does not take place and the Wake Waves may persist
even longer than in average weather.
b. Factors Affecting Wave Wake (Wash) Track. The track of Wake Waves is
affected significantly by bottom topography. Generally, waves refract (change direction)
towards areas of shallower water. The angle of refraction can be in excess of 20°,
although this also results in a general loss of wave energy. However, despite the general
energy loss by refraction, waves passing over isolated shoals of suitable size and shape
can be refracted on both sides of the shoal to have a ‘lens affect’ of focussing waves on
to a local area in the shadow of the shoal. Such refraction can significantly increase Wake
Waves size in that local area.
c. Reflection. Structures or coastlines with steep-to sides (eg harbour walls or

Norwegian Fjord sides) may reflect Wake Waves. This sometimes results in dangerous
interactions between the incoming and reflected wave patterns, where high amplitude
waves may be encountered.
0384. Summary
Particular care is needed when operating near small craft or coastlines, when the OOW,
NO and Command should make a thorough risk assessment of Wake Waves.
0385-0389. Spare
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SECTION 9
UNCONVENTIONAL METHODS AND UNEXPECTED EVENTS
0390. Unconventional Methods
a. Small Ship Leaving an Alongside Berth in Strong Onshore Wind. Leaving a

jetty with a strong onshore wind can be difficult if an anchor has not been previously laid
offshore and if no tugs are available. Although not appropriate to major RN warships and
above, due to the relatively small size of berthing lines used, a small ship (particularly
if single propeller) may be able to Cast its stern well out by running a wire from the
Bullring right forward to a point well inside the jetty (see Fig 3-35a, opposite). When
astern power is applied, the bows will be hauled into the jetty and the ship will pivot as
it tries to align itself with the pull of the wire (see Fig 3-35b, opposite). The ship will
gather sternway more rapidly on slipping than it would do if a Fore Spring had been
used, and is therefore less liable to scrape the bows heavily on the jetty before getting
clear. However, this technique has a number of difficulties and dangers:
• It is not appropriate if a Bow Dome is fitted.
• It is not appropriate in vessels other than small ships.
• It requires a bollard well back from the edge of the jetty, and it is unusual to
find this amount of space or a suitable bollard on modern jetties.
• As the ship comes off the wall, the long lead across the jetty will alter, causing
a hazard to personnel, parked vehicles and other obstructions.
• It relies upon putting considerable weight on the single wire forward.
• If the wire should part during the manoeuvre, it may spring back well into the
area behind the jetty, causing further danger to personnel, vehicles and
buildings completely unconnected with the manoeuvre. Thus, a large part of
the jetty and space behind it (perhaps including some buildings, if windows
face onto the danger area) may need to be cleared.
• It is an unusual method of departure and few personnel will have any
experience of using it.
• In view of its general unfamiliarity, safety briefings onboard and ashore need
to be extremely thorough.
WARNING
CASTING A SHIP OFF A JETTY AGAINST A SINGLE

LONG-LEAD WIRE LED WELL INSHORE FROM THE
BULLRING, CAN RESULT IN SERIOUS RISK TO
PERSONNEL. IT MAY ALSO CAUSE DAMAGE AND/OR
INJURY TO VEHICLES, BUILDINGS AND PEOPLE
TOTALLY UNCONNECTED WITH THE MANOEUVRE.
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Fig 3-35a. Small Ship Leaving Jetty in Fig 3-35b. Small Ship Leaving Jetty in
Onshore Wind, Using Wire from Bullring Onshore Wind, Using Wire from Bullring
0391. Strategies for Dealing with the Unexpected

In the ideal world the ship will be under control all the time. For this, there must be a
sound plan, the necessary engine power with moderate speeds in confined waters, the assistance
of Pilots, tugs, Warps and anchors. All of this is covered in detail in the remainder of this book,
but there must also be an awareness that the unexpected can occur at any moment. As far as
possible, there should be a strategy for dealing with the unexpected. The following list gives
some of the situations that may occur and possible countermeasures.
a. Ship Starting to Swing in the Wrong Direction. This usually occurs at slow speed
in windy conditions. A burst of power ahead and full rudder will usually correct it.
b. Stern Swinging Violently towards a Solid Jetty or Side of a Lock. Apply astern
power on the inshore propeller so that the wash will act as a cushion against the solid
wall. The propeller should be stopped before impact, if the measure is not effective.
c. Too Much Headway when Berthing. Avoid using too much power astern in very
shallow water, as this may merely create turbulence and reduce actual thrust. Be
prepared to use the anchor, unless it will damage the Bow Dome (if fitted) or foul cables
on the sea bed. If the ship is going to hit a jetty, harbour entrance etc, it is better to do so
with no forward motion (ie only lateral movement), and thus try to take the headway off.
If this is not possible, a glancing blow is better than head-on, so use more power astern
on the outer propeller to swing the bow away and have fenders ready as the ship bounces
along the jetty. In some situations it may be possible to stop and turn parallel at the same
time. If a tug is connected, it may be able to save the day by pulling off or back.
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(0391) d. Broadside on to the Wind and Drifting in a Restricted Space. Bring the stern
into the wind, unless the ship has high superstructure aft when it may turn bow to wind
more readily. Then make ground up wind, and either attempt the manoeuvre again or
alter the plan. In extremis, use the anchor in good time to avoid drifting on to a lee shore.
e. Colliding With a Ship at Anchor in a Tideway. Be prepared for ships at anchor

to swing unpredictably in a crowded harbour and take particular care in poor visibility.
If a collision is imminent and full rudder and engines are being used to avoid a head-on
impact, remember that the stern will be swinging in as the bow is swinging away and that
good timing in the use of opposite rudder and engines to prevent the stern swinging in
may avoid a collision aft (and may avoid any collision altogether).
f. Close Quarters in an Estuary or River. If faced with the choice between a

collision and a grounding in a river or estuary, choose the risk of grounding as fewer
casualties and probably less damage are likely to occur If grounding appears inevitable
after avoiding collision, take the ground bow-on, rather than risking damage to rudders
and propellers.
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WIND FORCES ON RN WARSHIPS AND RFAs
1. Caveat. The graphs at Figs 3A-1 and 3A-2 show the forces exerted on ships when the
wind is on the beam at different strengths. These are derived from an empirical method based
on pressures on a flat plate and assume steady conditions. The data does not take into account
the force needed to arrest a vessel’s inertia arising from sideways movement, the force needed
to counter the movement of a body of water set in motion by the vessel, the effects of gusting
wind or additional drag effects resulting from eddies behind narrow structures such as masts. In
order to allow for such variations, a Safety Factor of 2 has been incorporated into the y-
axis of the graphs, so that reasonable values may be extracted from them without further
amendment. Should local conditions require an additional Safety Factor, this should be applied
to the figures extracted from the graphs.
Fig 3A-1. Force Exerted by Beam Winds on HM Ships (see Caveat at Para 1)
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Fig 3A-2. Force Exerted by Beam Winds on RFAs (see Caveat at Para 1)
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TIDAL STREAM / CURRENT FORCES ON RN WARSHIPS AND RFAs
The following graphs show the forces exerted on ships by streams/currents of different
strengths. They show the largest forces experienced, which will be when wind is on the beam.
The data does not take into account the force needed to arrest a vessel’s inertia arising from
sideways movement or the force needed to counter the movement of a body of water set in
motion by the vessel.
Fig 3B-1. Force Exerted by Stream / Current on HM Ships
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Fig 3B-2. Force Exerted by Stream / Current on RFAs
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SHIPHANDLING IN COMPANY
CHAPTER 4
CONTENTS
Para
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0401
Other Relevant Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0402
Requirement for Accurate Station-Keeping in Close Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0403
SECTION 1 - STATION KEEPING
Station-Keeping in Line and Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0410

Accuracy in Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0411
Monitoring of Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0412
Keeping Station with Cross-Wind or Cross-Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0413
Keeping Station on a Line of Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0414
Keeping Station in Pilotage Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0415
Maintaining Station on Sector Screens and in Open Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0416
SECTION 2 - TAKING UP AND CHANGING STATION (OOW MANOEUVRES)
Preparations by the CO, NO and OOW for Manoeuvres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0420

Turning Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0421
Wheeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0422
Calculating Relative Velocity (Rel Vel) for OOW Manoeuvre Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 0423
Allowing for Loss of Speed (from Stationing Speed) when Taking Station . . . . . . . . . 0424
Taking Station from Ahead (Joining from Ahead) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0425
Quick Methods of Plotting Wheel-Over Positions for Joining from Ahead . . . . . . . . . 0426
Losing Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0427
Reversing the Order of Ships in Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0428
Some Suggested Solutions to ‘Round the Clock’ OOW Manoeuvres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0429
SECTION 3 - ANCHORING IN FORMATION
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0430
Planning Anchor Berths for a Number of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0431
Publishing the Anchor Berths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0432
Tasks of the OTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0433
Tasks of Other Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0434
Execution of Formation Anchorages - Sequence of Tactical Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0435
Weighing Anchor and Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0436
SECTION 4 - EMERGENCY ACTION IN CLOSE COMPANY
General Alertness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0440

Restoring Control of a Group of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0441
Propulsion and Steering Breakdowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0442
Man Overboard (MOB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0443
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK
4-2
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BR 45(6)
CHAPTER 4
0401. Introduction
This chapter covers the shiphandling aspects of manoeuvring in company. The
Command aspects of this subject are found at BR 45 Volume 4.
0402. Other Relevant Publications

Attention is drawn to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
(IRPCS), Annual Notice to Mariners No 7 (UK and Former USSR Mutual Safety Procedures) and
Allied Maritime Tactical Instructions and Procedures (ATP 1D) Volumes 1 and 2. Further
comment on these publications is at BR 45 Volume 4, but some items relevant to shiphandling
in company, contained in these publications, are summarised below:
a. International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (IRPCS/The Rules).

‘The Rules’ contain mandatory regulations for collision avoidance.
b. Annual Notice to Mariners No 7. This Notice to Mariners contains Mutual Safety

Procedures for use between military ships and aircraft of the UK and the Former USSR,
and also includes a table of common signals.
c. Allied Maritime Tactical Instructions (Volume 1). ATP 1D Volume 1 contains

fundamental manoeuvring doctrine for NATO ships, and for aircraft using dipping sonar.
The following articles are of particular importance and some of them impact on the
application of the IRCPS (‘The Rules’); see BR 45 Volume 4, Paras 09090-09091.
• Individual Action to Avoid Danger (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2241)
• Special Rules of the Road (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2242)
• Sea Manners and Customs (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2243)
• Ships Towing Acoustic Arrays or other Devices (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2246)
• Man Overboard: Peacetime Standard Procedure (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2250)
• Man Overboard: Peacetime Formation / RAS Procedure (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2251)
• Man Overboard: Wartime Procedure (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2252)
• Breakdown at Sea (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2260)
• Navigation Lights on Darkened Ships: Peacetime (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2271)
• Navigation Lights on Darkened Ships: Wartime (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2280)
• Use of Whistle Signals (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2272)
• Peacetime and Wartime Fog Signals (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2273)
• Entering Fog (ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2274)
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0403. Requirement for Accurate Station Keeping in Close Formation

Station-keeping and ‘OOW Manoeuvres’ in close formation help develop the OOW’s
manoeuvring skills and ‘Seaman’s Eye’, as well as being necessary on occasion for ceremonial
or publicity purposes (see Fig 4-1). The OOW must be familiar with the standard manoeuvres in
the Allied Maritime Tactical Instructions and Procedures (ATP 1D) Volumes 1 and 2, and must
understand what changes in relative movement to expect when the ship turns or alters speed. The
skills needed to achieve accurate Station-keeping should be practised regularly.
Fig 4-1. Example of Ships in Close Formation for Publicity Purposes
0404-0409. Spare
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SECTION 1 - STATION KEEPING
0410. Station-Keeping in Line and Column
a. Bearing and Distance of the Guide. In line or column formations, ships keep
Station by maintaining the correct Bearing and Distance from the Guide (or Line Guide
in large formations), measured between the foremasts of the Guide and the ship keeping
Station. If ships have no foremast, the Bridge is used instead. The Stuarts Distance
Meter (see BR 45 Volume 3, Chapter 5) is used, with the appropriate masthead height
set, to measure Distances under 10 cables. Outside this Distance, a correctly calibrated
Sextant (see BR 45 Volume 2 Para 0336) may be used with the Guide’s masthead height
and Vertical Angle Tables (see Norie’s Nautical Tables). Subject to any EMCON
restrictions, radar may also be used to establish the Distance of the Guide, particularly at
longer ranges.
b. Safety Distance. Although Station is kept on the Guide and not from the next ship,
the OOW must monitor the next ship ahead/astern/abeam to make sure it is kept at a safe
Distance (eg If all ships in a column are slightly outside Distance, attempts by the last
ship to keep its correct Station may result in it being dangerously close to the next ship).
c. Guide Obscured Visually. If the OOW is unable to see the Guide visually, its
(approximate) Bearing and its Distance may be obtained by radar, although care is
necessary to ensure the correct radar echo has been identified. Radar Bearing of the
Guide should be used with caution and only when absolutely necessary. Comparing the
radar Bearing with the visual Bearing when both are available is a useful confidence
check and should be carried out in advance. If radar is not available (eg due to EMCON)
the only other way of keeping to an approximate Station may be by keeping the required
Bearing and Distance from another ship in line, but this will tend to amplify the Station-
keeping errors of other ships and cause ships to oscillate progressively out of formation.
0411. Accuracy in Keeping Station
a. Method. The OOW should ideally keep the ship in its correct Station by making
small, prompt alterations of course and speed. However, bold alterations may sometimes
be needed to regain Station without delay, if the ship is dropping (or has dropped)
substantially out of Station. Propulsion systems of modern warships respond quickly,
so the OOW should have no difficulty in making up or losing Distance, but must always
allow for Gain and Loss of Speed (see Parts 2-5 of this book). When altering course to
maintain or regain Station, the ship’s turning characteristics must always be taken into
account (see Parts 2-5 of this book). When regaining Station, care must be taken not
to ‘over-correct’ and ‘shoot through’ the Station, thus creating an opposite error.
b. High Sea States. In high Sea States, close Station-keeping is unwise unless essential
for operational reasons. If it is necessary to maintain close Station in high Sea States,
bolder alterations of speed and course than usual will be required, particularly with Head
Seas. Head Seas usually affect light ships more than heavy ships, so small ships may
need to make more frequent alterations to maintain close Station in these conditions.
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BR 45(6)
0412. Monitoring of Station
a. Bearing Errors. Bearing is normally measured from the centre-line Pelorus, but
Bridge Wing compass repeats are sometimes used. The Lubber’s Line of all repeats
should be checked in advance and aligned if necessary. If there is a gyro error, the OOW
should apply the appropriate correction in the correct sense to any bearings, as follows.
• Gyro Low. To make correction, ADD error to all visual sightings
• Gyro High. To make correction, SUBTRACT error from all visual sightings
b. Distance Errors - Foremast to Bridge. Since ‘Distance’ between ships is measured

between Bridges, in theory, an allowance must be made for the distance between the mast
and the position of the Stuart’s Distance Meter or Sextant (usually the Bridge) in the
observer’s ship. In practice, in most warships this is distance is very small and may be
ignored, but in a large ship (eg an RFA), it may be relevant. A similar error occurs if
radar is being used for Station-keeping and the antenna in use is a long way from the
mast.
c. Distance Errors - Masthead to Waterline Height. The masthead height given for
any ship (see Parts 2-5 of this book) is the vertical distance from the top of the mast to the
waterline immediately below. If the point on the waterline below the mast cannot be
seen, as happens in column, an equivalent to the waterline point below the mast should
be selected by eye. This is usually approximately one-third of the way up the transom of
a ship ahead.
d. Binoculars or Night Vision Aid. The field of view of binoculars or a night vision
aid may be used to detect a change of Distance, particularly at longer ranges when radar
is not available (eg due to EMCON). Although these instruments will not provide an
absolute measurement of Distance itself, any change of the image size within the field of
view is readily detectable and indicates a closing/opening of Distance.
e. Wake. When in column and the weather is calm, a change of Distance is indicated
if the focsle / jackstaff tripod appears to move up or down the transom or wake of the next
ship ahead. Regular observation of this effect helps to develop a good ‘Seaman’s Eye’.
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BR 45(6)
0413. Keeping Station with Cross-Wind or Cross-Stream
a. Different Effects of Cross-Wind and Cross-Stream on Wake. The effect of a

cross-wind on the apparent wake of a ship ahead is different to that of a cross-stream. In
a cross-wind (see Fig 4-2a), the wakes of ships in column lie along (parallel to) their
ground tracks. With a cross-stream, the stream affects the wakes as well as the ships, so
that the wakes do NOT lie along (parallel to) the ships’ ground tracks (see Fig 4-2b).
Fig 4-2a. Effect of Wind on Wake Fig 4-2b. Effect of Stream on Wake
b. Following over the Same Ground. When a group is proceeding along a narrow
channel in a strong cross-wind or cross-stream, the leading ship (Guide) will inevitably
steer a course to maintain the required navigational track. If ships follow directly astern
of the Guide in these conditions, the line will sag to leeward/downstream, the rear ships
will be forced to the edge of the channel and they may be in danger of grounding (see Fig
4-3). The OTC should avoid this risk by ordering ships to pass over the same
ground as the Guide (see Para 0415). It should be noted that the CO is always
responsible for the safe conduct of the ship (see QRRN 1922) and if necessary must take
independent action to keep the ship safe (see ATP 1D Vol 1 Art 2241).
Fig 4-3. The Effect of Following Directly Astern in a Cross-Wind or Cross-Stream
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BR 45(6)
0414. Keeping Station on a Line of Bearing
a. The Station Keeping Problem and Common Errors. When out of Station on a
line-of-bearing, the problem faced by the OOW is the direction in which to alter course
and whether to increase or decrease speed. Plotting the correct and actual positions of the
ship on a Manoeuvring Form will help clarify the problem. If the ship is ahead for
Bearing and inside for Distance, the immediate reaction might be to reduce speed
(correctly) and alter course outward (incorrectly). However, by plotting the correct
Station ‘A’ relative to the Guide and the present position ‘B’, together with the Guide’s
Course (see Fig 4-4), it will be seen by inspection that the correct action is to reduce
speed and make a slight inward alteration.
Fig 4-4. Plot for Regaining Station on a Line-of-Bearing
b. Practical solutions to Station Keeping on a Line-of-Bearing. It is easier to

understand how to keep Station on a line-of-bearing if the action required is worked out
while own ship keeps a steady speed. The OOW should have the appropriate diagram for
the ship’s Station available so that confusion does not occur about the action to take.
Once the ship is in the correct Station it is usually only necessary to adjust course by up
to 2°. The following ‘rules of thumb’ follow for small alterations from Figs 4-4 (above),
and Figs 4-5 / 4-6 (overleaf):
• Altering course IN only will CLOSE Distance (see Figs 4-4, 4-5 and 4-6).
• Altering course OUT only will OPEN Distance (see Figs 4-4, 4-5 and 4-6).
• If FORWARD of the Guide’s beam, altering course IN will GAIN Bearing and
altering course OUT will LOSE Bearing (see Fig 4-5).
• If ABAFT the Guide’s beam, altering course IN will LOSE Bearing and
altering course OUT will GAIN Bearing (see Fig 4-6).
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BR 45(6)
Fig 4-5. Effects of Altering Course on a Line-of-Bearing when Forward of Guide’s Beam
Fig 4-6. Effects of Altering Course on a Line-of-Bearing when Abaft Guide’s Beam
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0415. Keeping Station in Pilotage Waters

When operating in formation in pilotage waters (ie entering or leaving harbour, or in
narrow channels), it is normally neither feasible nor prudent to maintain Station by following in
the Guide’s wake, particularly if there are strong winds or streams (see Para 0413). In practice,
when transiting pilotage waters with navigational dangers close on either side, ships will
(correctly) take independent action to maintain their own safety (see QRRN 0801 and ATP 1D
Volume 1 Art 2241). In effect, they will attempt to pass over the same ground as the Guide, as
this is actually the only safe and practicable solution to the problem. OTCs should formalise this
action in such situations by publishing the intended navtrack in good time and ordering ships to
‘Follow over the same ground’ (ie TA 98-1) as soon as the navigational constraints make normal
Station-keeping impracticable. This will mean that the ships are no longer ‘in column’ and this
must be appreciated by all concerned. The Guide can also assist other ships by making
information signals when it is about to alter course (ie X CORPEN ...°), and when it has steadied
on the new course (ie M CORPEN ...° or G CORPEN ...°). This will provide an indication to
following ships of any local difficulties encountered at the Wheel-Over (eg traffic conditions or
stronger tidal streams than expected) and any additional course allowance for prevailing
circumstances and conditions necessary on the new track. When clear of navigational constraints,
a normal manoeuvring order (eg Wheel, or Formation etc) automatically supercedes the
instruction to ‘Follow over the same ground’.
0416. Maintaining Station on Sector Screens and in Open Formations

Radar or data link information may be the only means of obtaining up to date positional
data on the Guide and other units during tactical Station-keeping on Sector Screens and in large
open formations where large Distances separate units. In the absence of such data, the OOW may
have to keep Station on the Guide by remaining in a moving geographical box. The OOW should
liaise with the PWO and keep up to date with the OTC’s intentions and the disposition of ships.
When in a Sector Screen, the ship will usually be required to patrol the area allocated; the OOW
should estimate the courses needed to patrol the whole area by using vector diagrams. The OOW
/ PWO should take care not to allow a close quarters situation to occur with any consort near the
Sector Screen boundary.
0417-0419. Spare
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BR 45(6)
SECTION 2 - TAKING UP AND CHANGING STATION (OOW MANOEUVRES)
0420. Preparations by the CO, NO and OOW for Manoeuvres

Before carrying out manoeuvres, the CO, NO and OOW must ensure that they have
information necessary for manoeuvring to hand and have the appropriate equipment and
instruments available. Before starting any manoeuvres where the ship may turn hard at speed and
thus roll, a warning broadcast should be made to the ship’s company. In Sea States where spray
or waves are likely to come inboard during manoeuvres, it is advisable to place the upper deck out
of bounds in advance of the serial. The different types of Command and organisational
structures necessary for the safe conduct of manoeuvres in various circumstances are
contained at BR 45 Volume 4, Chapters 8 and 10.
a. Manoeuvring Information. The following information is needed:

• Communications requirements.
• Navigational constraints (speed limits, shallow water effect, shoal water etc)
• If OTC, a manoeuvre-by-manoeuvre diagram sequence of the intended
manoeuvres, with the PIM shown as an overlay to the navigational chart.
• Identity and position of the Guide.
• Stationing Speed.
• Rudder (at various speeds) for Tactical Diameter/Reduced Tactical Diameter.
• Standard Distance and Manoeuvring Interval.
• Gain and Loss of Speed data for own and other ships in the formation.
• Turning Data for other ships in formation if of dissimilar type (see Para 0421).
• Effect of the prevailing weather conditions on handling of own ship.
• Tables showing Distance lost by Fishtail and similar manoeuvres.
• Table of masthead heights
• Vertical Sextant Angle (VSA) tables (if a sextant is to be used)
b. Equipment and Instruments. The following equipment and instruments are

needed:
• A ‘Stuarts Distance Meter’ and fully briefed range-taker.
• Calibrated sextant (if ranges over 10 cables will be needed)
• Navigational radar with a fully briefed range-taker.
• Fully prepared chart with fully briefed navigational team available to monitor
ship’s / formation’s position, and likely future movements.
• Manoeuvring forms (the Ops Room should be prepared to provide Relative
Velocity (Rel Vel) solutions if required).
• Plotting aids, such as those for taking Station from ahead.
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BR 45(6)
0421. Turning Together
a. Definition. Turning Together is a manoeuvre in which all ships turn simultaneously

and maintain their True Bearings from the Guide while doing so.
b. Tactical Diameter / Reduced Tactical Diameter. Before carrying out any

manoeuvres, the OTC should signal the Tactical Diameter / Reduced Tactical Diameter
to be used (see definition of Tactical Diameter at Para 0140i) if other than the default
values at ATP 1D Volume 1 Art 2203b. From its own Turning Data each ship should
then calculate the amount of rudder required for a Turning Circle of this diameter at
various speeds. The appropriate amount of rudder should then be used to manoeuvre (see
ATP 1D Volume 1 Art 2203d).
c. Effect of Dissimilar Ships with Different Advances, Turning Together. If a

formation of ships has ships of dissimilar types, and the Advance (see Para 0140e) of the
Guide differs greatly from that of the remainder, ships will not necessarily arrive in the
correct Station at the end of the turn even if they have used the correct amount of rudder.
Figs 4-7 and 4-8 show the unadjusted result after Turning Together 180° in formations
when the Guide has a LARGER Advance than the other ship. It can be seen by inspection
of these diagrams that the ship with the SMALLER Advance will end up AHEAD for
Bearing when making a Turn Together in line abreast (see Fig 4-7) and AHEAD for
Distance when making a Turn Together in column (see Fig 4-8).
Fig 4-7. Ships with Dissimilar Advances, Turning Together 180° in Line Abreast, using
Rudder for Ordered Tactical Diameter, without Making any Manoeuvring Corrections
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BR 45(6)
Fig 4-8. Ships with Dissimilar Advances, Turning Together 180° in Column, using Rudder
for Ordered Tactical Diameter, without Making any Manoeuvring Corrections
d. Remedy for Dissimilar Ships with Different Advances, Turning Together. The
remedy for Turning Together in formations of ships where the Guide has a greatly
dissimilar Advance to others, is to keep the heading of own ship parallel to the Guide, as
well as maintaining the correct Bearing and Distance from it. This may be achieved as
follows:
• Ships with a SMALLER Advance than the Guide should start the turn with a
SMALLER rudder angle than normal and INCREASE it as the turn progresses.
• Ships with a LARGER Advance than the Guide should start the turn with a
LARGER rudder angle than normal and DECREASE it as the turn progresses.
• Towards the end of the turn, speed should be altered as necessary to adjust
position into the correct Station.
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BR 45(6)
0422. Wheeling
a. Definition. When Wheeling, ships alter course but on completion of the manoeuvre
retain their original relative positions. In column, ships Wheel by altering course in
succession to follow the track of the Guide. In line abreast, ships Wheel by swinging
round the pivot ship at the end of the line on the inner side of the Wheel.
b. Tactical Diameter / Reduced Tactical Diameter. The guidance at Para 0421b

(Turning Together - Tactical Diameter / Reduced Tactical Diameter) applies equally to
Wheeling.
c. Initial Rudder Movement. When Wheeling in succession in column, the outward

swing of the stern of the ship next ahead will give the impression that it is falling across
the bow of one’s own ship. The natural temptation is to steer outside it; this must be
resisted, as it will soon draw clear. At speeds of 12 to14 knots when at Standard
Distance (see ATP 1D Volume 1 Art 2202) in a frigate or destroyer, it is usual to apply
wheel when a point near the upper guard rail right forward approaches the knuckle in the
wake of the ship ahead. When correctly judged, this will cause the ship to turn on the
same curve as those ahead. At higher speeds, the wheel should be applied earlier because
the Advance will be greater. The bows of own ship should be kept in the middle of the
slick that the ship ahead leaves and well inside the wake left by its stern.
d. Action if Wheel-Over Overshot. When Wheeling in column, ships should not use
more rudder if the Wheel-Over position is overshot as this will make it more difficult for
the ship astern to judge its turn. Using greater rudder angles will also slow the ship down
and may cause the next astern to close, with potentially dangerous consequences. The
correct action to take is to stay outside the Guide’s wake until the Wheel is completed and
then move into Station.
e. Relative Speed Losses Between Dissimilar Vessels. A large vessel will usually
lose more speed than a small vessel during a Wheel, so it may be necessary for a small
vessel to reduce speed for a short time towards the end of the Wheel in order to stay in
Station on a larger vessel.
0423. Calculating Relative Velocity (Rel Vel) for OOW Manoeuvre Problems
Full instructions for the solution of Relative Velocity (Rel Vel) problems are at BR 45
Volume 1 Chapter 17 (pages 499 to 521) and at BR 1982. Exercises in such problems are at BR
45 Volume 5 Chapter 1 Annex E and the full worked answers to these exercise problems are at
BR 45 Volume 5 (Supplement). The following paragraphs are intended as an extract of the
above information, for the purposes of OOW Manoeuvres.
a. ‘Rel Vel’ Vector Triangle - Use. The course required for a particular manoeuvre
may be calculated by drawing a vector triangle on a Manoeuvring Form or using the
reflection plotter (if fitted) on the Bridge radar display. Alternatively, the Operations
Room may be asked to give computer-generated information on courses and speeds.
Such calculations do not take Turning Data or speed loss into account.
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BR 45(6)
b. ‘Rel Vel’ Vector Triangle - Components. The components of the Rel Vel vector
triangle and its notation (see BR 45 (1) and Fig 4-9) for any Stationing problem are:
• The direction of the intended relative movement vector (G1G2)
• The direction and velocity of the Guide’s vector (WA).
• The velocity of own ship’s vector (WO).
Note. BR 1982 uses the notation ‘P’ instead of ‘G’, and ‘B’ instead of ‘O’.
c. ‘Rel Vel’ Vector Triangle - Method. The velocity triangle is usually drawn with
own ship (W) at the centre of the Manoeuvring Form or radar display. This is very
convenient if using radar as the display will also show the other ship’s actual position,
and a suitable Distance scale. The procedures for drawing various Rel Vel vector
triangles are explained in detail at BR 45 Volume 1 (pages 499-521) and the OOW should
be completely familiar with them. The Rel Vel vector triangle for changing Station is the
one most often needed and an example is shown below (see Fig 4-9). This calculation
does not take Turning Data or speed loss into account; an additional allowance (see
Para 0424) must therefore be made for Loss of Speed so that the ship does not
overshoot its Station, and also for Advance and Transfer when turning.
Example 4-1 (see Fig 4-9). Your ship (W) is 4 miles on the port beam of the Guide (G) whose
course and speed (A) is 030° at 10 knots. Stationing Speed (O) is 20 knots. What is the initial
course to take Station 1 mile ahead of the Guide?
Fig 4-9. Example 4-1: Changing Station from 4 miles on Guide’s Port Beam to 1 mile Ahead
Procedure. Plot own Ship ‘W’ at centre of plotting sheet, ‘A’ at 030° speed 10 knots, Guide G1
at 120° 4 miles, Guide G2 at 210° 1 mile; join G1 and G2 (Intended Relative Movement), transfer
line G1G2 through ‘A’, where transferred line from ‘A’ cuts 20 knot circle plot position ‘O’;
establish which of two possible positions for ‘O’ is correct (see rules at BR45(1) pages 503/504);
measure WO (course required) = 073° in this example. Note that this calculation does not
allow for Turning Data or speed loss (see Para 0424).
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BR 45(6)
0424. Allowing for Loss of Speed (from Stationing Speed) when Taking Station
When changing Station it is essential to allow for the Deceleration Distance it takes for
a ship to reduce from Stationing Speed to the Ordered Speed, particularly if Stationing Speed is
high. Failure to allow for this will result in the ship ‘shooting through’ its Station; at best this will
be an embarrassment but at worst could result in a dangerous situation. Gain and Loss of Speed
data for RN Warships is at Parts 2-5 of this book.
a. Calculation of the Deceleration Distance. To calculate the distance over which the
ship will decelerate, subtract the Ordered Speed from the Stationing Speed and multiply
the result by the Loss of Speed figure (yards per knot) for the ship.
Example 4-2. A Type 23 frigate decelerates at 33 yards per knot. Over what Distance will it
decelerate when reducing from 25 knots to 15 knots?
Answer: (25-15) x 33 yards = 10 x 33 = 330 yards
b. Radian Rule. The Radian Rule will be found useful in a variety of circumstances,
including taking Station, and devolves from the definition of a Radian (see BR 45 Vol 1,
page 581). From this it can be shown that at a distance of 1 nautical mile, 1° subtends
approximately 33 yards, or 100 feet or 30 metres, and this is known as the Radian Rule.
c. Application of Deceleration Distance to Taking Station Ahead or Astern.

• Station Directly Astern. If approaching the Guide from directly astern, the
problem is simple; merely reduce speed at point equal to the Stationing
Distance plus the Deceleration Distance.
• Station Abeam. If taking Station on the beam, the Radian Rule can be applied
to find the Bearing of the Guide for slowing down. If the ship in Example 4-2
above were ordered to take Station on the beam of the Guide (for practical
purposes assumed to be on a nearly parallel course to the Guide in the final
stages) it would need to reduce speed 330 yards before reaching its Station.
The calculations for various Stationing Distances (see Fig 4-10) are as follows:
< At 1 mile, this would equate to an angle of: 330 divided by 33 = 10°
< At ½ mile 1° subtends 33 yards divided by 2 = 16.5 yards and the
calculation would equate to an angle of: 330 divided by 16.5 = 20°
< At 2 miles 1° subtends 33 yards multiplied by 2 = 66 yards and thus
the calculation would equate to an angle of: 330 divided by 66 = 5°
Note. Using multiples of 33 yards does not make for easy mental arithmetic, particularly when
under pressure on the Bridge. It is often easier to work in feet, as this only requires multiples
of 100 and results in much easier mental calculations.
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Fig 4-10. Application of Radian Rule to Deceleration Distances for Taking Station
d. Plotting of Deceleration Distance on a Manoeuvring Form. It is also possible to

plot the position for reducing speed on a Manoeuvring Form. This can be particularly
useful if approaching the new Station at an oblique angle where the Relative Speed has
to be calculated by a means other than a simple subtraction (see Para 0423). The position
for reducing speed on the Relative Track (G1G2) can be calculated by taking the velocity
of the Relative Speed (OA), dividing it by own ship’s velocity (WO) and multiplying it by
the distance allowed for loss of speed (D) ie (OA/WO x D). This distance may be plotted
back from G2 towards G1, and the True Bearing of this point measured from W (see Para
0423).
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0425. Taking Station from Ahead (Joining from Ahead)

Joining from Ahead can be an exhilarating and impressive manoeuvre if handled well; if
handled badly, it will at best be an embarrassment but at worst could result in the very dangerous
situation of one ship turning directly into the other at high speed. Joining from Ahead deserves
respect, adequate preparations and precautions. The manoeuvre usually requires a hard turn at
Stationing Speed and the Ship’s Company should be given early warning.
a. Variants of Joining from Ahead. Joining from Ahead manoeuvres may be divided
into two main variants, as follows:
• Joining from Ahead on a reciprocal course.
• Joining from Ahead at an oblique angle.
Each of these variants may be further sub-divided according to the speed used:
< Approaching at a speed (usually approximating to Stationing Speed) where
the Deceleration Distance required exactly balances the Loss of Speed in
the turn.
< Approaching at a very high speed where the Deceleration Distance
required exceeds the Loss of Speed in the turn and has to be allowed for
(by turning late).
< Approaching at an equal speed to that of the Guide, where the Loss of
Speed in the turn has to be allowed for (by turning early).
b. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Main Variants. Joining from Ahead on a

reciprocal course is much less prone to error than doing so at an oblique angle. It is
almost always possible to bring the ship into a position where the reciprocal approach can
be used. If the oblique approach cannot be avoided, the slightest error in the calculation
used to intercept in the early stages can result in ‘joining from the beam’ or a stern chase.
If the error in the initial calculation to intercept is in the other direction, it can be used to
advantage by converting the approach to the reciprocal method.
c. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Speed Variants.

• Selecting an approach speed where the Deceleration Distance required exactly
balances the Loss of Speed in the turn makes the overall calculation and
execution easiest. This speed will also often be close to the ordered Stationing
Speed and usually only requires a minor speed alteration a moment or two
before the turn is made in order to achieve this self-cancelling effect.
• Approaching at a very high speed where the Deceleration Distance required
exceeds the Loss of Speed in the turn has to be allowed for by a later turn (to
give space for the very high speed to come off, without ‘shooting through’ the
ordered Station). This can look impressive, but needs fine judgement. A
compromise is to reduce speed just before the turn so that the Deceleration
Distance required exactly balances the Loss of Speed in the turn (as above).
• Approaching at an equal speed to that of the Guide, where the Loss of Speed in
the turn has to be allowed for by an earlier turn (in order to avoid dropping
astern of the ordered Station) looks unimpressive, but may be required if
shallow water precludes high speeds.
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(0425) d. Planning for Joining from Ahead.

• Monitoring Approach and Turn. Due to the relatively high speed of
approach in a Joining from Ahead manoeuvre and the difficulty of making a
correction once a ship is committed to it, the relative movement of the Guide
must be monitored very carefully in the approach and during the turn.
• Wheel-Over. For safety reasons, the Wheel-Over is executed on the Relative
Bearing of the Guide. If the ship is not exactly on the planned heading, the
planned Relative Bearing of Wheel-Over must be adjusted to compensate.
• Lateral Separation between Ships. If the Lateral Separation between ships
is inadequate at the moment of Wheel-Over, both ships can be placed at serious
risk and the manoeuvre should be delayed or aborted. Turning away from the
Guide and ‘going the long way round’ may provide a suitable escape course.
WARNING
WHEN JOINING FROM AHEAD, IF THE LATERAL

SEPARATION BETWEEN SHIPS IS INADEQUATE AT THE
MOMENT OF WHEEL-OVER, BOTH SHIPS (AND THEIR
PERSONNEL) CAN BE PLACED AT SERIOUS RISK; THE
MANOEUVRE SHOULD BE DELAYED OR ABORTED.
• Effect of Adjustment of Heading at Wheel-Over. If not exactly on the

planned heading at the moment of passing through the Wheel-Over position, the
error of a few degrees in the amount of the final turn will not alter the amount
of Advance and Transfer by very much. However, if the ship misses the
correct Wheel-Over point altogether, it will inevitably finish badly out of
position. See comment on ‘Wheel-Over’ at bullet above.
• Final Adjustment to Absorb Safety Margin. In the final stages of the turn the
wheel may be eased to allow the ship to slide across the safety margin and take
up the correct Station.
• Plotting Tables, Diagrams and Templates. There may not always be time to
plot the Wheel-Over position from first principles, so it is usual for tables,
diagrams and radar plotting templates to be drawn up by the NO for various
angles on the bow (see Paras 0426 and 0427). These items should be kept in
the Bridge File (see BR 45 Volume 4 Annex 8E).
e. Examples. Examples of two reciprocal and one oblique Joining from Ahead
approaches are on the following pages. In the reciprocal examples, one near-Stationing
Speed (Example 4-3) and one Very High Speed approach (Example 4-4) are shown, in
order to show the calculation of the correction for Loss of Speed in the turn against the
Deceleration Distance, and its laying off in the correct direction to plot Point F (see Para
0425g). The oblique approach (Example 4-5) is an Equal Speed Manoeuvre appropriate
for shallow water; it shows the correction for Loss of Speed in the turn against the
Deceleration Distance, again plotted in the correct direction to plot Point F, but in this
case in the opposite direction to that in the Very High Speed approach.
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(0425) f. Calculations for a Joining from Ahead Manoeuvre. The essential requirement
for the success of this manoeuvre is that the ship should pass through the pre-determined
Wheel-Over position on a course close to that assumed for calculating it. The following
factors and information are required when planning a Joining from Ahead manoeuvre:
• The ship’s company to be warned in good time of the impending hard turn.
• A lateral safety margin to be included in the calculation (usually 100 yards).
• A speed to be selected for the approach and turn (ideally one in which the
Deceleration Distance required exactly balances the Loss of Speed in the turn).
• Advance, Transfer and ‘Duration’ (Time) of the turn to be available.
• Data on Loss of Speed during the turn to be available.
• The distance travelled by the Guide during the turn to be established.
g. Method of Plotting Joining from Ahead Wheel-Over Position (All Variants).

The following standard method applies to all variants of Joining from Ahead, although
the plotting of Deceleration Distances will vary depending on the variant used.
• Calculate the course to intercept the Guide, either for a reciprocal or an oblique
approach, as dictated by circumstances.
• Plot the Guide at centre of a Manoeuvring Form (Point A), and lay off its
course and speed.
• Plot Ordered Station (Point B) relative to the Guide.
• Plot the ‘Aim Point’(Point C) for completing the manoeuvre, at a position
laterally displaced from Point B by the safety margin (normally 100 yards).
• Plot the Transfer laterally from Point C. Call this position Point D.
• Plot the Advance back from Point D. Call this position Point E.
• Calculate the Loss of Speed in the turn against the Deceleration Distance and
lay off any resultant correction in the correct direction to plot Point F (see Para
0425 a/c)
< Example: Guide Speed 18 kn, Approach speed 22 kn, Loss of speed in the
turn 4 kn. 22kn -18kn - 4kn = Nil Correction
turn 4 kn, Deceleration Distance 33 yds/kn. 30kn -4kn -15kn = 11 kn
11kn @ 33yds = 363 yard correction delaying the turn (ie later).
turn 4 kn, Deceleration Distance 33 yds/kn. 15kn -4kn -15kn = -4 kn
-4kn @ 33yds = 132 yard correction advancing the turn (ie earlier).
• Calculate and lay off Guide’s movement for the duration (time) of the turn in
correct direction and Plot as Point G. Point G is the Wheel-Over position.
• Adjust initial course if required, to ensure ship passes through planned
Wheel-Over position, on planned heading and at planned speed.
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Example 4-3. Joining from Ahead - Reciprocal Approach at near Stationing Speed
You are to take Station 500 yds astern of the Guide, joining from ahead but very fine on
its starboard bow. The Guide’s course is 220E at a speed of 18 kn. Stationing Speed is 22 knots.
Assuming the following, what lateral separation should you establish between the ships and on
what Relative Bearing and Distance (range) of the Guide should you initiate the manoeuvre?
• Include a lateral safety margin of 100 yards.
• Approach on a reciprocal course at a speed of 22 kn.
• Use 30Eof wheel giving an Advance of 200 yds and a Transfer of 530 yds, in a time
of 1 min 30 secs with a Loss of Speed of 4 knots in the turn.
• Reduce power at the end of the turn.
• Deceleration Distance is 33 yds/kn (not required in calculation, as speeds cancel).
Plot following points to establish Wheel-Over position:
Own ship Course 040E Speed 30 kn
Point A Guide: Centre of plotting sheet, Course 220E Speed 18 kn
Point B Station: 500 yds astern of Guide
Point C Aim Point: Safety Margin (100 yds) plotted from Point B on brg 310E
Point D Transfer (530 yds) plotted from Point C on brg 310E
Point E Advance (200 yards) plotted from Point D on brg 220E
Point F Excess Speed: 22 -4 -18 = 0 kn = Nil Correction
Point G Guide’s movement at 18 kn for 1 min 30 secs = 900 yds on 220E
(1.50 x 18.0 x 2000 / 60 = 900 yds)
Relative Bearing of Point A from Point G calculated as Green 46E, 820 yds
True Bearing of Point A from Point G calculated as 086E, 820 yds
Fig 4-11. Example 4-3: Joining from Ahead on Reciprocal at Near Stationing Speed
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Example 4-4. Joining from Ahead - Reciprocal Approach at Very High Speed
You are to take Station 500 yds astern of the Guide, joining from ahead but very fine on
its starboard bow. The Guide’s course is 220E at a speed of 15 kn. Assuming the following, what
lateral separation should you establish between the ships and on what Relative Bearing and
Distance (range) of the Guide should you initiate the manoeuvre?
• Approach on a reciprocal course at a speed of 30 kn.
of 1 min 12 secs with a Loss of Speed of 3 knots in the turn.
• Reduce power at the end of the turn.
• Deceleration Distance is 33 yds/kn.
Own ship Course 040E speed 30 kn
Point A Guide: Centre of plotting sheet, course 220E speed 15 kn
Point F Excess speed: 30-3-15 =12 kn @ 33 yds = 396 yds on brg 040E
Point G Guide’s movement at 15 kn for 1 min 12 secs = 600 yds on 220E
(1.20 x 15.0 x 2000 / 60 = 600 yds)
Relative Bearing of Point A from Point G calculated as Green 91E, 710 yds
Fig 4-12. Example 4-4: Joining from Ahead on Reciprocal at Very High Speed
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Example 4-5. Oblique Approach at Equal Speed.

You are to take Station 500 yds astern of the Guide in an equal speed oblique joining manoeuvre.
The Guide’s course is 320E at a speed of 15 kn. Assuming the following, on what Relative Bearing
and Distance (range) of the Guide should you initiate the manoeuvre?
• Approach on a course of 100E at a speed of 15 kn.
of 1 mine 40 secs with a speed loss of 4 kn in the turn.
• Acceleration is 33 yds/kn

Own ship Course 100E speed 15 kn
Point A Guide: Centre of plotting sheet, Course 320E speed 15 kn
Point F Loss of Speed: 15-4-15 = -4 kn @ 33 yds = 132 yds on brg 320E
Point G Guide’s movement at 15 kn for 1 min 40 secs = 830 yds on brg 320E
(1.66 x 15.0 x 2000 / 60 = 830 yds)
Relative Bearing of Point A from Point G calculated as Red 10E, 810 yds
Fig 4-13. Example 4-5: Joining from Ahead at Oblique Angle and Equal Speed
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0426. Quick Methods of Plotting Wheel-Over Positions for Joining from Ahead
By plotting a number of turns beforehand for different speeds and amounts of final turn,
Tables, Manoeuvring Form Templates or Radar Templates may be prepared for the ship (see Paras
0426a-d, Table 4-1 and Figs 4-14 to 4-16), which speed up the solution of some Relative Velocity
(Rel Vel) problems. Of these methods, the Radar Templates at Para 0426c/d are probably the least
useful, as they have certain limitations and are difficult to use with modern radar displays which
are not fitted with reflector plotters. The data at Table 4-1 and at Figs 4-14 to 4-16 is example
Turning Data and must NOT be used as it stands to execute a Joining from Ahead
manoeuvre in any ship.
a. Preparation and Use of Tables of Wheel-Over Data for Joining from Ahead.
Table 4-1 gives the Distance and Relative Bearing of the Wheel-Over position from the
‘Aim Point’(Point C in the procedure at Para 0425g), using example Turning Data. The
‘Aim Point’ should be offset from the new Station by the lateral safety margin (usually
100 yards - see Para 0425f/g). To use the table, plot the ‘Aim Point’ at the centre of the
Manoeuvring Form and plot the (offset) position of the Guide relative to the ‘Aim Point’.
Plot the Relative Bearing and Distance of the Wheel-Over from ‘Aim Point’ (from the
table data, using the appropriate speeds and amount of turn). Then read off the Relative
Bearing and Distance of the Guide from the Wheel-Over position.
Table 4-1. Example Layout of ‘Quick Solution’ Joining from Ahead Table (25° Wheel)
OWN GUIDE RELATIVE BEARING AND DISTANCE (RANGE - YARDS)
SPEED SPEED OF THE WHEEL-OVER POINT FROM THE ‘AIM POINT’,
(Knots) (Knots) (25° OF WHEEL), WHEN ALTERATION OF COURSE IS:
180° 150° 120° 90° 60° 45°
10 10 24° 29° 38° 41° 50° 50°

2000 yds 1600 yds 1160 yds 760 yds 360 yds 200 yds
12 12 23° 29° 38° 42° 50° 50°
14 14 22° 28° 37° 42° 49° 50°
16 16 22° 28° 37° 42° 49° 51°
18 18 21° 27° 36° 42° 48° 51°
20 20 20° 27° 35° 42° 48° 51°
ABOVE FIGURES DO NOT INCLUDE LATERAL SAFETY MARGIN
Note. Table 4-1 uses example Turning Data and must NOT be used as it stands to execute a
Joining from Ahead manoeuvre in any ship.
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b. Preparation and Use of Templates of Wheel-Over for Joining from Ahead.

Many items of Wheel-Over data from tables such as Table 4-1 (previous page), or data
extracted from the original Manoeuvring Forms used to create such tables, may be
combined into a composite tracing of a Manoeuvring Form. This composite tracing may
be overlaid onto a fresh Manoeuvring Form, aligned with the Guide’s course and also
aligned with the Guide’s position relative to the ‘Aim Point’ (offset from the new Station
by the lateral safety margin - see Para 0425f/g). When the tracing is correctly aligned, the
appropriate Wheel-Over point may be pricked through. The Relative Bearing and
Distance of the Guide from the Wheel-Over position may then be read off the fresh
Manoeuvring Form. An example of such a composite tracing (in this instance geared for
equal Guide and Own speeds) is at Fig 4-14.
Fig 4-14. Example of a Composite Manoeuvring Form Tracing for Joining from Ahead
at Various Speeds and Approach Angles (equal Guide and Own Speeds)
Note. Fig 4-14 uses example Turning Data and must NOT be used as it stands to execute a
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(0426) c. Preparation of Radar Templates of Wheel-Over for Joining from Ahead. A

radar template for a particular speed may be constructed to show the positions of the
Guide at Wheel-Over for different angles of approach on the bow and therefore different
amounts of turn. It can also show the Guide’s relative movement during the turn. Fig 4-
15 demonstrates how to draw the relative curve followed by the Guide for a 180o turn into
Station. Its limitations are that the template does not normally show the lateral
safety margin and it assumes that the Deceleration Distance required is exactly
balanced by the Loss of Speed in the turn. The template is also difficult to prepare
and use with modern radar displays that do not have reflector plotters. Within theses
limitations, the procedure is as follows:
• Plot the Turning Circle of own ship from the centre of the radar display at the
scale selected. It is usual to do this on the 1.5 or 3 mile scale, but it may be
more convenient to plot this on a Manoeuvring Form at the same size and scale
as the radar display.
• Draw the Guide’s course back from the relative position of the Guide when
own ship is in Station (this allows for Guide’s movement during the turn).
• Read off the True Bearings and Distances of the Guide at various stages of the
turn, as shown on the left hand side of Fig 4-15. From these, plot the Guide’s
Relative Track as shown on the right hand side of the diagram.
Fig 4-15. Method of Plotting the Guide’s Track on Radar during a 180° Turn
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(0426) d. Use of Radar Templates of Wheel-Over for Joining from Ahead. A composite
radar template may be constructed (see Para 0426c) for a particular speed to show the
positions of the Guide at Wheel-Over for different angles of approach on the bow and
therefore different amounts of turn. The template in Fig 4-16 is drawn (using example
Turning Data) for a speed of 15 knots using 15 degrees of wheel. The Wheel-Over
positions for turns of 150°, 120°, 90° and 60° are indicated by the figures at the notches
of the template. The relative curves for each amount of turn have to be drawn individually
because the direction of initial Advance will be different for each turn. Use one side of the
template for a port turn and the other side for a starboard turn. The template itself does
not include the lateral safety margin and assumes that the Deceleration Distance
required is exactly balanced by the Loss of Speed in the turn. To obtain the Distance
and Bearing of the Guide at Wheel-Over, place position ‘Y’ of the template over the
position that the Guide will be in when own ship is finally in Station, but appropriately
offset for the lateral safety margin. Line up the template with the Guide’s course.
Then, steer so that the Guide’s contact on radar passes through the Wheel-Over position
appropriate to the amount of the final turn. Monitor the turn and ease the wheel in the
final stages ‘to slide’ across the lateral safety margin and take the correct Station. The
template is difficult to prepare and use with modern radar displays that do not have
reflector plotters.
Fig 4-16. Example of a Composite Radar Template for Joining from Ahead
Note. Fig 4-16 uses example Turning Data and must NOT be used as it stands to execute a
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0427. Losing Distance

There are three ways in which a ship may lose Distance when changing Station: firstly
by reducing speed, secondly by Fishtail manoeuvre or thirdly by turning through 360°. Which
one to adopt depends on the circumstances and the Distance that has to be lost. The guiding
principle is that a ship should move to its new Station as quickly and smartly as possible without
inconveniencing other ships.
a. Reducing Speed. If only a short Distance is to be lost, the NO / OOW may decide
to reduce speed momentarily, using the Deceleration and Acceleration Distances per knot
for Loss or Gain of Speed to arrive in Station at the correct speed.
b. Fishtail Manoeuvre. In Fishtail manoeuvres, speed settings are not altered and they
are thus known as ‘Equal Speed Manoeuvres’. The ship turns a given number of degrees
away from the Guide’s course, sometimes steadies briefly, then turns back twice the
original alteration before resuming the original course. The Distance to be dropped
dictates the offset angle and whether it is appropriate to steady briefly on the offset
course. From the ship’s Turning Data, the NO should compile tables (see example at
Table 4-2) to show the Distance lost for different Fishtail turns. Losses of Speed in the
turns and the Acceleration Distance needed to recover this must not be omitted from the
calculation. Such calculations can only provide a first approximation to the required
answer and will need to be refined during practical application. When the initial drafts of
the tables are complete they can be tested and refined without inconvenience to the ship’s
programme by Fishtailing against a simulated Guide provided by a DR track in the Ops
Room AIO system. The information in such tables may also be plotted in graphical form
by plotting the ‘Initial Turn’ against ‘Distance Lost’ (see Fig 4-17). Separate curves are
required for each speed and amount of wheel, and also for Fishtails when the ship
steadies on the offset course for any appreciable time.
Table 4-2. Example of Fishtail Manoeuvre Distance-Lost Table

Distance Initial Wheel Initial Steady on Turn Turn to Speed
Lost Speed Used Turn Offset Back Original Loss in
Course Course Turns
300 16 25° Out Yes - for Back 60° 30° 3 knots
yards knots 30° 30 seconds
600 16 25° Out No Back 120° 60° 4 knots
yards knots 60°
900 16 25° Out Yes - for Back 120° 60° 4 knots
yards knots 60° 30 seconds
1500 16 25° Out No Back 180° 90° 4 knots
yards knots 90°
Note. Table 4-2 uses example Turning Data (loosely based on a frigate-sized ship) and must
NOT be used as it stands to execute a Fishtail manoeuvre in any ship.
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Fig 4-17. Example of Fishtail Manoeuvre Distance-Lost Graph (Based on Table 4-2)
Note. Fig 4-17 uses example Turning Data (loosely based on a frigate-sized ship) and must
NOT be used as it stands to execute a Fishtail manoeuvre in any ship.
c. Turning through 360°. If there is a substantial Distance to drop, the OOW may
consider turning through 360°. To assist the OOW, the NO should construct tables for
different speeds (see example at Table 4-3) to show the Distance dropped during a 360°
turn. The considerable Loss of Speed in the turn and the Acceleration Distance needed
to recover this must not be omitted from the calculation. A graphical version of the table
may also be produced (similar in principle to Fig 4-17), except that ‘Rudder Angle’
should be plotted against ‘Distance Lost’ for each speed. If this 360° manoeuvre alone
is insufficient to lose all the Distance necessary, the ship can be steadied on the reciprocal
of the original course for a moment, before continuing the turn, but this will lead to a very
rapid loss of Distance against the Guide and must be used with care.
Table 4-3. Example of 360° Turn Distance-Lost Table
Rudder DISTANCE LOST (YARDS)

Angle
(360° Turn) 16 knots 22 knots 28 knots
(Guide Speed) (Guide Speed) (Guide Speed)
10° 3900 4000 4400
15° 3000 3000 3200
20° 2700 2800 2800
35° 2300 2300 2700
Note. Table 4-3 uses example Turning Data (loosely based on a frigate-sized ship) and must
NOT be used as it stands to execute a 360° manoeuvre in any ship.
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0428. Reversing the Order of Ships in Column
a. Concept. When the signal ‘Reverse order of ships in column in succession from the
rear (Formation F)’ is executed, the rear ship becomes Guide and increases to ‘1 knot-
less-than-Stationing-Speed’ to pass the ships ahead of it on the side indicated. The
remaining ships reduce to 7 knots (or the speed ordered) until the moment comes for each
individual ship to increase speed to take Station in the wake of the ship that was
previously immediately astern of it. The OOW estimates the point at which to increase
speed by subtracting the Acceleration Distance from the Stationing Distance and applying
ahead power when the next ahead is abreast this point.
b. Constraints. A squadron of ships requires a considerable amount of sea room for

carrying out this manoeuvre. The amount of navigable water available, the risk of
Shallow Water Interaction between ships passing close alongside each other at speed and
Rule of the Road implications for other shipping all need to be considered by the OTC.
In considering these aspects, it is helpful to the OTC to know the duration that such a
manoeuvre takes to complete and thus the sea room required.
c. Time and Distance Required for the Manoeuvre. The time required to ‘Reverse
order of ships in column’ can be estimated by working out the time that the rear ship will
take to traverse twice the length of the column at a Relative Speed of the difference
between 1 knot-less-than-Stationing-Speed and 7 knots (or whatever speed the remainder
have reduced to). Add to this an allowance for the rear ship to gain speed and for the
leading ship to lose speed. Applying ‘1 knot-less-than-Stationing-Speed’ to this time
gives the Distance the rear ship will have covered. To calculate the sea room required
ahead of the leading ship at the moment of execution, the length of the column should be
subtracted from this Distance. The following formula calculates an approximate time
for the manoeuvre and a safety margin of at least a 25% should be applied to the
sea room required ahead of the column leader, where:
T = Approximate time (in minutes) to complete the manoeuvre

S = Difference in speeds between ‘1 knot-less than-Stationing-Speed’ and
7 knots (or the speed ordered)
L = Length of the line in yards
C = Correction in yards per knot for Gain or Loss of Speed
Example 4-6. A column of 4 ships proceeding at 12 knots is ordered to ‘reverse order of ships
in column in succession from the rear’ . Stationing Speed is 20 knots and ships are 500 yards
apart. The Loss or Gain of speed correction is 33 yards per knot. Estimate the time taken for the
manoeuvre and the sea room required.
At a speed of 19 knots (1 knot-less-than-Stationing-Speed), 9.48 minutes equates to 3.0 miles.

Subtracting the column length (0.75 miles) from this gives 2.25 miles. Applying a 25% safety
margin to the 2.25 miles gives a Total Distance of 2.8 miles required for this manoeuvre.
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0429. Some Suggested Solutions to ‘Round the Clock’ OOW Manoeuvres

The following manoeuvring problems and suggested solutions are for a generic frigate /
destroyer and assume that the Guide’s Speed is 15 knots, Stationing Speed is 22 knots and
Standard Distance (SD) is 500 yards. The Guide is steering 000° in all cases. Due to variations
in Turning Data between ships and in the weather conditions prevailing at the time, these
suggested solutions may need some refinement before being applied in individual cases.
a. Changing Station from SD Ahead to SD Astern (Equal Speed Manoeuvre).

Suggested Solution: Make a 90° Fishtail manoeuvre (see Para 0427b). An example of
this manoeuvre (to starboard) is at Fig 4-18 below, but it could equally be made to port.
Fig 4-18. Changing Station from SD Ahead to SD Astern (Equal Speed Manoeuvre)
b. Changing Station from SD Ahead to SD Abeam (Equal Speed Manoeuvre).

Suggested Solution: Turn out about 60°-75°, steady and immediately turn back to the
Guide’s Course.
Fig 4-19. Changing Station from SD Ahead to SD Abeam (Equal Speed Manoeuvre)
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(0429) c. Changing Station from SD 45°on Bow to SD Abeam (Equal Speed Manoeuvre).
Suggested Solution: Turn 50° away from the Guide, steady and immediately alter
40° back, before resuming the original course. This is in effect an ‘unbalanced’
Fishtail manoeuvre(see Para 0427b).
Fig 4-20. Changing Station from SD 45°on Bow to SD Abeam (Equal Speed Manoeuvre)
d. Changing Station from SD on Bow to SD on Quarter(Equal Speed Manoeuvre).

Suggested Solution: Make a 75° Fishtail manoeuvre (see Para 0427b).
Fig 4-21. Changing Station from SD on Bow to SD on Quarter (Equal Speed Manoeuvre)
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(0429) e. Changing Station from SD Abeam to SD Astern (Equal Speed Manoeuvre).

Serious risk of collision exists if ships alter towards the Guide from Standard Distance
on the beam, if initially ahead for Bearing or inside for Distance. Although an Equal
Speed Manoeuvre, it may be safer for the ship altering to reduce speed momentarily after
execution, particularly if it is a large ship changing Station.
There are two possible methods for conducting this manoeuvre:
Suggested Solution (1): Alter course towards the Guide and steady pointing at its stern,
then alter back to the original course to follow in its wake. SEE WARNING BELOW.
Suggested Solution (2): Alter course 90° towards the Guide and then immediately alter
back to the original course. SEE WARNING BELOW.
WARNING
SERIOUS RISK OF COLLISION AND DANGER TO

PERSONNEL EXISTS IF SHIPS ALTER TOWARDS THE GUIDE
FROM STANDARD DISTANCE ON THE BEAM, IF INITIALLY
AHEAD FOR BEARING OR INSIDE FOR DISTANCE.
Fig 4-22. Changing Station from SD Abeam to SD Astern (Equal Speed Manoeuvre)
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(0429) f. Changing Station from SD Astern to SD Abeam (Stationing Speed).

Suggested Solution: Increase to Stationing Speed and steer about 15°-20° out (the exact
angle out to be steered depends on the relative difference between the Guide’s speed and
Stationing Speed, but see Notes below). Use Deceleration Distances / Radian Rule to
decide when to reduce speed (see Para 0424b-d), but a figure of about 25° is not unusual.
Fig 4-23. Changing Station from SD Astern to SD Abeam (Stationing Speed)

Notes:
1. As a ‘Rule of Thumb’ the angle to be steered out is the Relative Speed multiplied by 2½ (eg
Guide Speed 12, Stationing Speed 20 Relative Speed 8. Angle Out = 2½ x 8 = 20°).
2. A ‘Rule of Thumb’ multiplication factor for similar Astern to Quarter manoeuvres is 4½.
g. Changing Station from SD Abeam to SD Ahead (Stationing Speed).

Suggested Solution: Increase to Stationing Speed and steer about 15° in. Use the
Deceleration Distances to decide when to reduce speed (see Para 0424c).
Fig 4-24. Changing Station from SD Abeam to SD Ahead (Stationing Speed)
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BR 45(6)
(0429) h. Changing Station from SD Abeam to SD Abeam (Stationing Speed).

Serious risk of collision exists if ships alter towards the Guide from Standard Distance
on the beam, if initially ahead for Bearing or inside for Distance. Although an Stationing
Speed Manoeuvre, it may be safer for the ship altering to reduce speed momentarily after
execution, particularly if it is a large ship changing Station.
Suggested Solution: This manoeuvre should be carried out in two parts:

• Alter course towards the Guide and point at its stern, increasing to Stationing
Speed as soon as it is safe to do so. SEE WARNING BELOW. Adjust course
to pass close under the Guide’s stern.
• When clear of Guide’s stern, alter towards new Station (heading about 30° off
Guide’s course). Use Deceleration Distances / Radian Rule to decide when to
reduce speed.(see Para 0424c)
WARNING
SERIOUS RISK OF COLLISION AND DANGER TO

PERSONNEL EXISTS IF SHIPS ALTER TOWARDS THE GUIDE
FROM STANDARD DISTANCE ON THE BEAM, IF INITIALLY
AHEAD FOR BEARING OR INSIDE FOR DISTANCE.
Fig 4-25. Changing Station from SD Abeam to SD Abeam (Stationing Speed)
4-35
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BR 45(6)
(0429) i. Summary of Round the Clock OOW Manoeuvre Solutions

Fig 4-26 (below) is intended to be available as an aide-memoire, possibly on the front of
the Bridge during OOW Manoeuvres, as a summary of the information contained in Paras 0429a-
0429h, ie:
• Ahead to Astern - Equal Speed Manoeuvre (see Para 0429a)
• Ahead to Abeam - Equal Speed Manoeuvre (see Para 0429b)
• Bow to Abeam - Equal Speed Manoeuvre (see Para 0429c)
• Bow to Quarter - Equal Speed Manoeuvre (see Para 0429d)
• Abeam to Astern - Equal Speed Manoeuvre (see Para 0429e) - See WARNING
• Astern to Abeam - Stationing Speed (see Para 0429f)
• Abeam to Ahead - Stationing Speed (see Para 0429g)
• Abeam to Abeam - Stationing Speed (see Para 0429h) - See WARNING
Fig 4-26. Summary of Round the Clock OOW Manoeuvre Solutions
4-36
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BR 45(6)
SECTION 3 - ANCHORING IN FORMATION
0430. Overview
a. Requirement. It is quicker for several ships to anchor together in a confined

anchorage than to do so independently. The ability of ships to anchor in formation with
precision is still a Fleet requirement: eg surface ships running for the submarine
Commanding Officer Qualifying Course (COQC, otherwise known as the ‘Perisher’) in
the Clyde frequently anchor in formation; SNFL (Standing Naval Force Atlantic) and
other RN/ NATO groups anchor in formation from time to time. This technique is also
needed for major ceremonial events (eg Spithead Reviews).
b. Outline Method. When anchoring in a group, the OTC forms ships into whatever
formation is required to fit the designated anchor berth layout and then manoeuvres the
ships as a group. The Guide (normally the OTC) is piloted into its allocated berth in the
conventional manner while all the other ships keep formation on the Guide (or Line
Guides) and thus achieve their anchor berths. However, in case of error in the OTC /
Guide’s ship, all units should monitor their own positions in relation to navigational
dangers and have a standby navigational plan available (see Para 0434b).
c. Organisation for Success. The success of the evolution depends largely on the
degree of care which has been taken in its planning in the OTC’s ship. Added to this is
the skill of execution of the pilotage and manoeuvres from the OTC, and in the ability of
ships taking part to keep accurate Station on the Guide until the moment of letting go
anchors. DroppingAnchorages are now the norm, although ships NOT fitted with fixed
sonar domes are still capable of Running Anchorages (see Para 0371).
d. Key Planning Factors. Leaving aside the purely shiphandling and pilotage aspects
of the anchorage which are covered at Paras 0370-0375 and BR 45 Volume 1 Pages 383-
404 respectively, the planning process for anchoring in formation falls into 3 parts:
• Layout of Anchor Berths. The layout of the anchor berths determines the
formation that ships will need to have assumed prior to the final approach.
• Route to the Anchor Berths and Formation of Ships. Once the layout of the
anchor berths is decided, the route to them may be decided, together with the
manoeuvres required. Although Wheels may occasionally be used to achieve
the required formation, it is usually best first to form ships to fit the chosen
anchor berth layout and then manoeuvre the formed group by Turns to preserve
the shape of the formation irrespective of the courses required.
• Communications and Tactical Signals Required. Good communications and
a well planned sequence of tactical signals is essential if the plan is to succeed.
Signals should always be made in good time to allow a margin for their
interpretation in other ships and for any repetitions necessary. However,
‘Immediate Execute’ signals may still be necessary, particular for turns in the
final stages of the approach if the wind or stream conditions are difficult.
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BR 45(6)
0431. Planning Anchor Berths for a Number of Ships

The basic theory of anchorage planning is at BR 45 Vol I, pages 385-389 and 400-402.
a. Distance Apart of Ships. The Distance apart of ships for a formation anchorage
may be found by use of one or more ships’ Minimum Swing Radius (MSR). The Safety
Swinging Circle (BR 45 Vol 1 Pages 384/385) is NOT altered by using a Minimum
Swing Radius for berths in a formation anchorage (BR 45 Vol 1 Pages 387-389).
• Normal ‘Minimum Swing Radius’. A normal MSR for ships is calculated as
at BR 45 Vol 1 Pages 386/387 (length of ship + length of cable veered); this is
the Stern Swinging Circle which is normally calculated for any anchorage.
• Reduced ‘Minimum Swing Radius’. If it is necessary to reduce the normal
MSR, a reduced MSR for ships may be calculated as at BR 45 Vol 1 Pages
388/389 (length of ship + 45 metres anchoring margin). There may be a risk
of adjacent ships fouling each other or their anchor cables, and the anchoring
margin may have to be increased in some cases.
b. Calculating the Distance Between Anchor Berths - Simple Formations. Several

methods of using MSR (see Para 0431a/b) are possible for calculating the Distance
between ships in a simple formation anchorage.
• Standard Distance. Anchoring at Standard Distance (SD) apart normally
exceeds double normal MSR. SD is often used for formation anchorages.
• ‘Double Normal’ Minimum Swing Radius. When minimum risk of ships
fouling each other is required, a normal MSR may be calculated for each ship
(see Para 0431a/b) and anchor berths spaced at their combined Distance apart
(ie ‘double normal’ MSR - see BR 45 Vol 1 Page 386/387).
• ‘Double Reduced’ Minimum Swing Radius. To reduce Distance between
anchor berths, a reduced MSR may be calculated for each ship and anchor
berths spaced at their combined Distance apart (ie ‘double reduced’ MSR - see
BR 45 Vol 1 Page 387/388). Large complex formations of ships often use
double reduced MSR and an example is at Fig 4-27.
• ‘Single Normal’ Minimum Swing Radius. If space is at a premium and ships
in the group are of the same type, likely to experience the same wind and
stream (thus swinging together), then the anchor berths may be spaced at a
single normal MSR Distance apart (see BR 45 Vol 1 Page 387-389). This will
reduce the space required but will increase the risk of ships fouling each other.
• ‘Single Reduced’ Minimum Swing Radius. To reduce the Distance between
anchor berths to the absolute minimum, a single reduced MSR may be used
instead of a single normal MSR (see BR 45 Vol 1 Page 387-389). This will
reduce the room required but increase the risk of ships fouling each other.
c. Calculating the Distance Between Anchor Berths - Complex Formations.
Calculate normal and reduced MSR and tabulate the results for the various ship classes
present (a suitable table format is at Table 4-4). The anchor berths / lines must not be
closer than the largest combined MSR of ships adjacent to each other, but either ‘double
normal’ MSR or ‘double reduced’ MSR may be used. Plot the lines of ships / individual
anchor berths (see Para 0431e and an example using ‘double reduced’ MSR at Fig 4-27).
4-38
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BR 45(6)
Table 4-4. Normal/Reduced MSRs and Distance Apart of Lines of Anchor Berths
SHIP LENGTH CABLE MARGIN NORMAL REDUCED DISTANCE
(eg MSR MSR APART OF
6 shackles) LINES
CVS 206m 165m 45m 371m 251m CVS + LPD
697m Normal
LPD 158m 165m 45m 323m 203m
454m Reduced
DD 139m 165m 45m 304m 184m
FF 133m 165m 45m 298m 178m
d. Planning Layout of Anchor Berths for Complex Formations. From the

calculations summarised at a table similar to Table 4-4, decide on the spacing and number
of lines in the anchorage, then allocate squadrons or types of ships to the lines. Consider
the order in which ships will anchor and the need to do so in ‘waves’ (normally by
squadron). The Senior Officer’s ship in each line should be at the head, taking into
account the direction in which the tidal stream and prevailing wind will point ships at
critical times (eg Royal inspection procession). Where possible, the size of ships should
diminish down the lines, with ships of similar class next to each other.
e. Plotting Layout of Anchor Berths for Complex Formations. Plot the anchor
berths on the chart (an example based on Table 4-4 using double reduced MSR is at Fig
4-27). The Safety Swinging Circle of each ship (which exceeds the MSR) must be
kept clear of shoal water (see Para 0431a/b). In positioning the lines:
• Keep the lines parallel to the stream.
• Avoid anchoring in an area where the stream is unpredictable and runs in
various directions.
• Arrange, if possible, for each line to run in to anchor on a suitable headmark.
For an important anchorage assembly, consider erecting headmarks.
•
Fig 4-27. Complex Formation Anchorage - Ship Berths / Lines at Double Reduced MSR
4-39
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BR 45(6)
0432. Publishing the Anchor Berths

After plotting, letter the lines and number each berth, eg. A1,A2, ... B1, B2 etc.
Establish the positions of the head of each line (A1, B1 ...) in relation to a geographical point (eg
A1 position 272° HORSE SAND FORT FS 1075 yards). Then specify each anchor berth in
relation to the head of its line (eg A2 position 285° A1 2.2 cables, etc). Some anchor berths are
printed on the chart (eg Spithead) and can be used for formation anchorages.
0433. Tasks of the OTC

The majority of tasks fall upon the OTC’s ship, not only in the planning and preparation
of the plan but in the skills needed to execute it successfully, particularly during the last 15 cables
to the anchorage when the NO’s work-rate is intense (see Para 0435 opposite).
a. Making Tactical Signals. The OTC’s NO not only has to pilot the ship, but also has
to generate a stream of tactical signals in good time, which also need to be executed with
precision and perfect timing. A pre-planned list of such signals is essential (see Para
0435 opposite) together with the positions (cables to run) at which they should be made.
Good communications are essential, and the Communications Yeoman should be fully
briefed on the plan and have an advance copy of the intended and stand-by tactical
signals planned by the NO. See also BR 45 Volume 4 Chapter 11 (Voice Procedures).
b. Recovering Track by Turning Together. Should the OTC’s ship make the turn
onto the anchorage approach course slightly early or late, or be set off track by the
weather, immediate action will be needed to Turn the formation and subsequently Turn
them back again before reaching the anchorage. It is usual to make the first of these
Turns by a relative amount (eg Turn Together 30° to port) by the Immediate Executive
method; the second of these turns should be made to a true course by the Delayed
Executive Method (ie Execute to Follow) (see Note below).
Note. Choosing two different kinds of turn (relative first, followed by one to a true course) is
preferable to making two turns of the same type, as experience has shown that by doing so, there
is a lower risk of error in other ships.
c. Force / Group Clearing Bearings. When navigating a group of ships in pilotage
waters the OTC’s NO must use Force / Group Clearing Bearings to ensure another ship
on the extremity of the formation is not accidentally directed into shoal water.
d. Drift while Slowing Down and Stopping. Increased drift while slowing down and
stopping before letting go the anchor is unavoidable but the OTC’s NO can make
allowance for this by staying slightly upwind/upstream of track, and/or turning into wind
/ stream in the final stages (see Para 0372).
0434. Tasks of Other Ships
a. Keeping Accurate Station. Individual ships should manoeuvre smartly in response

to the OTC’s tactical signals and make every attempt to keep in Station accurately at all
times. If one ship is out of Station, it makes it very difficult for those astern (or nearby)
to hold their Stations, particularly if in a tight formation with reduced separation
Distances prior to anchoring. Keeping accurate Station becomes increasingly difficult
with more than 6 ships in a column.
4-40
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BR 45(6)
b. Navigational Safety of All Ships. The OTC is responsible for navigating the entire
group safely to the anchorage, but in addition, each of the COs is responsible for the
individual safety of their own ships (see QRRN 0801). For this reason, each ship should
monitor its position in relation to navigational dangers in case of navigational error in the
OTC’s ship. Each ship should also have a standby plan for coming to the allocated berth
independently if required.
0435. Execution of Formation Anchorages - Sequence of Tactical Signals

For the purposes of this paragraph, it is assumed that intentions for the following items
have been decided at the planning stage and already signalled to all ships. See BR 45 Volume 4
for Bridge voice procedures (Para 1109), and common manoeuvring signals (Annex 11B):
• Dropping or Running Anchorage (see Paras 0430c / 0371)
• Position of anchor berths.
• Tactical Diameter to be used.
• Formation to be adopted for the anchorage, with any reduced Standard Distance or
Manoeuvring Interval as appropriate.
• Navigational route to the anchorage, with positions for adopting the required
formation (or any stages necessary towards achieving it).
• Port/starboard/centre anchor (as appropriate) and amount of cable to be used.
• Method of communication to be used (ie radio, flags, light)
• Administrative details (ie rig on the upper deck, position of ensigns etc).
a. Suggested Sequence of Tactical Signals. Assuming that the above preparations

have been made and ships are in the required formation, the following sequence of
tactical signals is suggested for FF/DDs during the approach to the anchorage. The
distances to run at which speed orders should be executed (and the speeds themselves)
will depend on the class of ships and the conditions prevailing at the time.
• At about 15 cables: Execute to follow: Turn Together Port/Stbd to course
of ...°, Speed 10. (This is the turn onto the anchorage approach course)
• At about 10 cables: Executive signal: Turn Together Port/Stbd to course
of ...°, Speed 10. (This is the turn onto the anchorage approach course)
• If required to regain track: Immediate Execute: Turn Together ....° to
Port/Stbd, and Execute to follow: Turn Together Port/Stbd to course of ...° (the
‘course to steer’ to maintain the planned approach track). (See Para 0435b)
• If required to maintain track once it has been regained: Executive signal:
Turn Together Port/Stbd to course of ...° (See Para 0435b overleaf)
• At about 8 cables (or earlier): Execute to follow: Speed 4, Stop ships by
reversing engines, Anchor in present position.
• At about 3 cables: Executive signal: Speed 4 (or min steerage way speed)
• At about ¾ cable: Executive signal: Stop ships by reversing engines
• In anchorage position: Executive signal: Anchor in present position.
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BR 45(6)
(0435) b. Methods of Recovery if Guide is Off Track during Anchorage Approach. If

after the final planned turn to the anchorage approach track (usually at about 10 cables
to run), the formation is offset from the intended track due to a late / early Wheel-Over,
there will usually only be one opportunity to regain track before ships have to start
slowing and applying astern power for the anchorage itself. It is thus vital that any ‘Pair
of Turns’, to regain the anchorage approach track (see Para 0435a, 3rd and 4th bullet, on
previous page), are carried out both quicky and accurately, especially with respect to the
timing of the Turn back to the planned approach course.
Note. In all cases, the ordered approach course to an anchorage should be the course to steer,
allowing for any cross-wind and cross-tidal streams. With strong cross-winds or streams, ships
may need to turn or cast in the final stages to avoid being set down when at very slow speed.
(1) The 30° Offset Method - Concept. If an initial turn of 30° towards the planned
track is used, as Sin 30° = ½, it follows that if the formation needs to run twice the
off-track distance before resuming base course (ie running down the hypotenuse of
the right-angled triangle). Turning Data for both (opposite) turns cancel, and thus
only period on the steady offset course should be used for the timing of the
‘run’.
(2) The 30° Offset Method - Procedure. To use the 30° offset method, the
following procedure, should be followed. Timing and teamwork between the NO
and Communications Yeoman must be exemplary for it to be successful. The
Communications Yeoman should be thoroughly briefed on this procedure in
advance, so that communication delay timing may be judged to the second. The
correct orders / voice procedure for this method are at BR 45 Volume 4 Para 1109e.
• Order 30°turn (to port in above example).
• While turning, make signal (Execute to Follow) for Turn to base course.
• When steady, use stopwatch to time the run down the ‘30° offset’ course.
• Make Executive Signal for Turn back, so that wheel is actually applied
after 36 seconds from the time the ship steadied initially.
• As the Turning Data at both ends of the offset run cancel, the ship should
be back on track on the base course with about 5-6 cables to run to the
anchorage.
Example. If the formation is 100 yards to starboard of track at 10 knots, and a 30 degree Turn
is made to regain track, a steady course run of 200 yards is needed (Turning Data cancels). 200
yards at 10 knots takes 0.6 mins = 36 seconds.
(3) The 15° Offset Method - Procedure. If 30° (see Para 0435b(1) above) is
deemed to be too severe a turn (especially with large ships), 15° may be used instead
using the approximation that Sin 15° = ¼ ( thus the formation needs to run 4 times
the off-track distance before resuming base course. (In fact Sin 15° = 0.2588, but
¼ is perfectly adequate for practical purposes). The 15° Offset Method is also
suitable for situations when the track offset is small.
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BR 45(6)
0436. Weighing Anchor and Casting
a. Rate of Turn. When ordered to weigh anchor and Cast to a given course, each
individual ship should try to maintain its Distance and Bearing from the Guide, remain
parallel and Turn at the same rate as the Guide.
b. Tidal Stream and Wind. The effects of tidal stream and wind on own and other
ships must be monitored carefully, so that the ship does not get into a position from
which it is difficult to recover. In a strong stream or wind, the down-wind/stream ship
may be ordered to weigh first, with the other ships weighing in succession up-
wind/stream from it to avoid the risk of ships drifting together in a cluster.
c. Shipping. While weighing and Casting, it is easy to become preoccupied by events

close to hand and to ignore the wider picture. In addition to tracking ships of the group,
the OOW must ensure that other shipping contacts are tracked and reported, so that a
clear picture may be presented to the Command when required.
d. Casting in Poor Visibility. If the Guide cannot be observed visually, its position
can only be obtained by radar. In such conditions, Casting is a hazardous operation
because it is impossible to gauge the Guide’s rate of turning by radar alone.
e. Manoeuvring from Rest in Poor Visibility. On coming ahead from rest, the
movements of other ships in the formation will be unclear on radar until a steady track
history has been built up. Very great care is required in the transitional period between
the time at which the order to proceed is executed, to the time that the unit is formed up
and proceeding at the Ordered Speed.
f. Tactical Control when Manoeuvring from Rest in Poor Visibility. On getting

under way in company during poor visibility, it is preferable for the OTC either to sail
ships individually or if considered safe to sail as a group, to take full manoeuvring control
of the formation and order the Guide’s course and speed. Information signals such as
‘My Course is ....°’ (M CORPEN ....°) and ‘My speed is ....°’ (M SPEED ....°) are not
normally an appropriate alternative to positive control in such circumstances, unless the
order to ‘Follow over the same ground’ has been given (see Paras 0413b and 0415).
0437-0439. Spare
4-43
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BR 45(6)
SECTION 4 - EMERGENCY ACTION IN CLOSE COMPANY
0440. General Alertness

Whenever the ship is in close company, the OOW must be particularly alert, as the
available reaction time for emergencies is reduced. Taking early emergency action depends on
having a swift perception of change. This requires everyone on the Bridge to keep a careful and
continuous watch on nearby ships and to react quickly if they see the situation beginning to alter.
0441. Restoring Control of a Group of Ships

Situations may arise when a particular manoeuvre has confused one or more ships and
the formation is becoming dangerously ‘un-formed’. In this circumstance, the quickest and most
effective solution is for the OTC to make the signal ‘Ships steer Course ...°, Speed ...’ (ie
CORPEN A ...°, Speed....) by the Immediate Executive method. The result will be that all ships
turn to a parallel course at the same speed, thus significantly reducing the risk of collision. Once
this has been achieved, the OTC can set about restoring order within the formation.
0442. Propulsion and Steering Breakdowns

See ATP 1D Volume 1 Art 2260 and class guidance for internal procedures.
0443. Man Overboard (MOB)

See Chapter 5 of this volume and ATP 1D Volume 1 Arts 2250-2252.
4-44
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BR 45(6)
REPLENISHMENT, TOWING AND MAN-OVERBOARD
CHAPTER 5
CONTENTS
Para
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0501
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0502
SECTION 1 - REPLENISHMENT AT SEA (RAS)
Planning RAS Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0510

Abeam RAS - ‘Fast Approach’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0511
Abeam RAS - ‘Medium Speed Approach’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0512
Abeam RAS - ‘Beam Approach’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0513
Abeam RAS - Maintaining Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0514
Abeam & Astern RAS - Alterations of RAS Course and Speed (including Zig-Zags). 0515
Abeam RAS - Disengaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0516
Abeam RAS - Emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0517
Astern RAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0518
SECTION 2 - TOWING AT SEA
Scope of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0520

Towing Capabilities and Limitations of RN Warships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0521
Phases of a Towing Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0522
Assessment, Planning and Preparations for Towing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0523
Making the Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0524
Passing the Tow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0525
Starting the Tow Making Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0526
Towing in the Required Direction at the Required Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0527
Slowing Down, and Recovering or Transferring the Tow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0528
Towing Submarines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0529
SECTION 3 - RECOVERY OF MAN-OVERBOARD (MOB)
Scope of Section and Terminology Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0530

Objectives for Man Overboard (MOB) Manoeuvring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0531
Manoeuvring Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0532
Shiphandling to Launch and Recover a RIB Seaboat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0533
Shiphandling to Launch and Recover a Swimmer of the Watch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0534
Shiphandling to Launch and Recover a Medium Inflatable Boat or Gemini Seaboat . . 0535
Visual Signals to Direct Seaboats when Underway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0536
Requirement for MOB Distress Frequency Notification and Immediate Signal . . . . . 0537 |
Requirement for Post-MOB Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0538 |
ANNEXES
Annex A: Recommended Safe Towing Pulls And Speeds For Emergency Use
Annex B: Speed and Sea State Limitations for Operating Seaboats
5-1
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK
5-2
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BR 45(6)
CHAPTER 5
0501. Introduction
This chapter covers the practical techniques for handling a ship for Replenishment At Sea
(RAS), Towing and recovering a Man Overboard (MOB) either by boat or swimmer. It assumes
an understanding of the theory of Interaction (see Chapter 2) and of the propulsion and steering
of RN warships (see Chapter 1). A guide to RAS setting-up signals is at BR 45 Vol 4 Para 1107.
0502. Nomenclature
The Delivering Ship is normally the RAS Control Ship and is responsible for maintaining
course and speed, with the Approaching Ship making the approach and keeping Station on the
Delivering Ship (see ATP 16 Art 0311-0314). This nomenclature is used in BR 45 Volume 6.
0503-0509. Spare
SECTION 1 - REPLENISHMENT AT SEA (RAS)
0510. Planning RAS Operations

An example of a 5-ship RAS is at Fig 5-1.
Fig 5-1. Five-ship Abeam RAS in Progress
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BR 45(6)
(0510) a. Choice of RAS Course. The choice of RAS Course may be limited by land, shoal
water, Shallow Water Effect (SWE), Flying Course(s), other operational constraints or
weather. RAS Courses should ideally end in ‘5’ (as the first two figures of the course are
the same, irrespective of small alterations, with less chance of ordering a course 10° in
error - ie from 140°, ‘Steer 149’ instead of ‘Steer 139’). In moderate winds (ie below
Force 5) the RAS Course is not usually restricted by weather. In stronger winds (and
corresponding Sea States), a RAS Course either directly Into Sea or Down Sea is usually
required. Weather factors affecting the choice of RAS Course are:
• Weather Factors - RAS Course Into Sea. When heading Into Sea, it may
not be possible to attempt a RAS Fast Approach (see Para 0511) due to the risk
| of heavy Pitching and the ship Slamming / Pounding into waves; a Beam
Approach (see Para 0513) may be needed. When alongside, upper deck teams
are very exposed to the elements and cases have arisen of personnel being
washed off the focsle by large waves. There is usually an advantage in
choosing a RAS Course which places the wind and sea fine on the bow of the
Delivering Ship, in order to give some shelter to the (smaller) Approaching
Ship when it is in Station. However, in the event of strong winds on the bow
and Head Seas giving rise to very severe Pitching, it may not be possible to
steer a course sufficiently accurately to remain alongside at all.
• Weather Factors - RAS Course Down Sea. A down-wind RAS Course
reduces the relative wind over the deck, eases Pitching and makes it easier to
work on deck. However, the ship may Yaw substantially in a following sea
and the helmsman must be very prompt in controlling any swing that develops.
When approaching a Delivering Ship from the astern with a following sea, the
relative motion of the ships can seem alarming when they are in different
Troughs; when the ships close to about half a cable, the situation will be more
comfortable as both ships will be in the same Trough. If the ships Yaw too
much for a Fast Approach, a Beam Approach should be considered.
• Weather Factors - RAS Astern. If weather conditions are too severe for an
abeam RAS, it may still be possible to replenish by using the Astern RAS
method, on a Down Sea RAS Course (see Para 0518e).
b. Choice of RAS Speed. RAS Speeds in the range 10-16 knots are advisable but in
good conditions with deep water, some FF/DDs can safely carry out abeam
replenishment with a fast supply ship at speeds of up to 20 knots. Speeds of less than 8
knots are not recommended because steering control is then greatly diminished. The
effect of Interaction and the risk of surfing at wave speed Down Sea require special care:
• Interaction. Shallow Water Interaction (SWE) effects are proportional to the
square of the speed (see Paras 0110a and 0211) and affect RAS Speed
planning. See also Para 0510c (Depth).
• Surfing Down Sea. When replenishing Down Sea, RAS Speeds near wave
speed (ie within 4 knots) should be avoided due to the risk of ‘surfing’. If this
occurs, a small ship replenishing alongside, may in the space of a few seconds,
find itself a full ship’s length ahead of its proper Station, without proper
steering control. The cure to this situation is to reduce the RAS Speed to at
least 4 knots below wave speed. An Emergency Breakaway may be required.
5-4
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(0510) c. Choice of Depth for Duration of RAS. The depths encountered during the entire
RAS operation need to be considered at the planning stage as this will affect the RAS
Speed that can be used. Whenever conducting RAS operations, the SWE Onset Depth
for Interaction effects must always be established (see Para 0211), taking into account
the draught condition of the Delivering Ship (Light, Medium or Deep) when calculating
the combined Displacement of the Underway Replenishment Group (URG). Graphs
showing the 50% and 100% SWE Onset Depths for a variety of URGs at several
speeds are at Annex 2A, together with examples of their use.
d. Choice of RAS Station(s). The distance from the bow of each RAS Station in
NATO Delivering Ships, and the facilities available at each Station, are contained in
ATP 16C. Similar information for each RAS Station in RN warships is contained in
BR 45 Volume 6, Parts 2 and 4. When planning a RAS operation, these publications
should be consulted. When selecting RAS Stations for use, care must be taken to avoid
placing ships in potentially dangerous positions where the Interaction effects of the
Pressure and Suction Zones are unbalanced (see Para 0212). If possible, select a RAS
Station that keeps the Approaching Ship in the safe amidships area close to ‘Position 3’
in Fig 2-9 at Chapter 2, Para 0212.
e. Personnel Factors. Personnel factors can be critical in RAS operations; fatigue or

a lack of training and/or experience can lead to serious accidents. The following factors
are relevant:
• Steering. Experienced Special Sea Dutymen (SSD) helmsmen are needed for
RAS operations and they should be supervised closely by the OOW. Personnel
should be closed up at the secondary or emergency steering position
(dependent on class) to allow for a rapid change-over in steering systems if the
primary system fails. Change-overs between steering systems should be
exercised before each RAS; the time taken to achieve change over from the
primary system should not exceed 10 seconds and can be as little as 6 seconds.
• Conning. One officer should normally control speed and course for the
reasons given at Para 0514a. If it is decided to split this responsibility, it must
be made quite clear which Conning officer is the OOW.
• Fatigue. Prolonged concentration on steering and Conning is tiring. If
possible the helmsman and officer Conning during a replenishment should be
relieved at intervals to avoid them becoming fatigued or losing concentration.
f. Machinery Configurations. Class guidance on recommended machinery

configurations for RAS are at Parts 2-5 of this book In general, in a twin propeller ship,
if the engines connected are of dissimilar power, the more powerful engine should be
connected to the outboard shaft. This is so that if the inboard engine should fail, the
more powerful outboard engine is capable of an Emergency Breakaway against the
greater Drag of the much increased rudder required to turn the ship away. However if
the outboard engine fails, the less powerful inboard engine will have the assistance of
its natural Turning Moment when conducting the Emergency Breakaway and thus the
rudder Drag will be less. There is an additional benefit in that the less powerful engine
on the inboard side will usually make less noise and thus make communication on deck
on that side of the ship slightly easier.
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BR 45(6)
0511. Abeam RAS - ‘Fast Approach’

The Approaching Ship makes a Fast Approach from the Waiting Station with an 8-10
knot speed advantage and decelerates sharply alongside using a Fast Backdown. Ships unable
to achieve a Fast Approach / Fast Backdown should make a Medium Speed Approach with
an increased Lateral Separation (see Para 0512), or a Beam Approach (see Para 0513).
a. Waiting Station. To give time for the Approaching Ship to build up speed, it is
prudent to start from the back of the Waiting Station range bracket (ie 500 yards). While
in the Waiting Station, the Approaching Ship should be monitoring Lateral Separation
from the Delivering Ship so that it is well placed to make its approach.
b. Conning Position. During the approach it is usual to Con the Approaching Ship
from the Centre Line until alongside the Delivering Ship with the RAS Speed set. Once
the relative positions of the two ships are stable (ie Bearings and ranges have stopped
changing), it is safe to transfer the Conning position to the Bridge Wing if desired.
c. Lateral Separation Policy. If making a Fast Approach, the Approaching Ship

must do so with an adequate Lateral Separation from the Delivering Ship, otherwise a
collision may occur due to Interaction effects (see Para 0212d). The Lateral
Separations listed below are between ships’ sides and so the two half-beams must
be allowed for if taking measurements from the Centre Line of each ship.
• Normal Circumstances. When making an approach in normal circumstances
FF/DD-sized ships should aim for a Lateral Separation between ships’ sides
of 36 metres (a Lateral Separation between ships’ sides less than 30 metres
should never be attempted); CVS-sized ships should allow 60-90 metres. See
also Para 0511m (Lateral Separation to Pass Lines and Work the Rig)
• Shallow Water. If the water depth is less that 100% SWE Onset Depth for the
combined Displacement of the RAS Group (Para 0211), caution is required.
If depths are shallower than 70% SWE Onset Depth, significant Interaction
will be experienced. With particular care, RAS operations may sometimes be
conducted at Onset Depths of 50% but control will be lost below 40% (see
Para 0211 CAUTION). Subject to the % SWE Onset Depth, the options are:
< A greater Lateral Separation or a lower RAS Speed.
< A Beam Approach (see Para 0513).
< Abeam RAS may not be possible; consider an Astern RAS (see Para 0518).
< Sea State. If a following sea or heavy Head Sea makes steering difficult, a
greater Lateral Separation should be used. However, in particularly heavy
weather, a Fast Approach may not be safe either up or Down Sea and a Beam
Approach may be necessary (see Para 0513).
d. Judging and Monitoring Lateral Separation by Eye. The Lateral Separation

during a Fast Approach should NOT be judged solely by eye, even by an experienced
officer who has made many such approaches. Appreciation of the aspect of ships can
be misleading when viewed from the quarter; unless the Lateral Separation is calculated
properly the ship may be placed in a dangerous position. However, having made such
calculations it is perfectly proper for the CO (and NO) to monitor the results by eye (see
Para 0511i). If unhappy by eye with the apparent Lateral Separation, a wider safety
margin should be applied or the approach delayed until the calculations are checked.
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e. Radar Bearing Accuracy Check. If radar is to be used with a parallel index to

maintain the Lateral Separation during the RAS Fast Approach (see Para 0511g), it is
important that there is no radar Bearing error on the Bridge radar display. This is easily
checked in good visibility by taking a visual Bearing of a ship at the same time as taking
its Bearing with the Bridge radar display (which will also be used for the parallel index).
The target ship should ideally be at about 7-9 miles, so that the radar echo is relatively
small and thus precise, at a range sufficient to show up any small Bearing error.
f. Reciprocal Compass Check. Before carrying out any RAS it is important to carry
out an accurate ‘Reciprocal Compass Check’ (see ATP 1C Volume 2, Group ‘NA3’ ).
An error between the gyros of the two ships can cause difficulties keeping Station and
will also generate errors in calculating Lateral Separation (see Paras 0511h). If possible,
it should be carried out with ships far enough apart so that a small error will be detected,
but close enough so that the two officers taking Bearings can see each other clearly
(usually taken from the Approaching Ship’s Centre Line Pelorus and the Delivering
Ship’s Bridge Wing - but this needs to be specified as a ‘Desig’ in the setting up signal);
a distance of 1-2 miles apart is a good compromise for both requirements.
g. Lateral Separation by the Radar Parallel Index Method. A radar Parallel Index
(PI) for Lateral Separation for RAS Fast Approach should only be used as a check
method. It relies on uncertain measurements of large radar echoes when manoeuvring
close to the other ship; if used as the primary method it diverts attention from the visual
scene to the radar display at a time when relative positions are changing very rapidly at
close range. Visual means should be the primary method (see Para 0511h) unless
there is poor visibility, when a Beam Approach (see Para 0513) should be used. If
used, the PI procedure is to draw a PI line on the display, parallel to the (corrected) RAS
Course and offset from the centre by the centre-to-side Lateral Separation required.
During the approach, an officer at the display reports the range of the Delivering Ship’s
radar echo and its lateral position in relation to the PI. However, radar beam-width
errors cause a significant Lateral Separation accuracy loss and great care is needed.
Fig 5-2. Checking Lateral Separation by Radar Parallel Index (see Caution)
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BR 45(6)
(0511) h. Lateral Separation by the Observed ‘Range and Angle’ Method. It is important
that an accurate ‘Reciprocal Compass Check’ is carried out in advance, as even a 1° gyro
difference between the ships can make a noticeable difference (see Para 0511f). Lateral
Separation may then be calculated by taking a range and Bearing of a point on the
Delivering Ship and applying the Bearing to the (corrected) RAS Course to solve the
triangle shown in Fig 5-3. Calculation of Range x Sin(observed angle) will then give the
Lateral Separation distance, shown in tabular form at Fig 5-4 and graphically at Fig 5-5.
Range may be measured by Stuarts Distance Meter, by Vertical Sextant Angles
combined with Nories Tables, or by radar. However there are two further caveats:
< Ranging and Bearing. The point on the Delivering Ship used for ranging
must also be used for the Bearing (ie if using radar, the range will be of the
stern, if using a Stuarts Distance Meter, it will be a masthead etc). The range
and Bearing must be taken at the same instant or substantial errors will result.
< Application of Half-Beams. It is very likely that the position used in both
ships to measure the observed angle off the (corrected) RAS Course will be on
their respective Centre Lines; thus an allowance of two half beams must be
applied. The easiest way to do this is to add the two half beam distances to the
side-to-side Lateral Separation, to obtain the ‘Centre Line to Centre Line’
Lateral Separation which may then be used with Figs 5-4 or 5-5.
Fig 5-3. Lateral Separation by the Observed ‘Range and Angle’ Method
Fig 5-4. Table for Lateral Separation (metres) from Observed Range and Angle
5-8
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BR 45(6)
Fig 5-5. Graph for Lateral Separation (metres) from Observed Range and Angle
(0511) i. Checking Lateral Separation By Eye. There are various methods of checking
Lateral Separation for RAS Fast Approaches by eye. Sighting from the pelorus along
the Bearing of the (corrected) RAS Course will give an indication of the Lateral
Separation and comparing this with the beam of the Delivering Ship will help in making
a more accurate estimate. Another useful check is to compare the wakes of the two
ships; with an FF/DD, there should be at least 5 metres of blue water between them.
j. Checking Lateral Separation By Radian Rule. During the approach, the Radian
Rule (see Para 0424b) may be used with mental arithmetic to cross-check the Lateral
Separation generated by Figs 5-4 and 5-5. When the Delivering Ship bears 3° off the
(corrected) RAS Course, the Lateral Separation will be 1/20th of its range, and when it
bears 6° off, separation will be 1/10th of its range. The Radian Rule will generate an
answer in yards, not metres as calculated by Figs 5-4 and 5-5. Alternatively, a rough
guide is given by Lateral Separation (feet)10 x Angle Off (°) x Slant Range (Cables).
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BR 45(6)
(0511) k. Fast Backdown. When making a RAS Fast Approach the ship is slowed to RAS
Speed by sharply reducing engine power while still retaining effective steering. In CPP-
fitted ships this results in a minimum Pitch setting (Levers 16-24 depending on class),
and in FPP-fitted ships ‘Slow Ahead’ or ‘Stop’ is used (see Note below). This procedure
is known as a ‘Fast Backdown’ and results in a reduced Deceleration Distance.
Note. Zero Pitch or ‘Stop’ should never be used during a Fast Backdown in a CPP-fitted ships
because this will cause severe water turbulence over the rudders and a loss of steering control
which may result in a dangerous sheer.
l. Reducing Speed by Fast Backdown. The point at which a Fast Backdown is

initiated depends on the speed advantage over the RAS Speed and the Deceleration
Distance for the ship. Fast Backdown Deceleration Distances vary between 12 to 22
yards per knot for FF/DDs (depending on class) and 22 yards per knot for a CVS (see
individual class data at Parts 2-5 of this book). The point at which power is reduced
must be carefully calculated, using the ship RAS Station diagrams at ATP 16 Chapter 2.
In most cases it is close to the point at which the bow approaches the stern of the
Delivering Ship and is judged by eye; in large ships such as CVS, a rating may be placed
at a specific spot forward and tasked to drop a flag or bat when the stern of the
Delivering Ship draws level with that spot. When the speed of the Approaching Ship has
fallen to about 3 knots above the RAS Speed, power is increased to RAS Speed and
Station maintained alongside (see Para 0514).
m. Lateral Separations to Pass Lines and Work the Rig. Once alongside after a
Fast Approach at a Lateral Separation (side-to-side, see Para 0511c) of 36 metres
(FF/DD), or 60-90 metres (CVS), this Lateral Separation may be reduced to the
minimum ‘Working Distance’ stated at ATP 16 Chapter 3 to pass lines. Once lines
are passed the Approaching Ship should open to a Lateral Separation in the mid-part of
the ‘Working Distance Limits’ (ATP 16 Chapter 3) for the rig being used.
n. Engine Configurations during RAS. The engine configuration needed for RAS
will depend on the class of ship and specific class-specific guidance is at Parts 2-5.
However, assuming a Fast Approach, in principle it is necessary to choose an engine
configuration capable of RAS Speed plus 8 knots, and which also allows accurate Station
-keeping alongside with an adequate reserve of power for an Emergency Breakaway in
the event of an engine failure. An example of the Tyne / Olympus T22 and T42 ships
is at the Note below and demonstrates the logic that may be applied in all other cases.
Note. Tyne / Olympus Example. In Tyne / Olympus ships, the normal configuration for RAS
is a Tyne on the inboard side and (the more powerful) Olympus outboard. If the Olympus fails,
the smaller Tyne at full power can just hold Station and achieve a breakaway (RAS Speed plus
2-3 knots - see Para 0516), helped by the added turning-out leverage given by the inboard
engine. Should the Tyne fail, the more powerful Olympus is capable of holding Station and
achieving a breakaway while overcoming the Drag caused by the extra rudder angle needed to
overcome the natural turning-in effect of the outboard engine. In addition, the Tyne on the
inboard side is much quieter than the Olympus ,which is convenient for RAS teams and those on
the Bridge Wing. Once alongside, it is usual to maintain Station using the (inboard) Tyne engine
as it has finer control than the more powerful Olympus engine (see Para 0511n).
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0512. Abeam RAS - ‘Medium Speed Approach’

Ships without sufficient power to achieve a RAS Fast Approach / Fast Backdown should
either make a Medium Speed Approach with a 4-6 knot speed advantage, gentle deceleration and
an increased Lateral Separation, or a Beam Approach (see Para 0513).
• For a Medium Speed Approach, the Lateral Separation should be TWICE that used
for a Fast Approach (ie for a FF / DD sized ship, instead of a side-to-side Lateral
Separation of 36 metres, approximately 70 metres should be used).
• Speed is reduced gently, using appropriate deceleration data.
• Once steady alongside, Lateral Separation may be reduced to pass lines.
Although this method does not provide the speed to ‘punch’ through the potentially dangerous
Interaction position encountered on the approach (see Para 0212d), its very wide Lateral
Separation reduces the Interaction forces to some extent. Subject to the above bulleted
limitations, the other RAS procedures and precautions specified at Paras 0511a-j and
0511m should be adopted. A Beam Approach (see Para 0513) should be made if the depth of
water is not within the acceptable SWE Onset Depth limits (see Para 0212).
0513. Abeam RAS - ‘Beam Approach’

The RAS ‘Beam Approach’ is used when poor visibility, heavy weather or shallow water
prevents a safe Fast Approach. It is also used by low powered ships, ships Towing arrays or
which are otherwise constrained from making sudden alterations of speed.
a. Procedure. The Approaching Ship takes Standby Station about 300 metres on the
beam of the Delivering Ship and then closes on a steady Bearing. An alteration of an
initial 5°-7° inwards with a slight increase in speed will achieve a (side-to-side) Lateral
Separation of 36 metres (FF/DD) or 60 metres (CVS), within a few minutes. As the
Approaching Ship closes, it will enter the accelerated water flow in the Delivering Ship’s
midships Suction Zone and the speed set will need to be adjusted to maintain the steady
Bearing approach. It is unnecessary to steer in initially at a bolder angle than 7° as little
time will be saved; if the angle steered-in is misjudged, an awkward situation may
develop while parallelling the RAS Course when at the required Lateral Separation.
b. Lateral Separations to Pass Lines and Work the Rig. The Lateral Separation
may be reduced to pass lines and opened again to work the rig as at Para 0511m (above).
0514. Abeam RAS - Maintaining Station

The standard notation ‘Approaching Ship’ is used in this paragraph (see Para 0502), even
though by this stage the ship will have completed is approach and will be maintaining Station.
a. Procedure for Conning during RAS. While keeping Station during a RAS, the
Lateral Separation, course steered, distance ahead or astern of Station and engine power
set are all interrelated. For the following reasons, it is more effective for one officer to
Con the ship for course and speed, rather than to split this function (but see Para 0510e).
• Lateral Separation (Course). The Interaction forces between ships increase
the closer they come together (see Para 0212a) and this includes the speed of
the water-flow (see Para 0110a). Thus as the Approaching Ship in RAS
Station on a Delivering Ship moves in or out for Lateral Separation (measured
against the Distance Line) the engine power set will also need to be adjusted.
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BR 45(6)
(0514a) • Ahead or Astern of Station (Speed). As the Approaching Ship moves ahead
or astern of its RAS Station (towards/away from the bow/stern Pressure Zones)
it will move into a water-flow of different speed and so the engine power set
will need to be adjusted (see Para 0110a). However, as this longitudinal
movement takes place, the Yawing moment and lateral forces also vary thus
requiring course alterations as well (see Para 0212 and Fig 2-9).
b. Procedure for Heading Changes. The primary aid for Lateral Separation during
an abeam RAS is a the Distance Line. This must be observed continuously and course
adjustments ordered to keep the required distance (see Para 0511m). The Conning
officer must also monitor the rudder indicator so that he/she is aware of the rudder being
carried and can immediately detect the wrong wheel being applied in response to course
orders. If insufficient wheel (or the wrong wheel) is applied the Conning officer should
give direct wheel orders (eg Port 20) to rectify the situation. As wheel will be carried
to maintain a straight course, the order ‘Midships’ (see Para 0180) may cause a
dangerous situation and should not be used as an initial order unless strictly necessary.
c. Sensitivity of Steering versus RAS Speed. Interaction forces are proportional to

the square of the speed (see Para 0110a). However, because the rudders are more
effective at higher speeds, similar rudder angles may be used to keep Station at RAS
Speeds between 10 and 18 knots. At the higher speeds responses are swift and there is
little time to correct any Conning errors.
d. Procedure for Engine Power Changes. The primary aid for longitudinal Station-
keeping during an abeam RAS is a suitable mark on the other ship which is abreast of the
Bridge when in the correct replenishment position. If the ship starts to move ahead or
astern from the correct position, a small adjustment (usually the smallest PCL or
revolution increment possible on one engine only) should be used to check it. If the
movement ahead or astern is not arrested immediately, larger adjustments of between
¼ and 1 knot may be required, but power may need to be reduced equally quickly to
avoid over-correcting and starting a movement the other way. It is important to avoid
a ‘Yo-Yo’ effect, of surging back and forth along the Delivering Ship’s side, as this
makes the task of the upper deck teams much more difficult.
e. Procedure for Heavy Weather. Difficulty in keeping Station during RAS

operations in heavy weather depends on the size of ships and whether the RAS Course
is Into Sea or Down Sea.
• Into Sea. In heavy Head Seas the smaller ship (usually the Approaching Ship)
may be slowed quite suddenly by heavy Pitching and the impact of large
waves, with the larger Delivering Ship being affected much less, and in this
case bold engine movements will be needed to compensate.
• Down Sea. In heavy following seas, one or both ships may Surge quite
suddenly in speed and may also Yaw alarmingly, particularly if the seas are not
from directly astern. Bold, decisive Conning orders are needed to maintain
Station in such circumstances, but care must be taken not to over-correct and
create an even worse situation as the speed Surge or Yaw reverses with the
next wave. In particular, RAS operations Down Sea should never be conducted
at or near wave speed (see Para 0510b).
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(0514) f. Procedure for Night RAS Operations. At night, replenishment is usually carried
out with ships darkened. Station-keeping is easier when neither ship is showing any
glaring sources of light that may confuse the aspect of the ships.
g. Procedure for Awkward RAS Stations. If necessary to replenish in a position

where the bow or stern of the Approaching Ship extends beyond the bow or stern of the
Delivering Ship, Station-keeping will be particularly difficult as the Approaching Ship’s
bow or stern will keep ‘bouncing’ off the Delivering Ship’s bow or stern Pressure Zone
and this will cause speed Surges, Yaws and continually changing lateral forces. The
solution is to move out to the greatest feasible Lateral Separation (while still retaining
a safety margin for unexpected outward Yaws), as this will reduce the Interaction forces
generally and also tend to move the Approaching Ship out of the curved Pressure Zone
of the Delivering Ship (see Fig 2-1 at Para 0202). If this is not possible (eg while
passing gear) then bold and decisive Conning orders are needed to maintain Station, but
care must be taken not to over-correct and create an even worse situation.
0515. Abeam & Astern RAS - Alterations of RAS Course and Speed (including Zig-Zags)
a. Procedure for Course Alterations (Corpen N). The procedure for altering the
RAS Course is at ATP 1 Volume 2 (Corpen N) which should always be consulted
before carrying out the manoeuvre. In essence, when an alteration of course is
ordered while replenishing (Corpen N), ships replenishing report ‘Ready’ to the RAS
Control Ship (usually the Delivering Ship) when they are ready to alter. The RAS Control
Ship orders the first and subsequent steps of the alteration. Steps of 5° or 10° degrees
are normally used, although 15° and 20° steps may be ordered.
b. Procedure for Speed Alterations (Speed L). The procedure for altering the RAS
Speed is at ATP 1 Volume 2 (Speed L) which should always be consulted before
carrying out the manoeuvre. The procedure is similar to Corpen N (see Para 0515a)
with speed steps of ½ or 1 knot.
c. Procedure for Planned Course Alterations during Zig-Zags. The procedure for
making alterations of course during replenishment, when required by the Zig-Zag plan
in force is at ATP 3 Art 204 which should always be consulted before carrying out
the manoeuvre. This procedure is substantially different from Corpen N (see Para
0515a) which is NOT used for this purpose. In essence, ships replenishing report
‘Ready’ to the RAS Control Ship (usually the Delivering Ship) 2 minutes before the
planned Zig-Zag alteration. The RAS Control Ship executes the first and subsequent
steps of the alteration without further orders at the appointed time.
d. Procedure for Navigational Safety Course Alterations during Zig-Zags. If an

alteration of course is necessary for navigational safety reasons during a Zig-Zag (ie
NOT part of the Zig-Zag plan), then the Corpen N procedure (see Para 0515a) should
be used (see ATP 3 Art 204).
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0516. Abeam RAS - Disengaging

When replenishment is complete and gear returned, it is important that the Approaching
Ship (see notation at Para 0502) departs without penetrating the Delivering Ship’s bow or stern
Pressure Zones for the reasons given at Para 0212f. On no account should the ship attempt
to ‘power out’ ahead.
WARNING
DISENGAGING FROM A RAS BY ‘POWERING OUT’

AHEAD CAN CAUSE A SERIOUS COLLISION WITH
CONSEQUENT RISK TO PERSONNEL.
a. Correct Disengaging Procedure. The correct method of disengaging from an

abeam RAS is for the Approaching Ship (see notation at Para 0502) to open on a steady
Bearing very slightly forward of the Delivering Ship’s beam. The procedure to achieve
this is to steer out in 2° or 3° steps for the first 5° or 10° while increasing speed slightly
(2 or 3 knots); care must be taken that the stern does not swing in too much at this early
stage. Steps may be increased to 5° as soon as the Lateral Separation from the
Delivering Ship makes it safe to do so. When clear of the Delivering Ship’s bow and
stern Pressure Zones, if required, course may be altered under steady wheel.
b. Safety of Upper Deck Teams. Even when well clear of the Delivering Ship, hard
turns should be avoided and speed should not be increased significantly, as the upper
deck teams will be working on deck, clearing RAS gear and re-establishing guardrails.
Thoughtless shiphandling at this stage can cause serious injury to members of the upper
deck teams or even their loss overboard.
WARNING
THOUGHTLESS SHIPHANDLING WHEN

DISENGAGING FROM A RAS CAN CAUSE
SERIOUS INJURY TO UPPER DECK
PERSONNEL OR THEIR LOSS OVERBOARD.
c. Traffic Considerations. It is easy for the Bridge team to become wholly focussed
on the close range situation during disengaging from a RAS. When disengaging, it is
important to keep a good lookout for traffic coming up from astern and on the
disengaged side. A positive report should be made by the OOW immediately before
final disengaging, to both the NO and CO, that it is safe from a traffic perspective to turn
away from the Delivering Ship.
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0517. Abeam RAS - Emergencies
a. Emergency Breakaway. Shiphandling manoeuvres for an Emergency Breakaway

follow the same procedures as at Para 0516. The speeding up of seamanship procedures
to clear the RAS gear on deck (accepting some damage to the gear) accounts for the bulk
of the time saved over a normal disengagement. It may be possible to separate from the
Delivering Ship slightly more boldly than in a normal disengagement, but care must be
taken that over-enthusiasm does not result in manoeuvres that are too violent and lead
to a collision with the Delivering Ship (see Para 0516a) or undue risk to the upper deck
teams (see Para 0516b).
b. Action in Event of Breakdown. The OOW must be fully aware of all breakdown
procedures and be able to diagnose the nature of the problem quickly and accurately
(failure to do so can lead to a collision - see BR 134 Case 205). Immediate remedial
action must then be taken (dependent on the class of ship and the type of breakdown).
An Emergency Breakaway (see Para 0517a) will often be appropriate. The breakdown
must be notified to the other replenishing ships and the OTC by the quickest means.
Both ships may have to take action to reduce relative motion (see ATP 16 Art 0511).
c. Action if Ships Come Close Aboard. During an abeam RAS, if the ships come
very close aboard (eg due to a steering error or misjudged Corpen N), the ‘Approaching
Ship’ (see use of this notation at Para 0502) should first ensure that its course is kept
parallel to that of the Delivering Ship, at equal speed. Once the situation has been made
stable in this way, the Approaching Ship should steer out by a small amount to increase
the Lateral Separation from the Delivering Ship. However, if the Interaction forces
binding the ships together are too strong for this to have effect (particularly if operating
at below 100% SWE Onset Depth - see Paras 0204a/0211), the speed of the Underway
Replenishment Group (URG) should be reduced in ½ or 1 knot steps (see Para 0515b).
When at reduced speed, a further attempt to steer out may be made. Provided sufficient
speed reduction has been made the ships should separate. See also BR 134 Case 206.
d. Action if Ships Touch Alongside. This situation is a more severe version of

‘Coming Close Aboard’ at Para 0517c above and the same actions should be taken,
followed by an Emergency Breakaway so that damage can be assessed. An example of
these procedures in action is at BR 134 Case 206.
e. Action if Approaching Ship is Dragged around Delivering Ship’s Bows. If the

Approaching Ship substantially overshoots its Station, or attempts to power out ahead
on disengaging, it may be dragged around the bows of the Delivering Ship (see Paras
0212e and 0516). This must be avoided at all costs, as it will inevitably lead to serious
damage and has led to the loss of an RN warship. In this situation, the only possible
action for the Approaching Ship is to reduce speed sharply, even using astern power if
necessary, to overcome the Interaction forces and drop back to a position abaft the
Delivering Ship’s bow Pressure Zone (this may cause an ‘alongside collision’ - see Para
0517d - but is preferable to ‘being dragged round the bows’). A speed equal to that of
the Delivering Ship should then be applied and Station alongside resumed, before
executing an Emergency Breakaway. However, it is likely in such a drastic situation that
the Delivering Ship will have applied full power astern and that both ships will stop.
5-15
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BR 45(6)
0518. Astern RAS

The principal method of replenishing astern is by the ‘Float (Grapnel) Method’ (see
Paras 0518a-c and Fig 5-6), although the ‘Gun Line Method’ is a alternative (see Para 0518d).
a. Float (Grapnel) Method - Gear Streamed by Delivering Ship. The Delivering

Ship streams a soft Hose Marker Float from one side of its stern. The Hose Marker
Float is attached to the Hoseline and helps to keep it near the surface. The Hoseline is
connected to the Hose. A Station-keeping Marker Float is streamed from the other side
of the Delivering Ship’s stern (see Fig 5-6). See also ATP 16, Chapters 3 and 6.
b. Float (Grapnel) Method - Grappling by Approaching Ship. The Approaching

Ship closes from about 500 yards on the quarter at 3-5 knots above RAS Speed, to bring
the Hose Marker Float close on one side of its bow, where it is grappled and brought
inboard. The most suitable position for grappling is with the Hose Marker Float about
4 metres abeam and 20 metres abaft the roller fairlead to be used for the Hose.
Fig 5-6. Float (Grapnel) Method - Arrangement of Gear Streamed by Delivering Ship
c. Float (Grapnel) Method - Taking Station (Approaching Ship). Once the

Hoseline has been brought inboard, the Approaching Ship increases speed by 1 knot and
opens the Lateral Separation from the Hoseline in the water to 9 metres. As the
Approaching Ship comes ahead, the angle off the bow of the Hoseline and Hose should
be between about 90° and 120°. When the Approaching Ship has moved the correct
distance ahead, its Bridge should be level with the Station-keeping Marker Float. Once
in this position, a bight of about 30 metres should be maintained in the Hose to form a
‘walking stick’ shape (see Fig 5-7). A wider or deeper bight will put excessive strain on
the hose. This bight allows a safety margin for small fore-and-aft relative movements
| between the ships; if the Hose is allowed to become taut it is likely to part.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Fig 5-7. Float (Grapnel) Method - Approaching Ship’s Position when Connected
5-16
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BR 45(6)
(0518) d. Gun-Line Method (Astern RAS). The ‘Gun-Line Method’ is not used by
RFAs/RN warships but remains a NATO procedure, mainly used to supply German
MCMVs. Other nations are considering using it and for this reason it has been retained
in this book. The Approaching Ship closes from about 500 yards on the quarter at 3-5
knots above RAS Speed, to a position where a gun-line can be passed. Interaction effects
must be expected on moving up to the Delivering Ship’s quarter when passing the gun-
line and Messenger (see Para 0212), so care must be taken not to overlap excessively at
close range, especially to the position where the Yaw and lateral Interaction forces act
together in the same direction towards the Delivering Ship (between Positions 2¼ to 2½
at Para 0212 Fig 2-9). The gun-line is fired by the Delivering Ship (see ATP 16,
Chapter 3). After passing the gun-line and Messenger, the Approaching Ship drops back
to Station (see Para 0518c) while the Hoseline and Hose are passed. It is not practicable
to use the ‘Gun-Line Method’ when other ships are replenishing abeam on the same side.
e. Maintaining Station (Astern RAS). Once in Station (see Fig 5-7) there are only
small Interaction effects when replenishing astern. The amount of bight in the Hose is
limited and any relative movements fore-and-aft between the ships must be corrected
immediately to avoid placing the Hose under strain. Speed when replenishing astern is
limited by the strength of the hose. Speeds of up to 12 knots are practicable in calm
weather, but lower speeds should be adopted in heavy weather if Pitching heavily Into
Sea. However, it is still usually possible to replenish astern Down Sea in weather
conditions which make an abeam RAS impossible.
• Head to Sea. In heavy Head Seas the smaller ship may be slowed quite
suddenly by heavy Pitching and the impact of large waves, with the larger
Delivering Ship being affected much less. In this case bold engine movements
will be needed to prevent the Hose becoming taut and then parting, or an
overshoot occurring, causing the bight to become excessive
• Down Sea. Station-keeping Down Sea will be more difficult when the two
ships are on opposite phases of the waves or Swell. The receiving ship may
alternately close and fall back, thus requiring continuous speed adjustment to
maintain the correct Station. Such speed adjustments may have to be bold.
f. Altering Course and Speed (Astern RAS). Altering course during an Astern RAS
is carried out by Corpen N/Speed Lima or Zig-Zag procedure in the same way as for an
abeam RAS (see Para 0515). However, when the Delivering Ship’s bows move to
starboard, its stern moves to port (and vice versa). In a large Delivering Ship this effect
can be substantial. Thus during an Astern RAS, the following ship (‘Approaching Ship’
in convention at Para 0502) has to turn initially in the opposite direction to that ordered
by the Corpen N step, to avoid either opening the bight or over-running it (depending on
the direction of turn). Having followed the initial movement of the Delivering Ship’s
stern, the rudder must be reversed to turn sharply to the ordered course.
g. Disengaging (Astern RAS). Once the Hose has been disconnected and the end
lowered into the water, the ‘Approaching Ship’ disengages by dropping slowly astern, |
veering the Hoseline as it goes and taking care not to put strain on the Hose. If the ‘Gun-
Line Method’ has been used, then the ‘Approaching Ship’ must regain Station on the
quarter of the Delivering Ship in order to return the Hoseline (see Para 0518d).
0519. Spare
5-17
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BR 45(6)
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
5-18
Change 1
BR 45(6)
SECTION 2 - TOWING AT SEA
0520. Scope of Section

This section describes the shiphandling aspects of Towing at sea. The legal aspects of
‘Assistance’ (Lifesaving) and ‘Salvage’ which affect Towing are at BR 45 Volume 4 Chapter 13.
An extract of that chapter, covering the shiphandling aspects of ‘Assistance’ and ‘Salvage’ only,
are repeated at Chapter 8 of this book.
0521. Towing Capabilities and Limitations of RN Warships

In wartime, all warships must be able to take other damaged warships in Tow and for this
reason the Ministry of Defence equips every RN warship with a suitable Towing Point and
Towing Hawser so that it is capable of Towing a ship of at least similar size to itself. This also
gives RN warships a useful capability to assist other vessels in a peacetime emergency. Although
warships are powerful, manoeuvrable and well manned, the positioning of the Towing Point aft
of the rudders makes their handling characteristics very poor when Towing. In a conventional
tug, the Towing Point is well forward of the propellers and rudders, allowing a large Turning
Moment to be used to turn the tug effectively, even when there is weight on the Tow. By contrast,
with weight on a Towing Point aft of the rudders, the available Turning Moment is very small and
warships Towing often experience great difficulty in establishing and maintaining courses other
than those which are directly into or out of wind, particularly if the Casualty cannot be steered.
Thus RN warships are not suitable for Towing in or near harbour, where tugs should be
employed. It is important that these limitations are understood as they directly affect the
methods employed to bring a Casualty to safety under Tow in an emergency.
0522. Phases of a Towing Operation
a. Towing Surface Ships. With Towing operations, time spent in planning and
preparation is never wasted; once the Tow is connected and the Towing Ship is
committed to the operation, it is usually too late to address any important issues which
have been overlooked (eg when Towing a Casualty which has no power, and the Towing
Hawser is connected to many shackles of the Casualty’s heavy anchor cable, how is the
Tow to be eventually recovered, when no heavy duty winches are fitted aft in warships?).
A successful Towing operation can be divided into 5 phases, as follows:
• Assessment Planning and Preparations for Towing (see Para 0523).
• Making the Approach (see Para 0524)
• Passing the Tow (see Para 0525).
• Starting the Casualty Making Way (see Para 0526).
• Towing in the Required Direction at the Required Speed (see Para 0527).
• Slowing Down and Recovering/Transferring the Tow (see Para 0528).
b. Towing Submarines. The Towing of submarines is a special case and slightly

different procedures are required. Variations from the normal procedures for Towing
surface ships are at Para 0529.
5-19
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BR 45(6)
0523. Assessment, Planning and Preparations for Towing

Whenever contemplating Towing operations, the fullest assessment possible in the
prevailing circumstances should be made, backed up by good planning and preparation. The
likely weather for the operation and other environmental factors must not be overlooked. Details
of Towing arrangements in NATO ships and submarines are at ATP 43 (Ship to Ship Towing).
a. Own Towing Gear. Details of RN Towing gear, rigging and handling procedures
are at BR 67 (Seamanship Manual). This gear takes some time to rig and thus early
preparations may be advisable if a Towing operation is likely; this must be balanced
against constraints to Flight Deck operations which may occur in some classes of ship.
b. Casualty Towing Facilities. Some merchant ships (especially tankers or chemical

carriers) carry an emergency Towing ‘Apparatus’. Merchant ship fittings tend to be
much larger than those in warships and are usually strong enough for Towing.
Increasingly though, shipowners are fitting ‘add-on’ securing points for Towing.
c. Casualty Anchor Windlass/Cable. It is normal to secure the Towing Hawser to

the Casualty’s anchor cable and to veer up to 3 shackles of this cable to increase the
depth of the catenary. However, if the Casualty’s cable has not been well maintained,
it may be difficult to disconnect the anchor. If the anchor windlass is out of action (eg
lack of power) it may be necessary to run the cable out by pulling it with the Towing
Hawser, but this runs the risk of the cable running out in an uncontrolled manner,
particularly if the windlass brake has not been well maintained (see Note below).
Note. During the salvage of a badly maintained merchant ship, one ship RN warship was
unable to disconnect the Casualty’s anchor and, with no power on the anchor windlass, used the
Towing Hawser to pull the cable out. While pulling the anchor cable out, the windlass brake was
found to be ineffective; the cable ran out to the clench and the warship was obliged to Tow for
1,000 miles through the SW Monsoon with 8 shackles of cable and an anchor in the catenary.
The very deep catenary with an anchor suspended from it caused difficulty on nearing land.
d. Casualty Propellers. The propellers of a ship under Tow offer considerable Drag
if they are held stopped; they should therefore be unclutched and allowed to trail,
provided they can continue to be lubricated.
e. Casualty Steering and Yaw. Given the difficulty of RN warships to apply an

effective Turning Moment while Towing, it is important that the Casualty can be steered
(ideally with its own rudders) so that its Yaw is controlled. Methods of controlling the
Casualty’s Yaw are at Para 0527g, including using a second rescue ship on a hawser
astern of the Casualty as a ‘powered rudder’. If the Casualty’s Yaw cannot be controlled
adequately, it is unlikely that a warship will be able to conduct the Towing operation.
Note. In 1950, a Light Fleet Carrier attempted to Tow a crippled liner which had inoperable
steering gear. Although the Tow was connected and both ships started making way, the Carrier
could not turn the Casualty out of wind and after 3 days, the Towing operation was abandoned.
f. Casualty Watertight Integrity and Stability. The watertight integrity and
stability, of the Casualty must be considered before starting a Towing operation. If a
Casualty’s watertight integrity or stability are poor, it may sink under Tow and rapid
action will be needed to Slip the Towing Hawser, manoeuvre clear and recover survivors.
5-20
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BR 45(6)
g. Tonnage, Draught and Catenary. The tonnage of the Casualty in relation to the
Towing Ship are important when considering if the Towing Ship has the power required
(see Annex 5A). Casualty draught and catenary depth may affect the possible route.
h. List of the Casualty. A ship under Tow which is Listing will tend to Yaw towards
its high side. This tendency to Yaw will be increased by a low Towing Speed or a cross-
wind blowing from the high side and vice versa. It may be possible to alter the List by
flooding or pumping compartments but Free Surface must be avoided (see Para 0523o).
i. Trim of the Casualty. The Trim of a Casualty is an important consideration when

assessing a Towing situation and will affect the method of approach used (see Para
0524). When t Towing bows-first, a ship Trimmed by the stern will Yaw less under Tow,
and conversely, a ship Trimmed by the bow will Yaw more under Tow. A ship which
is Trimmed heavily down by the bow will be unmanageable if Towing bows-first
and should therefore be Towed stern-first (see Para 0524i ).
j. Underwater Projections on the Casualty. Underwater projections caused by

damage to the hull structure forward of the Pivoting Point will have the same effect as
if it was Trimmed bows-down (ie increased Yaw), and vice versa. If the projections are
to one side of the Centre Line it will tend to sheer to that side.
k. Aspect of Casualty to the Wind. Most ships lie roughly beam on (ie 90°) to the
wind when stopped, but if the superstructure or Trim is unbalanced, then the ship will
lie at a different angle (see Para 0138b); before attempting an approach (see Para 0524c)
it is essential to establish this fact. The Casualty may give a reading of its ship’s head
(ideally in degrees True) every few minutes. Alternatively, by stopping directly astern
of the Casualty, its heading can be observed for a period. It should be noted that in non-
exercise situations, the compasses of Casualty ships may not be reliable.
l. Casualty’s Drift and ‘Sailing’ Rates. Having been stopped for a prolonged period,
the Casualty will have built up a substantial momentum down-wind, and may also have
some headway or sternway due to the aerodynamic ‘sail’ effect of the hull and
superstructure. When the Towing Ship stops near the Casualty to pass lines, it has not
had time to build up momentum downwind and so its initial Drift Rate will be less than
the Casualty, even if they are the same class of ship. This makes it essential for the
Towing Ship to assess the Casualty’s Drift Rate, including any headway or sternway
(‘sailing’ effect), before attempting an approach. This can be done by stopping directly
astern of the Casualty and observing the Casualty’s relative movement over a period.
During exercise Towing serials, to achieve realism, it is important that the ‘Casualty’ is
stopped for a sufficient period to build up steady momentum down-wind.
m. Own and Casualty Towing Lights. In peacetime, a ship undertaking a Tow should
ensure that the proper navigation lights/shapes are exhibited by both vessels. This is not
normally a problem if the Casualty is manned but if it is unmanned (ie a ‘dumb Tow’)
it will be necessary either to provide lights or illuminate it by searchlight.
n. Casualty Radar Reflector. If about to Tow a small vessel or one with a low
freeboard, it may be helpful to rig a radar reflector on board. If Towing in poor visibility,
this will help other mariners avoid the danger of passing between the Towing Ship and
the Casualty, and will also to help relocate the Casualty should the Tow part.
5-21
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BR 45(6)
(0523) o. Providing Power to the Casualty. It may be possible to provide a Casualty ship
with sufficient electric power to enable it to pump out flooded compartments and correct
Trim and List. If it is decided to do this, then an electric cable should be run between the
ships, either hanked to the Towing Hawser by spring hooks at 10 metre intervals or
secured to a separate jackstay. On one occasion a destroyer in danger of sinking was
made sufficiently seaworthy by this method to enable it to be Towed back to harbour.
p. Helicopter and Seaboat. Both the Towing Ship’s helicopter and seaboat might be
required to transfer personnel, stores or the Tow (Messenger) itself to the Casualty. Any
effect on Flight Deck operations of rigging the Tow on deck must be taken into account.
q. Towing Conning Position and Communications. Most RN warships are equipped

with a Towing Conning Position (TCP) aft. Instruments and internal communications
are provided by the Portable Navigational Suitcase (see BR 45 Volume 3), which should
be tested before use. However, extra external communications to the Casualty (eg
Radio/Flags) are also needed at the TCP. A field telephone rigged from the TCP to the
Bridge is a useful backup system and a simple means for the Communications Yeoman
(CY) to control flag hoists and pass signals to the Bridge signalman.
r. Transfer of Conning Position From the Bridge to the TCP. The timing of the
transfer of the Conning position from the Bridge to the Towing Conning Position (TCP)
needs careful planning. The usual method is for the CO and NO to conduct the approach
from the Bridge/Bridge Wing until the Towing Ship is stopped near the Casualty. The
NO then proceeds to the TCP and ‘takes the ship’ from the CO, who then proceeds to the
TCP with the CY. The OOW should remain on the Bridge and exercise his/her other
duties (ie except for manoeuvring the ship) from there.
s. Reconnaissance Party Make-up and Support. Unless the Casualty is another RN

or NATO warship operating under common procedures and language, a reconnaissance
party may need to be sent aboard to establish the facts, liaise with the crew and provide
reliable communications. This party may need to stay on board the Casualty throughout
the Tow, and their physical safety from fire, sinking etc must be considered. It may be
necessary to supply them with their own food and water (see also Para 0523p).
t. Long Term Towing Watchbill. If the Towing operation is prolonged (ie more than
a few hours) there will be an effect on the Bridge Watchbill. During Towing operations,
it will be necessary for an experienced Conning officer to remain at the TCP all times,
to monitor the Tow and manoeuvre the ship as required, while an OOW remains on the
Bridge to carry out all the other functions required. In most RN warships this alone will
place the officers’ watchbill under considerable strain, but if another experienced officer
remains in the Casualty (see Para 0523s) this problem will be exacerbated.
u. Fuel State. A warship’s fuel consumption rises dramatically when Towing, due to
the use of continuous uneconomic low speeds and the fact that a much larger Mass
(sometimes several hundred percent of the warship’s own Displacement) has to be
moved through the water. It is not normally feasible to carry out RAS operations when
Towing and thus if a protracted Tow is envisaged, it is essential that the warship’s fuel
state is adequate at the start of the operation.
5-22
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BR 45(6)
0524. Making the Approach
a. Approach Requirements. The plan of approach must allow for holding the Towing
Ship close enough to the Casualty to pass the Tow and starting the Casualty making way
in a controlled manner.
b. Control of the Tow. Given their very limited Turning Moment when Towing (see
Para 0521), warships almost always have to start the Casualty making way either directly
into-wind or directly down-wind, only altering to the required course when a good speed
has been built up and steering in the Casualty can be effective. Attempts to start the
Casualty making way across the wind normally cause control to be lost. In the worst
case this can result in the Towing Ship’s stern being dragged (up-wind) by the bow of the
Casualty flying into wind, so that both ships end up in a bow-to-stern configuration.
c. Methods of Approach. The choice of approach will be dictated by the type of ships
involved, the Casualty’s aspect to the wind, drift direction / rate, any damage or flooding
sustained, the ease with the Towing Ship can hold close enough to the Casualty to pass
the Tow and the anticipated ease (or otherwise) of starting the Casualty making way in
a controlled manner (see Para 0524b above). The methods of approach are as follows:
• Converging Approach from the Windward Side of the Casualty. This is
the most commonly used method when the Drift Rates of ships are similar.
The Towing Ship starts the Casualty making way into-wind. See Para 0524d.
• Basic Downwind Approach from the Windward Side of the Casualty.
This method is used when the Drift Rates of ships are dissimilar and it is
possible to start the Casualty making way down-wind. See Para 0524e.
• Upwind Approach from the Leeward Side of the Casualty. This (relatively
hazardous) method may be used when Drift Rates of ships are dissimilar and
it is essential to start the Casualty making way into-wind. See Para 0524f.
• Downwind Approach to Casualty with Wind Abaft the Beam. This
method should be used for a Casualty with the wind abaft the beam and will
thus be sailing ahead boldly. The Towing Ship starts the Casualty making way
down-wind. See Para 0524g.
• Downwind Approach to Casualty lying Stern to Wind. This method should
be used for a stern-down Casualty with the wind directly astern. The
Towing Ship starts the Casualty making way down-wind. See Para 0524h.
• Downwind Approach to Casualty lying Head to Wind (Tow Stern First).
This method should be used for a bows-down Casualty with the wind well
forward of the beam or lying head to wind. The Towing Ship starts the
Casualty making way stern-first, down-wind. See Para 0524i.
• Cross-Wind Approach to Casualty lying Head to Wind (Tow Bows First).
This (difficult) method should be used for a bows-down Casualty with the
wind well forward of the beam or lying head to wind. The Towing Ship starts
the Casualty making way bows-first, into-wind. See Para 0524k.
• Other Approaches for a Ship to be Towed Stern-First. These methods
mirror those at Paras 0524d-g, for ships in normal Trim. See Para 0524j.
5-23
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BR 45(6)
(0524) d. Converging Approach from the Windward Side of the Casualty. This approach
should be adopted when the two ships have similar lateral Drift Rates when stopped (see
Para 0524b). The procedure is as follows:
• Select an approach track that converges at an angle of about 25o to the heading
of the Casualty (see Fig 5-8). The track should aim to pass 30 metres upwind
of the Casualty’s bows, allowing for any ‘sailing’ movement of the Casualty,
ahead or astern.
• The gun-line should be fired from the focsle at a range of about 50 metres,
before the bows come level; the gun-line and Messenger should then be
walked aft. Alternatively, the gun-line may be fired from aft / Flight Deck.
• While the Messenger is being walked aft, the Towing Ship should move to a
position about 50 metres ahead of the Casualty.
• Once the Towing Ship’s stern is reported clear of the Casualty’s bow, the
overlap situation no longer exists and it is usually safe for one of the Conning
officers to transfer from the Bridge to the TCP and take the ship from there
(see Para 0523r).
• The Tow may be passed from about 50 metres ahead of the Casualty. Once
connected, as much of the Towing Hawser as possible should be kept
inboard to allow the Towing Ship to Turn at Rest (Cast) into wind (see
Para 0526b). The full Tow should be streamed when turn is complete.
• During this initial phase (immediately after the Towing Ship has stopped), it
is likely that the Casualty’s lateral drift will initially exceed that of the Towing
Ship (see Para 0523.l).
• If an approach is made too wide to make contact with the gun-line, the
quickest solution is usually to go round again and make another approach,
rather than attempt a Sternboard across the wind.
Fig 5-8. Converging Approach from the Windward Side of the Casualty
5-24
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BR 45(6)
(0524) e. Basic Downwind Approach from the Windward Side of the Casualty. This
approach should be used when Drift Rates are dissimilar and it is possible to start the
Casualty making way down-wind. It has a much less hazardous approach than the
upwind method (see Para 0524d opposite) as the Casualty is drifting away from the
approaching Towing Ship; thus if a misjudgement has been made, the Towing Ship
can usually escape by applying plenty of astern power. The approach should be made
at about 90° to the Casualty’s heading. The procedure is as follows:
• Select an approach track down wind that converges at an angle of about 90° |
to the heading of the Casualty (see Fig 5-9). The track should aim to pass 30
metres ahead of the Casualty’s bows, allowing for any ‘sailing’ movement of
the Casualty, ahead or astern.
(see Para 0523r).
• The Tow may be passed from the position about 50 metres ahead of the
Casualty and may be fully streamed.
• Gentle progressive power will be needed to turn the Casualty downwind while
keeping the Towing Ship stern to wind. If the Casualty gathers too much
headway while beam-to-wind, it is likely to fly up into wind and make the task
of starting it making way downwind much more difficult.
Fig 5-9. Basic Downwind Approach from the Windward Side of the Casualty
5-25
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BR 45(6)
(0524) f. Upwind Approach from the Leeward Side of the Casualty. This (relatively
hazardous) approach may be used when Drift Rates are dissimilar and it is essential to
start the Casualty making way into-wind. It involves fine judgement if the Casualty
is ‘sailing’ ahead (see Para 0523.l), as the approach course leaves the Towing Ship
very little room to escape if the Casualty sails ahead faster than anticipated. The
best approach courses range between 45°- 90° to the Casualty’s heading. However, the
further off the wind the Towing Ship makes its approach, the more difficult it will be to
round out and hold the bows head-to-wind. The procedure is as follows:
• Select an approach track into wind that converges at an angle of between 45o
and 90° to the heading of the Casualty (see Fig 5-10). The track should aim
to pass 50 metres ahead of the Casualty’s bows, allowing for any ‘sailing’
movement of the Casualty, ahead or astern.
• The gun-line has to be fired into or across the wind, and this should be done
as soon as it is in range; the gun-line and Messenger should then be walked aft.
position about 50 metres upwind of the Casualty. The Tow may be passed
from this position and may be fully streamed.
overlap situation no longer exists and is usually safe for a Conning officer to
transfer from the Bridge to the TCP and take the ship (see Para 0523r).
• Gentle progressive power will be needed to arrest the Casualty’s lateral drift
and tendency to ‘sail’ while keeping the Towing Ship head to wind.
Note. This difficult method was demonstrated successfully by a CVS which took an O Class RFA
under Tow in 20 knots of wind. The RFA lay beam to the wind but was sailing ahead at about
½ knot. The approach was made at 80° to the RFA’s heading and the CVS’s bows were held into
wind with large amounts of engine power while the Tow was passed. Once the Tow was
connected and streamed, the CVS turned the RFA into wind with ease and brought it ahead.
Fig 5-10. Upwind Approach from the Leeward Side of the Casualty
5-26
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BR 45(6)
(0524) g. Downwind Approach to Casualty with Wind Abaft the Beam. This approach
should be used for a Casualty which has the wind abaft the beam and will thus be sailing
ahead boldly. This situation is most likely if the Casualty has all its superstructure
forward (eg oil-rig support ships) or is Trimmed heavily by the stern due to flooding aft
(eg from a collision or action damage). The Casualty Drift Rates will be dissimilar to
those of most warships, but it should be possible to start the Casualty making way
down-wind. The same procedure applies as in Para 0524e (Basic Downwind Approach),
except that:
• The approach is made directly downwind (not at 90° to the Casualty’s
heading) - see Fig 5-11.
• Due to the magnitude of the Casualty’s likely headway, particular caution is
needed to avoid passing too close to its bow and a separation of 100m is
prudent. The gun-line should be fired as soon as it is in range, but due to the
wide separation, it may not be possible to make contact until the Towing Ship’s
stern is clear of the Casualty’s bow and the separation is reduced to 50m.
• Once the Towing Ship’s stern is clear of the Casualty’s bow, it may be
necessary to turn partly parallel to the Casualty in order to keep the Towing
Ship’s stern close to the Casualty’s bow. Otherwise the Casualty’s headway
may cause it to overtake the Towing Ship and an awkward bow-to-stern
situation might arise.
• The Tow may be passed from the position about 50 metres downwind of the
Fig 5-11. Downwind Approach to Casualty with Wind Abaft the Beam
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(0524) h. Downwind Approach to Casualty lying Stern to Wind. This approach should be
used for a Casualty which has the wind directly astern and will thus be sailing (ahead)
in the same direction as the normal drift downwind. This situation is most likely if the
Casualty is Trimmed very heavily by the stern due to flooding aft (eg from a
collision or action damage - see Para 0523i.). The Casualty Drift Rate will be
dissimilar to that of most warships, but it should be possible to start the Casualty
making way down-wind. The procedure is as follows:
• Select a slightly converging approach track downwind that is nearly parallel
to the heading of the Casualty (see Fig 5-12). If there is a slight windward side
then, if possible, the approach should be made from that side. The track should
aim to pass 30-50 metres abeam of the Casualty’s bows.
(see Para 0523r).
• The Tow may be passed from the position about 50 metres ahead of the
• Gentle power will be needed to start the Casualty making way downwind.
Fig 5-12. Downwind Approach to Casualty lying Stern to Wind
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(0524) i. Downwind Approach to Casualty lying Head to Wind (Tow Stern First). This
approach should be used for a Casualty which has the wind well forward of the beam or
head to wind and will thus be drifting and sailing astern. This situation is most likely
to occur if the Casualty is Trimmed heavily by the bow as a result of substantial
flooding forward (eg from a collision or action damage); if so, the Casualty is best
towed stern-first, as it will be unmanageable if towed ahead (see Para 0523i). The
Casualty Drift Rate will be dissimilar to that of most warships, but (as in Para 0524h)
it should be possible to start the Casualty making way down-wind, only stern-first. The
procedure, with changes from Para 0524h emboldened, is as follows:
• The approach should be made on a slightly converging approach track
downwind that is nearly parallel to the reciprocal of the Casualty’s heading,
as it is intended to Tow it stern first (see Fig 5-13). If there is a slight
windward side then, if possible, the approach should be made from that side.
The track should aim to pass 30-50 metres abeam of the Casualty’s stern.
• The gun-line should be fired from the focsle at about 50 metres, before the
bows come level with the Casualty’s stern; the gun-line / Messenger should
then be walked aft. While the Messenger is being walked aft, the Towing Ship
should move to a position about 50 metres astern of the Casualty.
• Once the Towing Ship’s stern is reported clear of the Casualty’s stern, the
(see Para 0523r).
• The Tow may be passed from the position about 50 metres astern of the
Casualty and may be fully streamed. Gentle power will be needed to start the
Casualty making way downwind.
Fig 5-13. Downwind Approach to Casualty lying Head to Wind (Tow Stern First)
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(0524) j. Other Approaches for a Ship to be Towed Stern First. It may be necessary to
Tow a ship stern-first when its Trim is normal (eg when its bows are damaged but
significant flooding has been prevented). In this event, mirror images of the approaches
at Paras 0524d-g may be used, substituting the stern for the bow in each case.
k. Cross-Wind Approach to Casualty lying Head to Wind (Tow Bows First). This
approach should be used for a Casualty which has the wind well forward of the beam or
head to wind and will thus be drifting and sailing astern. This situation is most likely
to occur if the Casualty is Trimmed heavily by the bow as a result of substantial
flooding forward (eg from a collision or action damage); if so, the Casualty is best
Towed stern-first (see Para 0524i), as it will be unmanageable if Towed ahead (see
Para 0523i). However, if it is essential for operational reasons to attempt to Tow
bows-first (eg if Casualty is about to ground on a lee shore), the following approach
may be used, although it will be difficult for a warship to pass the Tow, maintain
position to start the Casualty making way into-wind and keep control thereafter.
The procedure is as follows:
• The approach should be made across the wind, passing 30-50 metres upwind
of the Casualty’s bow, allowing for its Drift Rate (see Fig 5-14).
position about 50 metres on the bow of the Casualty.
(see Para 0523r).
• The Tow may be passed from about 50 metres on the bow of the Casualty.
Once connected, as much as possible of the Towing Hawser should be
kept inboard to allow the Towing Ship to Turn at Rest (Cast) into wind (see
Para 0526b). The full Tow should be streamed when turn is complete.
• During this initial phase (immediately after the Towing Ship has stopped), it
is likely that the Casualty’s drift will initially exceed that of the Towing Ship
(see Para 0523.l) and this may make the passing of the Tow difficult as the
distance between ships increases (Fig 5-14, Position 3a). However, once the
Towing Ship (broadside to the wind) builds up Leeway, its Drift Rate may well
exceed that of the Casualty (head to wind), and thus start to overtake it (Fig 5-
14, Position 3b). In either case, the Towing Ship’s need to Turn at Rest into
wind before staring to Tow will be made more difficult (Fig 5-14, Position 4).
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BR 45(6)
Fig 5-14. Cross-Wind Approach to Casualty lying Head to Wind (Tow Bows First)
Notes:
1. It may seem at first glance that the most obvious method of approaching a ship lying head
to wind is to make an approach into-wind parallel to the Casualty, but this choice would almost
certainly lead to more difficulty and is not recommended. If such an approach were to be
adopted, on passing the bows of the Casualty, once the Towing Ship applied astern power to stop
there is a risk that it might fall off the wind. Unless substantial engine power is used to prevent
this (at a time when the Messenger / Tow is being passed), the Towing Ship might find itself
broadside to the wind and directly upwind of the Casualty, which is a much more hazardous
position than likely to be encountered during the other into-wind approach at Para 0524f. Once
broadside to the wind, the Towing Ship would soon start to make leeway, which, if it exceeded
that of the Casualty, will cause the Towing Ship to drift directly over the Towing Hawser onto
the Casualty’s bows.
2. There is an additional reason for not attempting an into-wind approach described at
Note 1 (above). The only likely circumstances in which it may be essential to Tow a ship bows-
first when it is lying head to wind as a result of being Trimmed heavily down by the bows, is if
it is vital to move it upwind without delay and this need outweighs the manoeuvring difficulties
of controlling it (see Para 0523i). Such circumstances may occur when there is little searoom
to leeward (ie the Casualty is close to a lee shore), and thus it may not be navigationally possible
to make an approach from astern of the Casualty.
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5-32
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0525. Passing the Tow

There are 5 methods of passing the Messenger to the Casualty, as shown below:
a. Gun-Line. Firing a gun-line is the normal method of transfer and requires the ships
to close to between 30 -50 metres, depending on the strength and direction of the wind.
b. Helicopter. The optimum flight path of a helicopter carrying a Messenger is 185

metres upwind of the deck from which it has taken off, so the Towing Ship should stop
with the Flight Deck 185 metres down-wind of the Casualty. A light 12 mm Messenger
is used, one end of which is held by a rope stopper passed through a ring in the floor of
the helicopter. When the helicopter reaches the Casualty, a weighted Heaving Line is
attached to the Messenger and the end dropped down on deck. Once the ship has the
Heaving Line in hand, the stopper is released and the Messenger is let go.
c. Seaboat (Rigid Inflatable Boat - RIB). Under most weather conditions, RIBs are
sufficiently seaworthy to take a 12 mm Messenger to the windward bow of the Casualty.
However, in strong winds and high seas, the RIB may be sent to a more sheltered
position, on the lee bow of the Casualty, while the Messenger is being passed inboard.
If the Messenger drifts near the Towing Ship’s propeller, the shaft should be stopped (eg
apply the Shaft Break).
d. Rocket Line Thrower. Submarines (and many commercial vessels) are equipped
with rocket line-throwing apparatus. These have up to 500 metres of line and thus much
greater range than a gun-line. The Towing Ship’s approach should allow the rocket line
to be fired down wind. See Para 0529.
e. Streaming a Polypropylene Messenger with Float. This is a slow and uncertain

method of establishing contact which depends partly on precise positioning of the
Towing Ship relative to the Casualty, and partly on the ability to grapple the floating
Messenger. There are two options:
• Either, the Casualty lays out the Messenger (upwind) as the ship drifts down-
wind; the Towing Ship approaches on the windward side and grapples the
Messenger.
• Or, the Towing Ship lays out the Messenger on the lee side of the Casualty,
then stops ahead and waits for the Casualty to drift down onto the Messenger.
f. Risk to Propellers. The Admiralty Manual of Seamanship (BR 67) requires a

nominated person in a suitable position to watch the Towing Hawser during streaming
(and recovery) and to show a red flag or bat if the propeller is in imminent danger of
fouling the Towing Hawser. It is then for the Command to decide what action to take
and whether to apply the Shaft Brake (if fitted).
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0526. Starting the Tow Making Way
a. Initial Manoeuvres. When the Towing Hawser has been secured in the Casualty,
the Towing Ship should move slowly ahead directly into-wind/down-wind (see Paras
0524e-i), or Turn at Rest (Cast), before moving slowly ahead into-wind (see Paras 0524d
/j). These manoeuvres are required for the reasons (repeated below) from Para 0524b:
‘Given their very limited Turning Moment when Towing (see Para 0521), warships
almost always have to start the Casualty making way either directly into-wind or
directly down-wind, only altering to the required course when a good speed has
been built up and steering in the Casualty can be effective. Attempts to start the
Casualty making way across the wind normally cause control to be lost. In the
worst case this can result in the Towing Ship’s stern being dragged (up-wind) by the
bow of the Casualty flying into wind, so that both ships end up in a bow-to-stern
configuration.
b. Turning at Rest. In the cases where the Towing Ship has to Turn at Rest (Cast)
into-wind, (see Paras 0524d and j), it is essential to keep the Towing Ship’s stern as close
as possible to the Casualty, so that the maximum amount of the Towing Hawser can be
retained on deck until the ship starts its Turn at Rest (Cast). The reason for this is that
the Towing Ship’s stern will swing away from the Casualty during the turn, and given the
very poor Turning Moment available (see Para 0521), should the Towing Hawser come
taught before the turn is finished, great difficulty will be experienced in completing it.
Upper deck teams will need careful briefing on this as they will otherwise be tempted to
stream the whole Tow as quickly as practicable which will lead to the ships drifting apart.
c. Towing Hawsers Supplied to RN Warships. RN warships now use polyamide

multi-plait Towing Hawsers (see BR 67 Chapter 4). Although wire Towing Hawsers
were apt to part if they came out of the water, this is NOT always the case with
polyamide multi-plait Towing Hawsers. These Towing Hawsers should ideally be kept
in the water but can survive under load out of the water; they are designed to stretch up
to 25% and to absorb sudden loads but this is not a carte-blanche to treat them carelessly,
as excessive strain will still cause them to part. The use of a ‘stress line’ (see BR 67 Para
04003c) attached in two places to a near part of the Towing Hawser is a very useful aid
to indicate by how much the Towing Hawser has stretched and therefore how near it is
to its elastic limit and parting. See Para 0527 and Annex 5A for details of Safe Towing
Pulls at various speeds for the Towing Hawsers supplied to RN warships.
d. Minimising Strain on the Towing Hawser as Towing Starts. Assuming that the
Towing Ship is either pointing directly into-wind/down-wind or has successfully Turned
at Rest into-wind, and that the whole Tow is streamed (without touching bottom in
shallow water), the Towing Ship should come very gently ahead. This should be either
at minimum power or by intermittent power ahead, to apply load to the Towing Hawser
in a gradual, progressive manner. Sudden bursts of high power causing a jerk on the
Towing Hawser (and thus excessive strain leading to parting) should be avoided. If, as
is often the case, the heading of the Casualty has to be altered very substantially in this
initial manoeuvre, patience is required; a ‘slow-and-steady’ technique is much preferable
to a ‘gung-ho’ attitude. Given a gentle, steady pull on the Towing Hawser, the Casualty
should start to make way in the required direction, after which speed can be built up.
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0527. Towing in the Required Direction at the Required Speed

This paragraph starts from the assumption that the Casualty is making way at a
reasonable speed under Tow, either directly into-wind or directly down-wind (see Para 0526).
a. Calculating a Safe Towing Speed. The speed of a Tow depends on the tonnage and
type of ship under Tow, the power of the Towing Ship and the strength of the Towing
Hawser. If a Safety Factor of between 4 and 7 is applied to the strength of the Towing
Hawser in use, a Safe Towing Pull can be established by using the graph at Fig 5A-1.
This Safe Towing Pull in tonnes can then be translated into the Towing Speed for the
particular ship under Tow by reference to the graph at Fig 5A-2 (propeller(s) trailing) or
Fig 5A-3 (propeller(s) locked).
Example. From the Annex 5A graphs, it can be seen that the 64mm Towing Hawsers in FF/DDs
are able to Tow a 15,000 tonne merchant ship (propeller trailing) at just under 8 knots with a
Safety Factor of 7, or at 11 knots with a Safety Factor of 4; a 50,000 tonne merchant ship
(propeller locked) could be Towed at just over 4 knots with Safety Factor of 7, or at 5½ knots
with a Safety Factor of 4, etc.
Note. Unlike tugs (whose Towing Hawsers are matched to their maximum Bollard Pull), the
engine power available in RN warships exceeds the breaking strain of their Towing Hawsers, so
only comparatively low propulsion powers are required to conduct a Tow.
b. Choice of Safety Factor. In selecting the level of Safety Factor to be used, the
following points should be considered:
• Urgency of the Tow. Operational priorities, hostile action or heavy weather
may dictate that a lower Safety Factor be used in order to achieve a faster
Towing Speed, or the Tow of a larger ship than would otherwise be the case.
• Duration of the Tow. For long distance tows, a higher Safety Factor should
be applied, as the wear and tear on the Towing Hawser will have to be
sustained over a more protracted period.
• Weather. It may be necessary to accept a lower Safety Factor initially in order
to make a faster transit out of the path of heavy weather, or alternatively, if
caught in adverse conditions, to increase the Safety Factor and accept a lower
Towing Speed in heavy weather.
• Pitching Out of Phase. If the Casualty and Towing Ship are Pitching out of
phase, there will be additional strain on the Towing Hawser and a lower Safety
Factor should be used.
• Casualty Yaw. If the Casualty is Yawing, this will generate additional strain
on the Towing Hawser and a lower Safety Factor should be used. This also
applies to making deliberate turns, where the induced Yaw for the turn has a
similar effect.
• Underwater State of Casualty. Increased resistance to motion caused by the
state of the Casualty’s bottom (foul or clean), and any underway projections
or damage to the hull should be taken into account and the Safety Factor
reduced accordingly.
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(0527) c. Altering Course. Once the Casualty is making way at a reasonable speed under
Tow, either directly into-wind or directly down-wind, it will usually be necessary to alter
course, probably across wind and sea, in order to make harbour, a ‘Place of Safety’ (see
BR 45 Volume 4 Chapter 13) or a rendezvous with tugs to take over the Tow. In a
warship, altering the course of the Tow out of wind is one of the more difficult aspects
of Towing, due the poor Turning Moment available (see Para 0521), and it is usually
essential that the Casualty is capable of being steered (see Para 0527g) in order to
achieve it. The procedure is as follows:
• The Towing Ship first informs the Casualty of the intention to alter course.
• When both ships are ready, the Towing Ship makes a cautious alteration of
course, to induce a Yaw in the Casualty and so bring hydrodynamic forces to
bear, to make it alter course (see Para 0133).
• The Casualty assists the turn by using its rudder(s), if available.
• Any large alteration of course should be made in steps by the Towing Ship to
avoid excessive strains on the Towing Hawser or the catenary alternately
slackening and tautening.
d. Altering Course when Risk of Collision Exists. In situations where there is a risk
of collision with an approaching ship, decisive action must be taken early if the Towing
Ship and Casualty have to give way under the IRPCS (see BR 45 Volume 4 Para 09047).
This is particularly important at night as the lights of both ships can be confusing,
especially if the Casualty has taken a sheer and an approaching ship may see different
coloured sidelights on the Towing Ship and Casualty.
e. Towing Hawser and Anchor Cable Catenary - Options. In an ideal situation, the
Towing Hawser should be secured to several shackles of anchor cable which have been
veered from the Casualty to form a catenary which generally remains in the water (see
Para 0523c). The weight of anchor cable damps any sudden strains which occur in the
Towing Hawser as a result of the relative movements of the two ships. The depth of the
catenary depends partly on the Towing Speed and partly on the amount of cable veered.
On approaching shallow water, it may be necessary to reduce the amount of cable veered
to prevent the Towing Hawser touching the sea bed as the ships slow down. However,
in reality this arrangement is not always possible. If Towing a damaged or partially
flooded Casualty stern-first (see Paras 0524i) it is most unlikely that anchor cable will
be available and this may also be the case when Towing a Casualty bows-first if the
anchor windlass is out of action. In addition, modern polyamide multi-plait Towing
Hawsers supplied to RN warships can be used with care when completely out of the
water, without necessarily parting (see Para 0526c). Nevertheless, if anchor cable can
be used with the Towing Hawser and the catenary kept in the water, this will ensure that
the risk of parting the Towing Hawser is minimised.
f. Chafing of Towing Hawser and Anchor Cable. To counter the effect of chafing,
the Casualty should freshen the nip in chain cable at least once every 24 hours; it will be
necessary to reduce speed (see Para 0528) while this is done. A polyamide Towing
Hawser on a Towing Pendant or secured to a Towing Slip right aft will not usually chafe.
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(0527) g. Yaw and its Correction. Most vessels under Tow will Yaw, but provided it is not
excessive and the Casualty can be steered, Yaw should not cause difficulty. However
excessive Yaw will put heavy strain on the Towing Hawser at the end of each Yaw, nip
the anchor cable in the hawsepipe and increase chafing there. It is possible to reduce
Yawing in a number of ways, as follows (assuming Towing bows-first):
• Increase Trim by the Stern. Not being Trimmed sufficiently by the stern is
the most usual reason for a Tow Yawing. The best way of increasing a
Casualty’s Trim by the stern is to transfer liquids or ballast from forward to aft,
as this will not alter its buoyancy. If this is not possible, Trim may have to be
corrected by flooding or adding ballast. If this has to be done, care must be
taken not to alter the Casualty’s stability or reserve of buoyancy in a way
which reduces its seaworthiness dangerously. See also Para 0523o.
• Altering the Towing Speed. Yawing caused by List usually decreases at
higher speed (see also Para 0523h); Yawing caused by not being Trimmed
sufficiently by the stern usually decreases at lower speed (see also Para 0523i).
Depending on the cause of the Yaw, speed may be adjusted to minimise it.
• Setting the Casualty’s Rudder. If the Casualty’s steering gear is damaged,
its rudder may still be workable by hand. If the rudder can be set over, the
Casualty may be steadied at a constant angle of Yaw to one side of the Towing
Ship's track. It may be necessary to alter the lead of the Tow to prevent a bad
nip or unnecessary chafe.
• Towing Another Ship Astern. Securing a second rescue ship with a hawser
astern of the Casualty, to be used as a ‘powered rudder’, has been successful
on a number of occasions. The second ship keeps slight strain on its hawser
and sheers to one side in order to keep the Casualty on course. Alternatively
the second ship can merely be added to the Tow. On one occasion in the past,
a ship which had lost its rudder was Towed for a long distance in high winds
and heavy seas with a second ship astern to steady its course.
• Shifting the Point of Tow. A Casualty which is Yawing from side to side may
be steadied at a constant angle of Yaw by shifting the point of Tow aft on the
inner bow. But this is only practicable if the resultant angle of constant Yaw
is not too great and if the Towing Hawser or cable is not subject to chafe.
• Towing a Drogue. A Drogue streamed astern of the Casualty may steady it,
especially if it is a fairly small ship with fine lines. The type of Drogues which
have proved successful are: a bight of 48 mm buoyant rope; a shackle of ship’s
cable streamed on a Messenger; a provision net filled with mats, Towed on a
two-legged bridle; and a kite otter used for minesweeping.
• Setting a Sail. Setting a sail in the Casualty either right forward or right aft
may reduce the Yaw. A small awning can be used with an improvised rig.
• Propellers. A stopped propeller may Drag in such a way as to reduce the Yaw.
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(0527) h. Length of Tow. Towing Hawsers in RN warships are intended to be used fully
streamed. However in certain circumstances (eg trying to haul a crippled ship out of an
enclosed bay or creek, or when approaching shallow water with the risk of the Towing
Hawser touching the sea-bed) it may be necessary to shorten the Tow.
• Heading Towards Open Water. If in constrained water (eg trying to haul
a crippled ship out of an enclosed bay or creek) but heading towards open
water, only part of the Towing Hawser should be streamed initially and an
improvised securing point on deck used. The Towing Ship should manoeuvre
with great care to avoid parting the Towing Hawser or damaging the
improvised securing point. The full Towing Hawser should be streamed to the
Towing Slip as soon as practicable.
• Approaching Shallow Water. If approaching shallow water, it may require
the Casualty’s anchor cable to be Hove-in and then part of the Towing Hawser
recovered on deck to an improvised securing point (as above). The Towing
Ship should manoeuvre with great care to avoid parting the Towing Hawser or
damaging the improvised securing point.
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0528. Slowing Down, and Recovering or Transferring the Tow
a. Casualty’s Tendency to Yaw into Wind when Slowing Down. When a Casualty
is Towed across the wind it has a tendency to Yaw into the wind. This Yaw often causes
the Casualty to lie slightly upwind of the Towing Ship’s track, even when steering to
maintain course. When the Towing Ship slows and pull of the Towing Hawser is
reduced, the Casualty will normally Yaw into-wind. If the Casualty is being Towed at
a reasonable speed at this stage, it should be able to counter this Yaw by using its rudders
or one of the other methods at Para 0527g. This is appropriate when slowing down to
freshen the nip of the Casualty’s anchor cable (see Para 0527f). However, if speed is
reduced further (as in recovering / transferring the Tow), it will become more and more
difficult to control the Casualty’s heading. As when starting a Tow (see Paras 0524b and
0526a), in the worst case during slowing down, the Casualty’s Yaw into-wind can result
in the Towing Ship’s stern being dragged (up-wind) by the bow of the Casualty flying
into-wind, so that both ships end up in a bow-to-stern configuration.
b. Turning Casualty into Wind before Slowing Down. The situation at Para 0528a
(above) may be avoided by turning the Casualty directly into-wind before slowing down.
It may be possible to turn directly down-wind if constrained upwind, but turning down-
wind and keeping the Casualty heading down-wind when slowing is much more difficult.
c. Gradual Slowing Down. Once turned into-wind, the Towing Speed should be
reduced in small steps so that the steadying pull of the Towing Hawser is not reduced too
sharply at any stage. Unless the Casualty is particularly small, it will tend to carry it way
for a long time and for this reason plenty of sea-room is required for slowing down.
While slowing down, even when heading directly into-wind, the Casualty can take an
unpredictable sheer without warning, particularly when almost stopped in the water as
it tries to lie beam to the wind. However, at such very low speeds (virtually stopped), it
is normally possible for the Towing Ship to maintain Station on the Casualty without too
much difficulty. Thus the greatest vigilance is necessary when manoeuvring the
Towing Ship during the whole slowing down phase of a Towing operation.
d. Recovering the Tow. Once at very slow speed or stopped in the water, provided
the Casualty is able to Heave-in its anchor cable and disconnect the Towing Hawser,
recovering the Tow is straightforward. Equally, if anchor cable has NOT been used,
Slipping the Towing Hawser from the Casualty is not usually a problem. However, if
anchor cable has been veered and the Casualty’s anchor windlass is out of action, the
situation is much more difficult (see Para 0528e below).
e. Transferring or Slipping the Tow. If the Casualty’s anchor cable has been veered
and its anchor windlass is out of action, breaking the cable on the Casualty’s deck and
Slipping it will not solve the problem, as warships do not normally have winches of
sufficient power aft to recover that weight of cable. It may be possible to bring a large
tug alongside the warship, and for an improvised method to be devised for transferring
the warship’s Towing Hawser to the tug (this was the method eventually used in the
incident described in the Note to Para 0523c). If in shallow water, the warship may be
forced to Slip its Towing Hawser, having first carefully buoyed it, so that it may be
recovered by a more fully equipped salvage vessel.
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0529. Towing Submarines

The Towing of submarines is a special case and slightly different procedures are required.
a. Towing Equipment in RN Submarines. The arrangement of Towing equipment

in RN submarines is at BR 67 (Admiralty Manual of Seamanship) Para 04012, and at
ATP 43. In summary, they are equipped with a Pains Wessex rocket line, a 78 metre
(72 mm polyamide) Towing Hawser and a 35 metre (52 mm kevlar) Towing Pendant.
| The Towing Hawser and ‘emergency rip-out’ Towing Pendant are sealed in a trough on
the starboard casing. The rocket line has a greater range than a gun-line (see Para 0525d).
b. Submarine Drift Characteristics. Submarines lie low in the water, make little
Leeway and do not always lie beam to the wind (S & T Class SSNs lie with the wind at
Red / Green120° - see Para 3016). Submarines drift with the current / tidal stream.
c. Methods of Approaching a Submarine. The Towing Ship should stop on the

starboard beam of the submarine’s fin. Only part of the submarine’s hull is visible and
when the Towing Ship is lying close to the submarine, the distance apart must not be
assumed to be greater than it really is.
• Converging or Parallel Approach. A converging approach to windward of
the submarine (see Para 0524d) is not suitable because the Towing Ship may
drift rapidly down onto it. A converging approach to leeward of the submarine
may be possible but the Towing Ship may drift rapidly away from it.
• Downwind Approach. A down-wind approach across the submarine’s bow
is suitable in most conditions and allows the Towing Ship to manoeuvre into
the correct position and hold with its stern into-wind.
| d. Connecting the Tow. Connecting a Tow to a submarine is very weather limited.
The submarine fires the line, which is taken in hand in the Towing Ship and secured to
the Towing Ship’s Messenger; the Messenger is hauled to the submarine and secured to
| the outboard end of the ‘emergency rip-out’ Towing Pendant. The Towing Ship Heaves-
in the Messenger, which starts the ‘rip-out’ of the Towing Pendant / Towing Hawser
from its stowage. The Towing Ship must not be ahead or astern of the submarine’s
fin by more than 15E during the initial phase of the ‘rip-out’ process.
e. Towing the Submarine. Due a submarine’s very limited windage, few of the
handling problems associated with the Towing of surface ships are factors. Once the Tow
has been passed, the Towing Ship should be turned to a heading parallel to the submarine,
and moved to a position ahead of it, while pulling out the rest of the Towing Hawser
from its trough stowage. A submarine under Tow should always be started making
way in the direction that it is lying. Submarines, even on the surface, have a most of
| their hulls submerged, so it is difficult to alter the submarine’s heading under Tow unless
| it has gathered some way and hydrodynamic forces (see Paras 0133 and 0134) come into
| play. Most submarine emergency Towing arrangements are intended to allow the
| submarine to be held head to wind / sea or Towed at slow speed in calm conditions.
| When slowing down, the steadying pull of the Towing Hawser should not be reduced too
| sharply.
f. Slowing Down and Transferring the Tow. When the Towing Ship slows down
the submarine will carry its way much more than an equivalent sized surface ship (see
Chapters 30-32). The Tow should be transferred to specialist tugs before harbour entry.
5-40
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SECTION 3 - RECOVERY OF MAN-OVERBOARD (MOB)
0530. Scope of Section and Terminology Used

This section covers shiphandling for the recovery of ‘Man OverBoard’(MOB) by boat
and swimmer. The traditional term ‘Man Overboard’ is taken to mean any person lost over the
side. Unless otherwise stated, boats envisaged for MOB recovery in the following procedures are
Rigid Inflatable Boats (RIBs) - see BR 67 (Admiralty Manual of Seamanship) for further details.
The term ‘Crash Boat’ is used for a seaboat equipped for lifesaving with a ditched aircraft.
0531. Objectives for Man Overboard (MOB) Manoeuvring

There are 2 primary objectives in shiphandling for MOB recovery and in practice they
may not always be easily achieved together. The OOW will have to take them both into account
when making an almost instant decision on which way to make the initial turn, and thus a simple
decision-making process is required. The 2 shiphandling objectives are:
• Initial Turn for Optimum Launch Position / Heading. The OOW must make an
initial turn so that the ship will be in a position and on a heading where the boat or
swimmer may be launched safely. The boat or swimmer should only have to make
a short transit to the MOB, ideally down-wind.
• Achieve Position/Heading for Optimum Recovery of the Boat or Swimmer. The
OOW must achieve the optimum position and heading for the safe recovery of the
boat or swimmer.
0532. Manoeuvring Options

The optimum manoeuvring options will depend in part on the type of ship and in part on
the number and type of boats available for MOB recovery. Some ships only have a single boat
available, and if it is to be used, are thus limited to manoeuvring for that side only; others may
have a boat on both sides of the ship, but often one specific boat is allocated for MOB recovery.
Swimmer positions are usually available on both sides of the ship, the swimmer is less limited
by Sea State than a RIB and can often change sides at short notice. The following guidance is
generic, and individual ships will need to establish the best options for their particular
platforms, which should then be transposed into each ship’s Bridge File, Bridge Emergency
Cards and RNS 2677 (Navigation Data Book).
a. Avoidance of the MOB after Entry to the Water. Unless someone is seen to fall
overboard from the bows of a large ship or submarine at slow speed (when the situation
is marginal), there is little point in trying to steer the stern away from the MOB or
attempting to stop the propeller on that side, as they will usually have passed the stern
before any such order can be effective (ie at 20 knots a ship is moving at just over 10
metres/second). In addition, experience has shown that a person will float clear of the
propellers even when no action is taken to avoid them. As soon as it is safe to do so and
provided there is sea-room, the best action is to start turning with full wheel for recovery
and apply engine power to assist the turn (but see Para 0532b if in company or
conducting RAS operations).
b. MOB when in Company or when Conducting RAS Operations. If in company,

the procedures at ATP 1C Volume 1 Arts 2251 (Peacetime), 2252 (Wartime) or 2253
(Rescue Helicopter) should be followed. During RAS, if there is no lifeguard ship, an
Emergency Breakaway and/or the use of a rescue helicopter may be required.
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(0532) c. Launching/Recovering RIBs to/from the ‘Slick’. Except in very rough weather,
major warships and above create a ‘slick’ of calm water when turning hard under bold
ahead power. Pacific and Searider RIBs may be launched into this calm ‘slick’ virtually
irrespective of the wind and sea direction, provided the speed limits (Annex 5B) are
observed (eg a Type 42 BIII at power for 15-18 knots with full rudder will achieve a log
speed of about 10-12 knots during a long turn, depending on the initial speed). Thus for
some ships, provided there is adequate sea-room, a simple hard turn under substantial
power towards the side on which the RIB is stowed will provide a quick, safe method of
launching it in an emergency. The following points should be noted:
• To avoid turning inside the MOB, it may be necessary to ease the wheel
temporarily, once the ship is turning. Full wheel should be applied again to
create the maximum slick by the time the RIB is launched.
• The turn may be continued indefinitely while the RIB is recovering the MOB
and in so doing, will usually describe a full circle, which will create a flat patch
of calm water. Due to the ‘flattening’ effect of this manoeuvre, in most
conditions, the RIB may return to the ship and be recovered at any stage.
• The ship must remain within the speed limits (see Para 0533 and Annex 5B).
If the weather makes a lee essential, the RIB may keep Station alongside the
ship until it reaches a favourable heading and then recover.
d. Manoeuvring to Make a Lee. If launching/recovering a RIB to/from the ‘Slick’

(see Para 0532c above) is not appropriate due to the size/power of the ship, the boat used
or weather conditions, an alternative is to make a lee to launch/recover the boat (see
Paras 0533 and 0535-0535) or a swimmer (see Para 0534). Fig 5-15 shows the options
of port/starboard manoeuvres for every wind direction and assumes that a lee with the
wind 45° on the bow is adequate. Fig 5-15 (below) is too complex to be used as a
Bridge Emergency Card as it stands, and simplified Port/Starboard variants should
be used instead, examples of which are at Figs 5-16a and 5-16b (opposite).
Fig 5-15. Full Man-Overboard (MOB) Recovery Manoeuvring Diagram

for all TRUE Wind Directions to Create a Lee (Wind at Least 45° on the Bow)
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BR 45(6)
Fig 5-16a. Simplified Man-Overboard Fig 5-16b. Simplified Man-Overboard

Recovery Manoeuvring Diagram for Recovery Manoeuvring Diagram for
PORT Side Recovery (TRUE WIND) STARBOARD Side Recovery (TRUE WIND)
Note. Figs 5-16a/b are simplifications of Fig 5-15. Other simplification variants are possible.
e. The Williamson Turn. This should be used if it is necessary to retrace the ship’s
track as accurately as possible to search for a person overboard and may also be used in
a beam wind situation (see Figs 5-15, 5-16a/b), although it is slower than turning in one
direction. The manoeuvring data for each ship should have the exact alterations required
at different speeds to carry out a Williamson turn. The principle is to swing out about 60o
from the original course under full wheel, then to turn all the way back under full
opposite wheel to steady on the reciprocal course. The ship will now be close to its
original track as shown at Fig 5-17.
Fig 5-17. The Williamson Turn
5-43
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f. Hammerbach Turn
The Hammerbach turn is another method of turning and stopping large single screw ships
(VLCCs) for MOB recovery. This manoeuvre brings the ship round in a tight circle with the
MOB on the port (or starboard) side. The procedure is:
• Increase to full manoeuvring speed
• Commence a hard turn to port (or starboard)
• After turning 300°, place the wheel amidships and apply maximum astern power
• Stop engines when ship stopped in the water
0533. Shiphandling to Launch and Recover a RIB Seaboat
a. Avoidance of Roll while Launching/Recovering. When launching or recovering

any RIB seaboat, the OOW should not allow the ship to roll unduly, otherwise the
relatively frail RIB may slam against the ship’s side. In the case of launching or
recovering a RIB to/from the ‘slick’ (see Para 0532c), the ship will be held at a fairly
steady angle of heel and this problem does not normally arise. With other approach
methods (see Para 0532d) the final approach course may have to be made in two legs, so
that when the RIB is lowered on the final leg, it does not slam against the ship’s side.
b. Parent Ship Speed Requirements. When launching/recovering a RIB, the parent

ship should maintain sufficient speed (see Annex 5B) to enable the coxswain of the RIB
to manoeuvre effectively and make best use of the boatrope. For Searider RIBs, the ship
must have headway to allow self-draining when still secured to the boatrope.
c. Optimum Positions for RIB Launch and Recovery. The ideal launch position for
a RIB is with the MOB (or other objective) on the parent ship’s bow and with sea room
for the RIB to manoeuvre to make a safe approach. There is no need for the ship to stop
once the RIB is launched and with the ‘slick’ method, this would be counter-productive.
The transit time will be shorter if the RIB is Slipped up wind of the MOB and the ship
then proceeds down wind for the recovery. The speed of a RIB in most weathers is
comparable to that of the parent ship; this is a considerable advantage that enables the
RIB to carry out its task and then catch the ship up on a suitable course. The RIB should
either be recovered from the ‘slick’ (see Para 0532c) or from a lee with a suitable course
and speed to minimise rolling (see Para 0532d and Annex 5B).
d. Disembarkation of Passengers and Equipment. There are limits on the hoisting

weight of a RIB, and so if it has been used to ferry personnel and equipment (rather than
lifesaving for a single person), it may be necessary to disembark passengers and loads
at a separate transfer point before hoisting. For this disembarkation of passengers and
equipment, the ship should make a slow turn to put the transfer point in the lee and then
maintain headway on a suitable course to minimise rolling. Once passengers and any
loads have been brought on board the parent ship, the RIB may proceed to its hoisting
position and the procedure at Para 0533c followed.
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0534. Shiphandling to Launch and Recover a Swimmer of the Watch

A pattern from Para 0532d should be used to approach the MOB. Precise positioning is
needed because the ‘Swimmer of the Watch’(SOW) can only swim slowly and take the recovery
line a short distance without getting fatigued. Before the SOW is launched, the OOW must place
the ship so that the MOB is close-by, directly downwind and abreast of the SOW Recovery Point
(usually under the Bridge Wing), with all way taken off the ship. Use of heavy astern power on
the SOW’s side should be avoided when stopping the ship, as any excessive propeller wash may
push those in the water away from the ship. If astern propeller wash reaches the Bridge, the ship
will be making slight sternway; the SOW should NOT be launched until the turbulence subsides
and all way has been taken off the ship. The ship must NOT be allowed to creep ahead while the
SOW is in the water; this can be prevented by applying gentle astern power on the disengaged
side. It is not necessary to hold a shaft stopped (using Shaft Brake in CPP-fitted ships) unless the
SOW is swept aft of the ship’s midships position.
0535. Shiphandling to Launch and Recover a Medium Inflatable Boat or Gemini Seaboat
Procedures for launch/recovery of a Medium Inflatable Boat (MIB) or Gemini rigged as
a seaboat are similar to those for a RIB (see Paras 0532 and 0533) except that different speed
limitations (see Annex 5B) apply and these usually preclude launching/recovering the
MIB/Gemini to/from the ‘slick’ (see Para 0532c). For Geminis, the ship must have headway to
allow self-draining when still secured to the boatrope. The MIB/Gemini is not as capable as the
RIB to proceed at speed in adverse weather conditions and so the parent ship may need to remain
closer to a MIB/Gemini than would be the case with a Pacific or Searider RIB.
Note. It is planned to replace most Gemini’s with MIBs as individual Geminis reach the end
of their useful lives.
0536. Visual Signals to Direct Seaboats when Underway

In the event of radio silence or communications failure, the seaboat may be directed from
the ship by light signals (ie short flashes = turn port, long flashes = turn starboard, steady light
= go straight and Morse Romeo = return to ship). Full details may be found in BR 67 (Admiralty |
Manual of Seamanship) Para 05117.
0537. Requirement for MOB Distress Frequency Notification and Immediate Signal |
Attention is drawn to FLOO 12305, which, requires a broadcast notification on |
international distress frequencies and an immediate signal to CINCFLEET (and to the local |
SAR authority / Local Sea Area Commander if appropriate) to be made as soon as a MOB or a |
suspected MOB occurs, even if the CO considers recovery will be achieved quickly. See FLOO |
12305 for explanation and further details. |
|
0538. Requirement for Post-MOB Report |
Attention is drawn to the requirement for a post-MOB report iaw FLAGO 2639. |
|
0539. Spare
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5-46
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RECOMMENDED SAFE TOWING PULLS AND SPEEDS FOR EMERGENCY USE
1. The following graphs (Figs 5A-1 to 5A-3) show:

• Safe Towing Pulls (Fig 5A-1) with polyamide multi-plait Towing Hawsers
• Safe Towing Speeds (Fig 5A-2 for trailing propellers and Fig 5A-3 for locked
propellers) when RN warships are conducting Towing operations.
2. The size of Towing Hawsers supplied to RN warships is as follows (see BR 67 Chp 4):
• 80mm polyamide multi-plait - CVS, LPD.
• 64mm polyamide multi-plait - Type 42, Type 22, Type 23, HECLA class.
• 48mm polyamide multi-plait - CASTLE, ISLAND, HUNT, ROEBUCK classes.
• 40mm polyamide multi-plait - BULLDOG, SANDOWN classes
Fig 5A-1. Safe Towing Pulls (Polyamide Multi-Plait Hawsers) with various Safety Factors
5A-1
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Fig 5A-2. Towing Speeds Achieved with Specific Towing Pulls

on Various Types of Ships with their Propeller(s) Trailing
5A-2
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Fig 5A-3. Towing Speeds Achieved with Specific Towing Pulls

on Various Types of Ships with their Propeller(s) Locked
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SPEED AND SEA STATE LIMITATIONS FOR OPERATING SEABOATS
1. The boats supplied to RN warships that may be used as seaboats are at Table 5B-1,
which gives the range of speeds for launching/recovery and the worst Sea State in which it is
prudent to operate the boats. In an emergency and with a skilled crew, the Sea State limits may
be exceeded.
Table 5B-1. Limiting Speeds and Sea States for Operating Seaboats
CATEGORY OF SEABOAT NORMAL SPEED RANGES
MAXIMUM FOR
SEA STATE LAUNCHING
AND RECOVERY
Pacific RIB and Searider RIB Sea State 6 5 to 12 knots
MIB and Gemini Sea State 5 4 to 6 knots
Gemini from Sandown class, limited because Sea State 5 1 to 4 knots
of Voith-Schneider propulsion effects
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5B-2
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WAVES, WIND AND HEAVY WEATHER
CHAPTER 6
CONTENTS
Para
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0601
SECTION 1 - WAVES AND WIND
Types of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0610

Wave Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0611
Wave Motion - Wave Speed, Period, Height and Length in Deep Water . . . . . . . . . . . 0612
Factors Affecting the Length, Height, Steepness, Speed and Period of Waves . . . . . . . 0613
Breaking Waves and the Effect of Shallow Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0614
Effects of Currents and Tidal Streams on Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0615
Abnormal Waves - Seismic Activity, Storm Surges and Ocean Currents . . . . . . . . . . . 0616
Tropical Storms (Tropical Revolving Storms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0617
SECTION 2 - EFFECT OF WEATHER ON SHIP AND CREW
Prevention of Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0620

Precautions for Heavy Weather and Consideration of the Ship’s Company . . . . . . . . . 0621
Effect of Waves on the Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0622
Other Factors Contributing to Heavy Rolling and Pitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0623
Description and Effect of Stabilisers and Other Roll Damper Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0624
Effect of Wind on the Ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0625
SECTION 3 - SHIPHANDLING IN HEAVY WEATHER (INCLUDING HELO OPS)
Maintaining Headway in Heavy Weather - Into Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0630

Maintaining Headway in Heavy Weather - Beam to Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0631
Maintaining Headway in Heavy Weather - Stern to Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0632
Turning the Ship Across the Sea in Heavy Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0633
Heaving-To and Sea Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0634
Helicopter Operations in Marginal or Heavy Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0635
SECTION 4 - TROPICAL STORMS (HURRICANES, TYPHOONS etc)
Tropical Storms (Tropical Revolving Storms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0640

Warning Signs of the Approach of a Tropical Storm (Tropical Revolving Storm) . . . . 0641
Avoidance and Weathering of a Tropical Storm (Tropical Revolving Storm) . . . . . . . 0642
ANNEXES
Annex A: Wind and Formation of Wave Data

Annex B: Internal Waves
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CHAPTER 6
0601. Introduction
This chapter covers the formation and behaviour of Sea and Swell (waves) , together with
shiphandling in heavy weather (including Tropical Revolving Storms). The formation of Wake
Waves (Wash) and the shiphandling aspects of manoeuvring in confined waters during heavy
weather (ie berthing, unberthing, anchoring and buoywork), will be found in the appropriate
sections of Chapter 3. Guidance on operating in or near Ice is at Chapter 7.
0602-0609. Spare
SECTION 1 - WAVES AND WIND
0610. Types of Waves

Most surface wave systems at sea are produced by the action of the wind, the remainder
being caused by seismic events (volcanic eruptions and earthquakes or ‘seaquakes’), tidal factors
(eg Severn Bore) and Wash (Wake Waves) created by ships. Undersea Internal Waves also occur
which affect ASW and MW operations but not surface shiphandling (see Annex 6B for details).
a. Sea and Swell. When the sea is flat calm, a breeze of up to 2 kts will produce
wavelets on the water in the form of a ripple which will cease if the wind stops blowing,
because the surface tension of the water brings the water level again. As the wind
increases above 2 kts, more stable gravity waves are formed which progress with the
wind. The continuing wind produces what is known as a ‘Sea’. Should the wind die
down, the waves continue under their own power and are then termed the ‘Swell’.
b. Simple Waves, Crests and Troughs The simplest type of progressive wave
consists of a series of equidistant parallel Crests at the same height, which are moving,
without change of shape, at a constant speed in a direction perpendicular to the line of
the Crests. The nearest approach to this ideal simple wave is a long Swell advancing
through deep, calm water and the profile of such a wave is at Fig 6-1. These waves are
very nearly the shape of an inverted Cycloid (the figure formed by a point inside the rim
of a wheel rolling along a level surface). The highest part of the waves are called
‘Crests’, and the intervening lowest parts ‘Troughs’.
Fig 6-1. A Typical Deep Water Swell Wave, Approximating to a Simple Wave
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0611. Wave Definitions

The following definitions may be applied to all waves:
• Sea. A Sea consists of waves generated by a wind which is blowing.
• Swell. A Swell consists of waves that continue through their own momentum after
the wind has stopped generating them.
• Wave Crest / Crest. The Crest of a wave is its highest point.
• Wave Trough / Trough. The Trough of a wave is its lowest point.
• Wave Length / Length (L). The Wave Length / Length (L) of a wave (see Fig 6-1)
is the horizontal distance from a Crest to the next succeeding Crest of a wave, or
between two corresponding points on successive waves.
• Wave Height / Height (H) . The Height / Wave Height (H) of a wave (see Fig 6-1)
is the vertical distance of a Crest above the Troughs on either side. This is the
Crest-to-Trough height and not the height of the Crest above the Still Water Line
• Wave Steepness / Steepness. The Wave Steepness is the ratio H/L.
• Wave Speed (C). The Wave Speed (C) is the rate at which a Crest advances
towards a stationary observer. It is sometimes known as ‘Celerity’.
• Wave Period / Period (P). The Wave Period / Period (P) is the time which elapses
between the passage of two successive wave Crests past a fixed point (ie stationary
observer).
• Period of Encounter. The Period of Encounter of waves is the time which elapses
between the passage of two successive wave Crests past a moving point (ie moving
observer in a ship).
• Period of Roll. The Period of Roll is the time a ship takes to roll from one side to
the other and back again.
• Period of Pitch. The Period of Pitch is the time the bow of a ship takes to rise from
the horizontal, fall below the horizontal and return to the horizontal.
• Fetch. The Fetch is the straight distance a wave has travelled over the sea or ocean.
• Pooping. The action of a following wave breaking from aft over a moving ship.
• Broaching. The action of a ship in a following sea when the ship buries its bow in
a wave Trough and swings across the sea until it lies broadside to the waves.
• Hogging. Concave bending of the hull, usually due to greater buoyancy amidships.
• Sagging. Convex bending of the hull, usually due to greater buoyancy fore and aft.
• Breakers. A Breaker is a wave that has broken due to reaching shallow water.
• Surf. Surf consists of a series of Breakers.
• Standing Waves. Standing Waves are the result of interference between a wave
pattern and the reflection of that wave pattern from an obstruction (eg vertical
cliffs). Standing Waves so caused may be up to twice the height of waves outside
the interference pattern and may remain in a roughly static position.
• Abnormal Waves (Tsusamis, Storm Surges and Others). Abnormal Waves are
those caused by seismic effects, extreme weather or ocean currents. See Para 0616.
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0612. Wave Motion - Wave Speed, Period, Height and Length in Deep Water
a. Wave Motion. Unbroken waves consist of particles of water which do not move
along with the wave, but oscillate with a circular motion within quite narrow limits,
moving upwards as the Crest approaches, forwards as the Crest passes, downwards as
it recedes, and backwards nearly to their original positions as the Trough passes.
b. Basic Calculation. The Length (L), Height (H) and Period (P) of waves are all
constant for simple waves. After each interval of time equal to one Period, each wave
has moved into the place previously occupied by the wave before it, that is, each wave
advances one Wave Length in each Wave Period. Hence:
c. Further Calculations. However, if movement of a particle of water, which is in

the form of a circle in the vertical plane moving up and down in a time equal to the
Period, is taken into account then other more useful formulae about wave motion can be
derived. It can be proved that for a wave in deep water, the Wave Speed in knots is equal
to 3 times the Wave Period (P) (ie C = 3 x P), and the Wave Length (L) is equal to 5.12
times the square of the Wave Period (P) (ie L = 5.12 x P2 ). For convenience, these
formula are combined graphically at Fig 6-2.
Fig 6-2. Relationship between Speed, Length and Period of Waves in Deep Water
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0613. Factors Affecting the Length, Height, Steepness, Speed and Period of Waves
The Wave Length, Wave Height, Wave Steepness, Wave Period and Wave Speed depend
upon a number of factors, such as the wind speed, the length of time it has blown, and its Fetch.
Table 6A-1 at Annex 6A indicates the relationship between Wave Speed, Wave Fetch, length of
time the wind blows, Wave Height and Wave Period in deep water.
a. Single Waves. The Wave Length and Wave Steepness increase with wind speed, but
in winds of above 10 knots, the Wave Height increases more quickly than Wave Length.
Unbroken waves have a maximum Wave Height to Wave Length ratio of about 1:10,
above which they break at the Wave Crest.
b. Groups of Waves. A group of waves moves at only half the Wave Speed of the
individual waves forming the group, consequently the same wave does not remain the
highest of a group. This means that waves passing through a group attain their greatest
Wave Height at the centre, and so in a simple wave group, a wave is most likely to break
at the Wave Crest when passing near the centre of a group. The fact that a wave attains
its greatest Wave Height when passing through the centre of a group accounts for the
familiar periodic occurrence of extra large waves, and this is particularly important
when turning a ship in heavy weather (see Para 0633).
c. Crossing Wave Patterns. A heavy Swell caused by a strong and prolonged gale
over a large expanse of deep water may travel hundreds of miles without appreciably
altering its direction. But, if the Swell meets waves from a different direction caused by
a local gale, a dangerously confused Sea will result. The combination of two or more
crossing wave patterns results in a regular recurrence of groups of large and small waves
and these are likely break more frequently than in single wave groups. The number of
waves in each group and the interval between successive appearances of extra high
waves vary with the type and complexity of Sea and Swell running.
0614. Breaking Waves and the Effect of Shallow Water
a. Breaking Waves. A breaking wave is far more dangerous than an unbroken wave.
When a wave is unbroken, the movement of water is mainly up and down with little
forward or backward movement (see Para 0612a), but when a wave breaks, a great Mass
of water falls with considerable force forward and downward from the Wave Crest at 1½
times the Wave Speed of the rest of the wave. A wave that breaks of its own accord
is higher and steeper than its unbroken counterpart. An unbroken wave can be broken
by impact with the ship and its effect will then be nearly as great as a wave which has
broken naturally.
b. Shallow Water. When a wave reaches shallow water, the movement of individual
particles is restricted by the bottom, resulting in reduced Wave Speed at the base. As the
Wave Speed slows, the Wave Period remains the same so the Wave Length shortens,
increasing the Wave Height of the waves and steepening the slope. The speed at the top
of the wave is faster than that at the bottom, resulting in the top of the wave breaking.
Such waves are called Breakers, and a series of Breakers are called Surf. Shoal water
that is limited by land may set up a backwash with Standing Waves, which results in a
very confused Sea with dangerously steep and breaking waves. Any ship approaching
the continental shelf or shoal water offshore must expect the waves to become
higher and steeper.
6-6
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BR 45(6)
0615. Effects of Currents and Tidal Streams on Waves

An opposing current or tidal stream increases Wave Height and decreases Wave Length,
while a following current or tidal stream has the opposite effect (eg waves caused by westerly
gales in the Pentland Firth become steep when the strong tidal stream runs in a westerly
direction). If the current or tidal stream is particularly strong, it could cause the wave to break.
Extreme cases may cause Abnormal Waves (see Para 0616c).
0616. Abnormal Waves - Seismic Activity, Storm Surges and Ocean Currents
Some areas are prone to Abnormal Waves. The Sailing Directions, NP 136 (Ocean
Passages for the World) and Routing Charts (British Admiralty Charts 5124-5128) advise on
rough weather and Abnormal Waves at different times of the year. Abnormal Waves types are:
a. Tsunamis. Tsunamis (sometimes incorrectly called ‘Tidal Waves’) are groups of
Abnormal Waves with a very high Wave Speed (300 to 500 knots). They are formed by
seismic action (earthquake or ‘seaquake’) on the ocean floor. These eruptions are
concentrated at the boundaries of Tectonic Plates and Japan is particularly vulnerable to
them, although they can affect anywhere with an uninterrupted Fetch to a Tectonic Plate
boundary. At the epicentre Tsunamis have a wave Height under 1 metre and a wave
Length of over 100 miles, so are undetectable in the open ocean. On entering shallow
water, the waves become shorter and higher, often reaching a Height of over 20 metres
when they strike the shore. They cause great damage and loss of life ashore, are a
serious hazard to coastal shipping and ships in port. The first indication of a Tsunamis’
approach may be a sudden drop in sea level. A group of waves may then strike at
intervals of 10 to 40 minutes between waves. See NP 100 (The Mariners Handbook).
b. Storm Surges. In areas where very low barometric pressure produce strong winds
from a particular direction and these are superimposed on normal (predicted) high spring
tides in relatively shallow seas, this combination can result in a ‘Storm Surge’. A series
of waves are generated in deep water which increase in Height as they enter shallow
water. Together with the general rise of sea level caused by the low barometric pressure,
these waves can cause the normal predicted height of tide at the coast to be greatly
exceeded. The North Sea is particularly vulnerable to this effect, and in 1953 a Storm
Surge raised the sea level by 3 metres, causing flooding in large parts of East Anglia,
Kent and areas surrounding the River Thames to London; it was for this reason that the
‘Thames Barrage’ flood defence was built across the River Thames east of London.
‘Negative’ Storm Surges can also occur. See NP 100 (The Mariners Handbook).
c. Other Abnormal Waves. Normal waves may be distorted by meeting an opposing
wave system, shoal water, strong current or tidal stream (see Para 0615), causing high |
steep fronted Abnormal Waves. Recent (2001) German research claimed to reproduce |
Abnormal Waves in tanks; during certain simulated storms conditions some waves were |
observed to reinforce each other and to increase very substantially in height. Abnormal |
Waves can be massive and capable of severely damaging or sinking even the largest
ships; Several Waves with heights of 30m (approx 100ft) have been documented in the |
N Atlantic since1933 (most famously in 1995, when one broke over the liner QE2 |
causing substantial damage). On the eastern seaboard of S Africa, between 29°S and 33° |
30'S in the vicinity of the 200 metre line, where the Agulhas Current runs most strongly,
a number of large, well-found ships have been lost. See NP 100 (The Mariners Handbook).
0617. Tropical Storms (Tropical Revolving Storms).

See Section 4 Paras 0640-0642.
0618-0619. Spare
6-7
Change 1
BR 45(6)
SECTION 2
EFFECT OF WEATHER ON SHIP AND CREW
0620. Prevention of Damage
a. Observation. Every opportunity at sea should be taken to study the behaviour of

ships in heavy weather to gain experience and understanding of their sea-keeping
qualities. From this it may be learnt how a particular ship should be handled without
incurring damage.
b. Balance of Safety and Operational Priorities. Warships sometimes have to carry

out tasks irrespective of the weather conditions prevailing, but driving a ship into a storm
in such a way that it sustains damage or even risks foundering, may prove counter-
productive (see Para 0640). Modern warships are fitted with powerful, rapidly
responding propulsion systems which can help to counter danger in heavy weather (eg
when turning - see Para 0633), but the same ships are also thin skinned and can easily
be damaged if driven too hard. The decision of how hard to drive a ship in exercise or
operational circumstances and whether or not to accept the likelihood of damage during
heavy weather must always be a calculated risk. However, sustaining physical damage
to weapons and sensors, upper deck fittings, the superstructure or even the hull itself is
not usually worth the higher speed that might be achieved.
c. Safety of Group of Ships. Although the OTC is responsible for the safety of the
ships under his/her command, the effect of heavy weather on other ships may be difficult
for the OTC to judge, especially at night and if the ships are of different types. When
operating in company, the CO of any ship that is being badly affected by heavy weather
should inform the OTC without delay.
d. Navigational Data Book Records. The NO should observe the ship’s behaviour
in heavy weather and record it, together with any damage incurred, in the Navigational
Data Book (Form RNS 2677). Shiphandling advice based on these observations and
experience should also be recorded in the Navigational Data Book. When any seaman
officer joins the ship, these notes should be read as part of the handover arrangements.
6-8
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BR 45(6)
0621. Precautions for Heavy Weather and Consideration of the Ship’s Company
a. Weather Forecasts. Arrangements should be made to ensure the CO and other key
officers are kept continually informed about expected changes in the weather.
b. Stability. Factors affecting the stability of the ship should be known by key
personnel and any steps necessary to improve stability to the optimum state, well before
encountering heavy weather (see BR 2170 Volume 1- Ship NBCD Manual). This
includes pumping, flooding or ballasting and jettisoning deck cargo. This must be done
while the ship is still fairly steady, otherwise the action to adjust the ship’s stability may
actually endanger it, by creating Free Surface effects or off-centre loadings.
c. Securing for Sea. Before leaving harbour the ship should be fully secured for sea.
This should include securing every item that is movable, particularly if it is likely that
heavy Seas will be met as soon as the harbour entrance is passed.
d. Damage Control Condition. An appropriate watertight NBCD Condition should

be assumed and frequent checks should be made to ensure its integrity is maintained
throughout the period of heavy weather (see BR 45 Volume 4, Para 0834i).
e. Upper Deck Activities. Unless needed for a particular evolution (eg RAS), the
Upper Deck should normally be placed out of bounds in heavy weather. Where
appropriate, lifelines (jackstays) should be rigged on exposed decks before encountering
heavy weather, to help personnel move forward or aft should the requirement arise (eg
to re-secure something on the focsle which has broken loose). When upper deck teams
are working on the focsle or at RAS points, speed must be kept to a minimum so that the
risk of the ship dipping its bows under the waves is minimised; a Down Sea course may
be necessary. Light winds with a long Swell can be deceptive and may cause the ship to
Pitch much more than might be imagined from the vantage point of the Bridge. It takes
only one wave over the focsle to sweep someone overboard; they may well be injured
as a result of being washed over the side and thus may be more difficult to recover. See
also BR 45 Volume 4, Para 0834h/j.
f. Ship’s Company. Violent motion of the ship in heavy weather normally reduces
the efficiency of personnel, particularly when controlling machinery, weapons and
sensors. Inexperienced members of the ship’s company may not have taken motion
sickness pills in good time and their efficiency may thus be substantially reduced by sea
sickness. In heavy weather, the ship’s company should be warned by broadcast of the
intention to alter course a few minutes before doing so; this applies particularly when
about to turn across a Sea or Swell. See also BR 45 Volume 4, Para 0834h.
6-9
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BR 45(6)
0622. Effect of Waves on the Ship
a. Roll and Pitch. The Period of Encounter, Period of Roll and Period of Pitch were
defined at Para 0611, but are repeated here and the latter two illustrated at Figs 6-3a / 6-
3b. It should be noted that the Period of Roll and Period of Pitch both comprise complete
cycles of movement.
• Period of Encounter. The Period of Encounter of waves is the time which
elapses between the passage of two successive wave Crests past a moving
point (ie moving observer in a ship).
• Period of Roll. The Period of Roll is the time a ship takes to roll from one
side to the other and back again.
Fig 6-3a. Period of Roll
• Period of Pitch. The Period of Pitch is the time the bow of a ship takes to rise
from the horizontal, fall below the horizontal and return to the horizontal.
Fig 6-3b. Period of Pitch
b. Relationship Between Ship Movement and Waves. The movement of a ship in

Roll or Pitch depends on the Height and Length of the waves, and the relationship
between the Period of Encounter and the ship’s Period of Roll and Period of Pitch. The
Period of Encounter with the waves can be varied by altering the ship’s course to reduce
Roll and altering the ship’s course and/or speed to reduce Pitch. The greatest
movement develops when the ship’s Period of Roll or Period of Pitch is synchronised
with the Period of Encounter of the waves.
6-10
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BR 45(6)
c. Small Periods of Roll/Pitch and a Large Period of Encounter. When the Period
of Roll or Period of Pitch is small in comparison with the Period of Encounter, the ship
will tend to rise to the waves, keeping its deck parallel to their slope. In a Beam Sea this
will result in rapid, heavy Rolling (see Fig 6-4), and in a Head Sea in a comfortable
motion without much water being shipped.
Fig 6-4. Small Period of Roll / Large Period of Encounter - Heavy Rolling (Beam Sea)
d. Large Periods of Roll/Pitch and a Small Period of Encounter. When the Period
of Roll or Period of Pitch is large in comparison with the Period of Encounter, the ship
will Roll or Pitch independently of the waves. In a Beam Sea this will result in a
comfortable motion, though waves slapping against the weather side may make it wet
(see Fig 6-5). In a Head Sea the ship may bury its bows and bring the propellers out of |
the water, together with the risk of Slamming / Pounding (see Para 0630c). |
Fig 6-5. Large Period of Roll / Small Period of Encounter - Stable Motion (Beam Sea)
e. Similar Periods of Roll/Pitch and Period of Encounter. When the Period of

Encounter is similar to the Period of Roll or Period of Pitch, the ship’s motion will be
violent. In a Beam Sea this may result in dangerously heavy Rolling, while in a Head
Sea the severe and rapid Pitching movement may cause frequent racing of propellers and
severe Hogging and Sagging (see Para 0611) strains on the hull.
CAUTION
When the Period of Encounter is similar to the Period of

Roll or Period of Pitch, the ship’s motion will be violent.
6-11
Change 1
BR 45(6)
f. Typical Periods of Roll, Pitch and Encounter. Typical Periods of Roll, Pitch and
Encounter, for a CVS (length 210 metres) and a Frigate/Destroyer (length 140 metres),
are at Table 6-1. The Period of Encounter at Table 6-1 refers to ships heading into
waves with the same (wave) Length as the ship. From this data it can be seen that it
is inadvisable for a CVS to proceed at just above 20 knots into waves which have a
(wave) Length of 210 metres. Broadly speaking, short, steep or confused waves are
more dangerous to small vessels than to large ships; conversely, long heavy waves are
more dangerous to large ships than to small vessels.
Table 6-1. Typical Periods of Encounter, Roll and Pitch for CVS and FF/DD
Ship Type Natural Period Natural Period of Encounter (Head Sea)
of Roll Period of Pitch for Waves of Same Length as Ship
(Approx) (Approx)
15 Knots 20 Knots
CVS (210m) 14-15 seconds 7.3 seconds 8.2 seconds 7.5 seconds
FF/DD (140 m) 8-10 seconds 4.5 seconds 6.7 seconds 6.0 seconds
g. Effect of Waves on Stability. One additional and potentially significant effect of

waves on a ship is that there is a reduction in stability as the ship rides over the Crest of
a wave. In a ship with poor transverse stability this may result in a dangerous roll,
particularly in a high beam wind.
0623. Other Factors Contributing to Heavy Rolling and Pitching
a. Light Draught. Although the draught of a warship does not vary anything like as
much as the draught of an RFA or cargo ship, the expenditure of fuel and ammunition
may increase its tendency to Roll. Ships fitted with water-compensated fuel tanks do not
suffer from this problem in respect of fuel, which can otherwise be severe if warships are
reduced to a very low fuel state.
b. Free Surface. The free movement of water from one side to the other of flooded
compartments will increase the Period of Roll and the magnitude of any Roll. This effect
will be most marked when the Free Surface water is high in the ship, for example in
ships with bulwarks that have inefficient scuppers. The scuppers of ships with
continuous bulwarks or well decks (eg ISLAND Class OPVs) must function correctly
to ensure that a good reserve of stability is maintained in heavy weather.
c. Snow and Ice. A coating of snow and Ice on the rigging, superstructure or deck
will significantly reduce the stability of a ship. A deposit of 15 centimetres of loosely-
packed snow on the flight deck of a CVS can add a topweight of about 70 tonnes, while
a coating of 5 centimetres of frozen spray over a the upperworks of an FF/DD can add
about 30 tonnes. When de-icing is impracticable, the ship must be handled cautiously
to allow for its reduced stability and sea-keeping qualities. Methods of preventing and
removing coatings of Ice see are contained in ATP 17 - Naval Arctic Manual.
6-12
Change 1
BR 45(6)
0624. Description and Effect of Stabilisers and Other Roll Damper Systems
Bilge Keels, Stabilisers and Tank Roll Damper Systems are commonly used to damp
Rolling. Their construction, method of operation and effect are as follows:
a. Bilge Keels. Bilge Keels are the simplest form of anti-rolling device, and are fitted
to most RN warships and RFAs. They are sited near the turn of the bilge at
approximately right-angles to the hull and they usually extend over about half the length
of the ship. In general, Bilge Keels materially decrease the amplitude of Roll and slightly
increase the Period of Roll. Their effectiveness increases with the forward speed of the
ship, which partly explains why a ship will usually Roll most heavily when stopped.
b. Fin Stabilisers. Fin Stabilisers are fitted in the majority of RN warships. The fins
project almost horizontally below the waterline on each side and are controlled
automatically. The ship is stabilised by altering the angle of incidence of the fins to the
flow of water to counter the ship’s Roll. The effectiveness of the Fin Stabilisers depends
on the ship’s forward speed through the water and their operation involves a small,
though appreciable, loss of speed. Fin Stabilisers are completely ineffective when there
is no flow of water over the fins and this also partly explains why a ship will usually Roll
most heavily when stopped.
c. Passive Tank Roll Damper Systems. In its simplest form this device has been in
existence since Victorian times and consists of two partially filled water tanks linked by
a pipe. As the ship Rolls, water tries to pass from one tank to the other. By varying the
resistance to flow in the pipe joining the tank, it can be arranged that the flow from tank
to tank is exactly out of phase with the Rolling motion of the ship, thus creating a
damping effect. If not correctly ‘tuned’ to the ship’s natural Period of Roll, this system
can actually increase the Roll rather than decrease it. Passive Tank Roll Damper Systems
are not generally fitted to RN warships (except HMS ENDURANCE - see Para 4016)
but may be encountered in a number of RFAs and merchant ships.
d. Active Tank Roll Damper Systems. Active Tank Roll Damper Systems vary from
those at Para 0624c in that they use a pump to effect transfer of water from tank to tank.
The arrangement may either be a simple water pump in the pipe between the tanks, or
in a more sophisticated variant, both tanks are open to the sea at their bottoms and the
water level is controlled indirectly by means of an air pump, which maintains air
pressure above the water in each tank. The latter method is generally more effective and
requires less power to operate. Active Tank Roll Damper systems are not generally fitted
to RN warships (except the ECHO Class - see Para 4216) but variants may be
encountered in a number of RFAs and merchant ships, particularly in Ice-breakers where
the system may be used in reverse to generate a Roll to assist in breaking the ship out of
Ice.
6-13
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BR 45(6)
0625. Effect of Wind on the Ship
a. Effect on Turning Capability. Once a ship has been obliged to reduce to slow
speed by strong winds, the pressure of the wind on its hull and superstructure will have
a proportionately greater effect on its handling qualities. This will be exaggerated if the
ship is lightly laden, has shallow draught or has a superstructure with significantly more
windage at one end of the ship. When stopped in the water, most warships tend to lie
roughly beam to the wind, although this does depend on the hull and superstructure
shape (see Para 0138b). In strong winds, it may be difficult to Cast or Turn at Rest (see
Paras 0312b / 0313b) in sheltered water due to the problem of ‘Stalling’ at the beam-to
wind position. With headway, difficulty may be experienced in turning out of wind due
to the position of the Pivot Point (see Paras 0137c and 0138c) and the natural tendency
of most ships to turn into the wind (the ‘weathercock’ effect). In open waters where a
strong wind is usually accompanied by high Sea States, difficulty may be experienced
in turning across the Sea, either into wind or out of it, not only due to the factor of
| windage, but also due to heavy Rolling and risk of Slamming / Pounding’ (see Para
0630c) into waves if too much power is used (see Para 0633).
b. Surface Drift (Surface Drift Current). When wind blows over the sea surface the
frictional effect tends to cause the surface water to move with the wind; this is known
as Surface Drift (or Surface Drift Current). The speed of such Surface Drifts are variable
although it has been postulated that at a maximum they can amount to 1/40th of the wind
strength. This figure should be treated with caution, as it also depends on the length of
time and the Fetch over which the wind has been blowing (see BR 45 Volume 1 page
179 and Chapter 4 of NP 100 (The Mariners Handbook)). In practice it is often difficult
to distinguish between the effects of Surface Drift and Leeway.
c. Leeway. Leeway is the effect of wind in moving a vessel bodily to leeward at right
angles to the course steered (see BR 45 Volume 1 Page 177), and is a different effect to
Surface Drift (see Para 0625b above). The amount of Leeway a ship makes in strong
winds depends on the ship’s speed, draught and freeboard, and its course in relation to
the direction of the wind and waves. In winds of gale, storm or Hurricane force the
Leeway with the wind abeam may exceed 2 knots, particularly if the ship is at slow
speed. The amount of Leeway made by a ship can only be judged by experience,
assisted by any records of previous experience contained in form RNS 2677 (Navigation
Data Book), but it is wise to allow a liberal margin for safety when passing dangers to
leeward; throughout history there have been numerous cases of ships having gone
aground through losing more ground to leeward than expected. It is therefore
important to allow sufficiently for Leeway and Surface Drift, even in modern ships.
0626-0629. Spare
6-14
Change 1
BR 45(6)
SECTION 3
SHIPHANDLING IN HEAVY WEATHER (INCLUDING HELO OPS)
0630. Maintaining Headway in Heavy Weather - Into Sea
a. Factors for Consideration. There are three primary factors to be considered when
a ship is heading Into Sea:
• The force of impact of the waves on the bow.
• The amount of Pitching being experienced.
• Whether waves are breaking on board.
b. Force of Impact on the Bow. The force of impact of the waves on the bow is
governed by the formula for Kinetic Energy (ie Force = ½ Mass x Velocity squared, or
KE =½mv2). Due to the squared function of Velocity in this formula, it follows that even
a small speed reduction will greatly reduce the Force of impact of the waves on the bow.
c. Pitching and its Effects. The amount a ship Pitches is mostly governed by its
natural Period of Pitch compared to the Period of Encounter, but other factors such as
the Trim, the shape of the bows and the lightness (or otherwise) of construction will
substantially vary the effect of Pitching in a particular ship, as follows.
• Trimmed by the Head. If a ship heading Into Sea is Trimmed by the head,
it will probably Pitch sluggishly and tend to bury its bows in the waves.
• Trimmed by the Stern. If a ship heading Into Sea is Trimmed too much by
the stern, its bows will tend to pay off to one side or the other, and it may be
difficult to keep it heading into the wind and Sea.
• Shape of the Bow and Slamming / Pounding. Slamming is a violent vertical |
movement of the ship into a wave and Pounding is the equivalent horizontal |
movement. Ships whose bows are flared will be forced to reduce speed when |
Pitching badly sooner than ships with comparatively straight-sided bows due
to Slamming / Pounding. The effect of Slamming / Pounding is unmistakable |
- there is usually a bang as the ship hits the wave, the ship staggers slightly
and then shakes, sometimes quite violently. The movement is not unlike that
of a dog shaking a rat.
• Construction of the Ship and Possibility of Slamming / Pounding Damage. |
Although modern warships are relatively lightly built compared to the
armoured ships of a earlier generations, they are designed to be able to proceed
through heavy Seas at reasonably high speeds. However, if Slamming / |
Pounding does occur in a modern warship, the effects can be serious and |
damage is likely to occur unless action is taken quickly to stop the ship
Slamming / Pounding (eg by slowing down / altering course - see Para 0630d). |
• Waves Breaking on Board. Waves breaking on board are potentially very
dangerous and can cause substantial damage on the upper decks. Weapons and
sensors may be adversely affected. See Para 0614a.
6-15
Change 1
BR 45(6)
d. Remedies for Pitching. The shape and construction of the ship cannot be altered
by those operating it, but three remedies are available to counter Pitching and its effects:
• Changing Trim. The effect of Pitching can be modified by altering the ship’s
Trim. The best condition for a ship heading Into Sea is for it to be Trimmed
slightly by the stern and lightly laden forward, so that the propellers and
rudder are well immersed with the bows having a good reserve of buoyancy.
• Changing Speed. Changing speed will alter the Pitching of the ship because
it changes the Period of Encounter (see Paras 0622). Early action to reduce
| speed is preferable to suffering damage from Slamming / Pounding.
However, it does not follow that a reduction of speed will always reduce
Pitching, or that an increase of speed will always increase Pitching. The larger
ships of a formation are sometimes more uncomfortable and may ship more
water than smaller ships after reducing speed; in such circumstances it may be
better for the large ships to continue at their original speed and zigzag, so as
to maintain the same speed of advance as the remainder of the formation.
Care should be taken not to take this idea of higher speed into heavy weather
to extremes, which has occasionally occurred in the past. After increasing to
a relatively high speed and perhaps being able to ‘leap from Crest to Crest
with panache’ comfortably for a while, should a large wave come out of
sequence, it is likely the ship will bury its bows into the Trough with the risk
| of serious damage as it Slams / Pounds at high speed and takes the unbroken
wave ‘green’ over the bow. In summary, the speed needed for a
| comfortable motion will be low enough to avoid the risk of Slamming /
| Pounding and high enough to make the Period of Encounter as different
as possible from the ship’s natural Period of Pitch.
• Changing Course. Altering course to bring the Seas on the bow may reduce
Pitching but the resulting motion may be more uncomfortable and more water
may be shipped. However, it may sometimes be necessary to do this in order
to prevent the stern being continually lifted out of the water, causing the
propellers to race and strain the propeller shafts and bearings.
0631. Maintaining Headway in Heavy Weather - Beam to Sea
a. Factors for Consideration. Rolling does not always have the dramatic impact of
| Pitching and Slamming / Pounding, but the Rolling caused by a Beam Sea may be so
excessive that personnel have difficulty in keeping on their feet and working efficiently.
It can also cause equipment which is in use, or which has been badly secured, to break
adrift. To give some perspective to these effects, it should be noted that during an
exceptional Roll to 41° recorded by an RN warship in the South Atlantic, the entire
contents of the main galley servery were deposited high on the adjacent bulkhead;
fortunately no one was injured. Ships seldom suffer hull damage through Rolling, but
Seas riding over low decks may cause damage to upper deck fittings and equipment,
particularly if the wave breaks on board (see Para 0614a).
b. Remedies for Rolling. Alterations of speed will NOT affect Rolling. The best
way to reduce Rolling is to alter course and make the Period of Encounter as different
as possible from the ship’s natural Period of Roll. Stabilisers should also be operated.
6-16
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BR 45(6)
0632. Maintaining Headway in Heavy Weather - Stern to Sea
a. Factors for Consideration. There are two primary factors to be considered when
a ship is heading Down Sea:
• The risk of ‘Broaching-To’.
• The risk of being ‘Pooped’.
In general, if one has to choose the lesser of two evils, being Pooped is much less
hazardous than Broaching-To, but if at all possible, both should be avoided.
b. Broaching-To. If the ship’s length is similar to the wave Length and the ship’s
speed is similar to Wave Speed, a ship may run for some time on the Crest of a wave.
If the ship Pitches forward onto the downward slope of the wave, the stern lifts and the
rudder exerts less control (see Fig 6-6, Position 1). If the wave breaks as the ship moves
down its slope, the entire ship will be carried forward by the faster-moving breaking
water (see Para 0614a) and the ship will begin to Surf down the wave. The forward
motion of the water relative to the rudder and propellers reduces steering control still
further, causing a Yaw to develop which is usually impossible to correct. The bow will
then bury itself deep into the Wave Trough and the stern will swing round until the ship
lies broadside to the waves (see Fig 6-6, Position 2). This is called ‘Broaching-To’ (or
‘Broaching’). The ship will then roll heavily and if a following wave breaks over it in
sequence with the ship’s Roll to leeward, it may heel further, possibly capsizing and
sinking (see Fig 6-6, Position 3).
Fig 6-6. Stages in a Ship Broaching-To
6-17
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BR 45(6)
(0632) c. Avoiding Broaching-To. The following measures should be taken to avoid

Broaching-To. Once the process of Broaching-To starts, it is very difficult to stop it.
• To avoid risk of Broaching-To, ship’s speed should not exceed 60% of
Wave Speed. This figure is based on proven practical experience, but when
used also increases the risk of the ship being Pooped (see Para 0632g
opposite).
• The possibility of Broaching-To (or being Pooped) decreases greatly if the
wave Length is either much greater or much smaller than that of the ship.
Judging the Wave Speed is important; waves of 200 metres or more in Wave
Length usually have a speed of at least 30 knots and waves of 100 metres
travel at under 15 knots.
• Loss of effective steering control while hovering on the Wave Crest for a time
may indicate that Broaching-To is imminent. If a Broach-To starts, the only
possible counter-measure is to order “Full Astern Both Engines” and try
to pull the ship out of it. However as the propellers and rudders will be in a
severely reduced flow of water, it is unlikely to be very successful.
Example. With a Wave Speed of 26 knots, a ship whose length approximates to the Wave
Length, proceeding at 20 knots (ie 77% of Wave Speed) is likely to Surf on the Crest of wave,
experience unstable steering and Broach-To. The safe speed in this example would be 15½
knots (ie 60% of wave speed), but attracts an increased risk of being Pooped (see Para 0632g
opposite).
d. Broaching-To in Shallowing Water. When running Down Sea towards shallowing

water, the waves will become higher and steeper, so increasing the danger of
Broaching-To (or Pooping, depending on ship’s speed). In an estuary, if there is the risk
of Broaching-To, there will be the added danger of Yawing right out of the navigable
channel and running aground. It is not advisable to increase speed to proceed above
Wave Speed as this may result in losing steering control for a period while ship’s and
Waves’ Speed coincide. If unable to avoid the situation, being Pooped is preferable to
Broaching-To and thus ship’s speed should not exceed 60% of Wave Speed.
e. Steering. Steering when running Down Sea in heavy weather is always liable to be
difficult and allowance must be made for Yawing on either side of the intended course.
Constant supervision by the OOW is necessary and if steering manually, a reduction in
the length of time each helmsman is closed up may be required. Auto-steering will often
prove superior to manual steering in these conditions, provided adequate rudder limits
are set.
f. Drogues. To avoid being blown along at the speed of the waves, very small vessels
may stream a Drogue aft, to reduce their speed and avoid the risk of Surfing. See Paras
0527g and 0634e.
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(0632) g. Pooping. If the ship’s length is similar to the wave Length and the ship’s speed
is slower than Wave Speed, a wave may overtake it and break on the ship (see Fig 6-7,
Position 1). The water will then sweep along the upper decks from aft at 1½ times Wave
Speed (see Para 0614a), normally causing substantial damage (see Fig 6-7, Position 2).
This is known as ‘Pooping’ (or being ‘Pooped’) and if it occurs to RN warships with
flight decks aft, damage to the hangar door and aircraft inside is likely to occur, as well
as to other parts of the upper deck. A ship may be Pooped without having lost steering
control. While still serious, Pooping is much less dangerous than Broaching-To.
Fig 6-7. Stages in a Ship Being Pooped
h. Avoiding Pooping. By slowing down with a following Sea in order to avoid the
risk of Broaching-To, the risk of Pooping is unavoidably increased. Unless it is possible
to alter course, or even turn Into Sea, it may be impossible to avoid being Pooped.
• The possibility of being Pooped (or Broaching-To) decreases greatly if the
wave Length is either much greater or much smaller than that of the ship.
Judging the Wave Speed is important; waves of 200 metres or more in Wave
Length usually have a speed of at least 30 knots and waves of 100 metres
travel at under 15 knots.
• If proceeding at the recommended speed to avoid risk of Broaching-To, (ie
ship’s speed not exceeding 60% of Wave Speed), some reduction in steering
control may be experienced as waves overtake the ship. However, any loss of
steering control should not be substantial and it should still be possible to
control the ship, even while the Pooping wave is breaking on board.
i. Pooping in Shallowing Water. When running Down Sea towards shallowing

water, the waves will become higher and steeper, so increasing the danger of being
Pooped (or Broaching-To, depending on ship’s speed). If unable to avoid the
situation, being Pooped is preferable to Broaching-To and thus ship’s speed should
not exceed 60% of Wave Speed. It should be noted that Wave Height is likely to
increase in the vicinity of the continental shelf due to the sudden decrease in depth (see
Para 0614b).
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Fig 6-8. North Atlantic in Force 12 Conditions (Ship Suffered Considerable Damage)
Fig 6-9. North Atlantic in Force 12 Conditions (Ship Suffered Considerable Damage)
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0633. Turning the Ship Across the Sea in Heavy Weather

Turning a ship across the Sea in heavy weather (from heading Into Sea to heading Down
Sea or vice versa) has been described poetically as “The greatest act of seamanship in
existence”. There is some truth in this poetic view, as there can be considerable risk in
attempting to turn a ship round in heavy weather, and in some circumstances it may not be
physically possible to achieve it. In heavy weather, groups of relatively low waves alternate with
groups of high ones (see Paras 0613b/c), and in selecting the most suitable moment to start the
turn, a good understanding of waves patterns, good seamanship and an element of seaman’s
instinct is required (see Figs 6-8 /6-9 opposite).
a. Starting Into Sea - Turning Out of Wind. When turning OUT of wind and Sea,
the critical moment will always be half-way through the turn, when the wind is abeam.
The ship will then be at its most reluctant to turn further (out of wind), and to maximise
the turning power available, this (half-way) stage should occur during one of the calmer
periods of waves. The procedure from the start of the turn is as follows:
• Start the turn so that the smallest waves occur at the half-way point.
• From a moderate speed (Into Sea), start the turn using full rudder and sharp
bursts of ahead power (to create propeller wash over the rudders and so a large
Turning Moment but without gaining too much headway), possibly combined
with reversing the inner propeller to check headway if necessary, thus
avoiding Slamming / Pounding into the waves. |
• Once the turn is well under way and the risk of Slamming / Pounding directly |
into a Head Sea is no longer a threat, complete the turn as rapidly as possible.
To avoid Stalling at the half-way point while turning out of wind, use high
power on both propellers for a short time. Maintain the turn through the half-
way point (ideally during one of the calmer periods -see Para 0613b/c) before
steadying on a Down Sea heading, reducing power as appropriate.
• If high ahead power is used at the right moment, the heel caused by its use in
the turn will tend to counteract the heel caused by wind and Sea, and so help
to make the ship more stable while turning. In very high Sea States, or if
insufficient power is used, or if the wave pattern has been misjudged, the ship
may Roll heavily at the mid-point of the turn when the Sea is on the beam.
b. Starting Down Sea - Turning Into of Wind. When turning INTO wind and Sea,
the ship is unlikely to Stall at the half way point. As the turn starts at slow speed, it is
best to turn the ship with one of the calmer periods (see Para 0613b/c) at the beginning.
The procedure is as follows.
• Reduce to the slowest speed practicable (Down Sea), while avoiding Pooping.
• Start the turn so that the smallest waves occur as the turn starts.
• Use full rudder for the turn. It should not be difficult to reach the half-way
point, still at relatively slow speed. The ship will Roll very heavily.
• At the half-way point use plenty of ahead power. When the ship answers and
the rate of turn increases, reduce power sharply to avoid Slamming / Pounding, |
maintaining sufficient power to keep the ship turning into wind.
• Hold the ship steady Into Sea at slow speed, Heaving-To if required.
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0634. Heaving-To and Sea Anchors
a. Heaving-To: Factors for Consideration. The weather may become so violent in

the open sea that the overriding needs are to avoid damage and keep the ship afloat. The
aim of Heaving-To is to keep the ship as steady as possible and to prevent Seas from
breaking on board and so damaging or flooding it. No two situations are alike and the
ship’s stability, handling qualities, the forecast trend of the weather and the sea room
available must be taken into account to decide which is the best method of Heaving-To
in the prevailing circumstances. The three methods of Heaving-To are:
• Lying with the Sea on the bow at minimum speed to keep steerage way.
• Lying with the Sea on the quarter at slow speed.
• Stopping and allowing the ship to drift near the Eye of a Tropical Storm.
b. Heaving-to with the Sea on the Bow. Heaving-to with the Sea on the bow may
be necessary due to lack of sea room to leeward. The advantages and disadvantages are
as follows:
• Speed. A speed of anything from 6 to 12 knots rung on will be needed to keep
the ship bow-to-wind, but even then, the ship may make little headway and
may possibly lose ground to leeward.
| • Motion. Heavy Pitching and Slamming / Pounding may occur, even if the
power used is reduced to the minimum to maintain steerage way (see Para
0630).
• Possible Damage. The engines are being used to drive the ship against the
Sea and so the likelihood of damage is increased. There may be a risk of
structural damage to the hull in ships with wide-flared bows.
• Single Propeller Ships. Due to Paddlewheel Effect, RN warships with a
single propeller may find it easier to steer with the wind fine on the port bow.
c. Heaving-to with the Sea on the Quarter. Heaving-To with the Sea on the quarter
is possible if there is sufficient sea room downwind. The advantages and disadvantages
are as follows:
• Sea Room Downwind. There must be plenty of sea room to allow the ship
to be driven Down Sea for a protracted period.
• Speed. Speed must be carefully adjusted to avoid Broaching-To or being
Pooped and the steering must be closely supervised (see Para 0632).
| • Motion. Heavy Rolling and Pitching may occur, but Slamming / Pounding
is unlikely and motion is likely to be easier than with the Sea on the bow,
unless Broaching-To or Pooping occurs.
| • Possible Damage. Heading Down Sea will avoid Slamming / Pounding and
possible damage forward that may occur if Heaving-To with the Sea on the
bow. However, if the ship is Pooped, damage aft may occur (warships usually
have low freeboard at the stern and are not designed to take Seas from aft). If
it Broaches-To, serious damage or loss can occur (see Paras 0632 / 0640e).
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d. Heaving-to by Drifting with Engines Stopped Near the Eye of a Tropical Storm
(Tropical Revolving Storm). It has been argued that Heaving-To by drifting with the
engines stopped is the only logical method to adopt if a ship is near the centre of a
Tropical Storm (see Paras 0640 and 0642). This is because the Sea is confused and
does not come from any particular direction and thus it is impossible to drive the ship
either Into Sea or Down Sea. Using engines in these conditions is at one moment likely
to push the ship into a huge wave and possibly drive the focsle under, while at the next
moment, the ship may be accelerated down the Crest of a wave coming from astern and
subsequently Broach-To. Well documented cases (see Note below) have been reported
of ships riding successfully, directly under or near the centres of Tropical Storms, with
engines stopped. The following factors are relevant:
• Leeway and Surface Drift. A ship may be expected to make 2 to 3 knots
Leeway in gale / storm force winds and it may even reach 5 knots in a Tropical
Storm. Surface Drift may add to this depending on the Fetch (see Para 0611)
involved (see Para 0625). Plenty of sea room all round is needed, because the
wind may change direction as the Eye of the Tropical Storm passes.
• Time. Ships riding out a Tropical Storm with engines stopped may have to
drift for up to 12 hours and possibly longer.
• Stability and Watertight Integrity. Adequate stability and good watertight
integrity are essential.
• Motion. Heavy Rolling and Pitching may occur but Seas are unlikely to be
taken on deck.
• Damage. No damage is likely to be sustained.
• Attitude. The ship is likely to lie with the wind approximately abeam, with
waves approaching from all directions.
• Heaving-To by drifting with the engines stopped is NOT SUITABLE if
the wind and Sea are from roughly the same direction for prolonged
periods. The use of this method should be confined to the area near the
Eye of a Tropical Storm.
Note. Documented cases of ships stopping engines near the centre of a Tropical Storm include:
(1) Freighter of 14,000 tons Displacement during a Hurricane in the Caribbean Sea (pre 1940).
(2) US Destroyer with total power failure during Typhoon in December 1944 (see Para 0640).
(3) USAT PVT GEORGE EF PETERS during Typhoon in July 1949.
(4) USNS SGT JOSEPH E MULLER during Typhoon Ruth in October 1951.
e. Sea Anchors And Drogues. Riding to a Sea Anchor streamed over the bow can
be effective in keeping a vessel into wind and Into Sea, and reducing its Drift Rate to
leeward. Sea Anchors giving an effective Drag were easy to make in the days of sail,
when ships could construct them from their heavy wooden spars and canvas. However,
most modern ships would need a very large Sea Anchor to be effective and it is unlikely
whether one of sufficient size could be constructed with the materials available in RN
warships. Nonetheless, it is worth while bearing in mind that streaming a Drogue aft
(see Para 0527g) could at times be of assistance in a small ship (see Paras 0632g-i). This
has to be balanced against the risk of a line becoming entangled with a propeller.
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0635. Helicopter Operations in Marginal or Heavy Weather

In heavy weather, particularly in FF/DD size ships and below, the aircraft should be
secured inside the hangar if possible. However, in certain circumstances it may be necessary to
operate aircraft in marginal conditions and/or stow embarked aircraft on the Flight Deck. Apart
from all the normal Pitch / Roll / wind limits, there are 3 additional key hazards to helicopter
operations from marginal and heavy Sea conditions: Tail Rotor Immersion (TRI), Damage on
Deck (DOD) and Damage on Take-Off or Landing (DOTOL).
a. Tail Rotor Immersion (TRI). Tail Rotor Immersion (TRI) occurs when the
aircraft’s overhanging tail rotor (a standard situation for a Lynx on the spot in a T42) is
immersed in the ship’s wake. If the aircraft is ‘rotors running’ this will cause catastrophic
damage; if the aircraft is not ‘rotors running’ some damage is still likely to occur. There
are 3 situations when TRI is likely to be encountered:
• At High Speed. When the ship is at high speed, particularly in shallow water,
a Wake plume is generated. When this plume is combined with even a
moderate Sea (Sea State 4) or above, there is a significant danger of TRI.
• In High Short Seas at any Speed. There is a risk of TRI at any speed in high
short seas (Sea State 5 or above). In these conditions, a resonant hull
response, combined with a set of large waves, can submerge the stern
momentarily and damage the tail rotor. This can occur at speeds as low as 2-3
kn.
• With a Large Following Swell / Sea. TRI can also occur if a large following
Swell / Sea (usually Sea State 6 or greater) results in part of the stern taking
water. In extreme cases this may escalate to Pooping. It should be noted that
with heavy Swell conditions, the wind may be benign.
b. Damage on Deck. Damage on Deck (DOD) results from medium to heavy spray
hitting aircraft rotors when ‘rotors running’ and through heavier waves impacting on a
ranged aircraft. One countermeasure is to make maximum use of sheltered helo spots
(Fly 1 and Fly 2 in T42). There are 2 situations when DOD is likely to be encountered:
• Manoeuvring Across the Sea. When the ship makes a turn which drives the
up-sea quarter into the dominant Sea / Swell, it results in waves slapping
heavily against the weather quarter, creating heavy spray or waves which carry
across the Flight Deck. This effect can occur at Sea State 3 or lower if the
ship is accelerating into the turn or is at high speed.
• Strong Winds. In Sea State 5 or above with strong winds from astern, there
is a risk of Sea / Swell positively reinforcing the ship’s Wake Waves (Wash).
The relative wind then carries the resultant Wave ‘plume’ over the Flight
Deck.
c. Damage on Take-Off or Landing (DOTOL). Damage on Take-Off or Landing

(DOTOL) can occur when the bow creates heavy spray due to a combination of high
winds from directly ahead, ships speed and Sea State. The spray may then be carried aft,
hazarding a take-off or landing. The following countermeasures may be taken:
• Avoid violent alterations across the direction of the Sea / Swell with aircraft
‘rotors running’ on deck.
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• Where possible, be steadied on the intended Flying Course in sufficient time

to allow a judgement of conditions, noting that the worse Sea State - the
longer the ship will need to be on a Flying Course to make this judgement.
• Keep the time spent ‘rotors running’ on deck to an absolute minimum. If the
aircraft is held on deck consider stopping rotors.
• Ensure good communications between the PWO, Bridge and Flight Deck. The
latter are well placed to spot changes in the prevailing conditions.
d. Variability of Key Factors. The infinite variety of weather conditions make it

impossible to predict the consequences for every situation. The key factors in assessing
risk of damage are: the Swell / Sea State, ship’s course and speed and the wind.
0636-0639. Spare
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SECTION 4 - TROPICAL STORMS (HURRICANES, TYPHOONS etc)
0640. Tropical Storms (Tropical Revolving Storms).

Section 4 (Paras 0640-0642) provides an overview of Tropical Storms, and is only
intended to introduce the subject. A detailed explanation of the formation, occurrence,
characteristics and paths of Tropical Storms is at Chapter 5 of NP 100 (The Mariners Handbook).
a. Formation. Tropical Storms (also known as ‘Tropical Revolving Storms’) are

intense areas of low pressure which develop in certain tropical oceanic areas and cause
very high winds and heavy Seas. The wind does not revolve around the low pressure
centre in concentric circles but has a spiral movement inwards towards the centre. The
air circulation is anti-clockwise in northern latitudes and clockwise in southern latitudes.
b. Characteristics. Within about 80 nautical miles of the centre of a Tropical Storm,

the wind is often very violent and the Seas are high and confused. In the ‘Eye’ of the
storm, within 5 to 10 miles of the centre, the wind is light or moderate and variable, the
sky is clear or partially so, and there is a heavy, sometimes mountainous, confused Swell.
Owing to torrential rain and sheets of almost continuous spray, visibility near the storm
centre (but outside the Eye) is almost nil.
c. Season. Tropical Storms are most frequent during the late summer and early
autumn of their respective hemispheres (ie August to October in the northern hemisphere
and January to March in the southern). Exceptionally, in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea, Tropical Storms are most likely at the change of the monsoons (ie November and
May). However, a Tropical Storm can occur a month or two outside the above periods.
d. Local Names. Tropical Storms are often referred to by the following local names:
• North Atlantic (including West Indies) - Hurricane
• South Pacific and North East Pacific - Hurricane
• North West Pacific (including Hong Kong and Japan)- Typhoon
• Australia - Hurricane or Cyclone, or (old usage) Willy-Willies
• Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea) - Cyclone
e. Destructive Power of a Tropical Storm. The following extract (opposite) is part

of a letter written by the CinC of the US Pacific Fleet, after a very violent Typhoon off
the Philippines decimated a major US Task Force during the latter part of World War II.
The losses sustained had a serious impact on subsequent warfare operations. Although
this incident took place in 1944, with less sophisticated ships and weather forecasting
facilities than those of today, the destructive power of a well developed Tropical Storm
remains at best unchanged, and at worst, even greater due to global warming. Modern
ships have high windages, are lightly built and may also be vulnerable to such storms.
The description of the conditions is sobering enough in itself, but the subsequent analysis
of the operational and navigational errors made then still have relevance for naval
operations today. These factors are listed immediately after the description of the
Typhoon (opposite).
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Extract of a letter written by the Commander-in-Chief of the US Pacific Fleet

“In December 1944, vessels of the US Pacific Fleet, operating to the east of the
Phillippines, were caught near the centre of a Typhoon of extreme violence. Three destroyers
capsized and went down with practically all hands. Serious damage was sustained by a light
cruiser, 3 small carriers, 3 escort carriers and 3 destroyers. Lesser damage was sustained by at
least 19 other vessels, from heavy cruisers down to escort vessels. Fires occurred in 3 aircraft
carriers when planes were smashed in their hangars; some 146 aircraft were damaged beyond
repair by fires, by being smashed up or by being washed overboard. About 790 men were lost
or killed. Several surviving destroyers reported rolling 70° or more.
The following reports were typical during this storm:
1. Visibility zero to 1000 yards.
2. Ships not merely rolling but heeled over continually by the force of the wind, thus
leaving them very little margin for rolling to leeward.
3. Water being shipped in quantity through ventilators, blower intakes and every
upper deck opening.
4. Switchboards and electrical machinery of all kinds short-circuited and flooded;
fires resulting from short-circuits.
5. Loss of steering control, failure of power and lighting and stopping of main
engines; loss of radar and all radio communications.
6. Free Surface water up to 3 feet over engine deck plates and in other compartments.
7. Wind speeds and Seas which carried away masts, funnels, boats, davits, and deck
structures generally and made it impossible for men to secure gear which had gone
adrift, or to jettison or strike below topside weights, when the necessity had become
paramount.
8. Ships lost took a long roll to leeward, varying from 50° to 80°, hung there for a
little while and then capsized, floating for only a short time before sinking.”
Other factors, assessed as relevant shortly after the incident, are as follows. It should
not be forgotten that this incident took place at the height of a very violent World War, and
the forces involved were engaged in a major combat mission at the time.
• Over-reliance was apparently made on the Fleet weather forecast.
• The Typhoon took place at the extreme end of the season for Tropical Storms
for that area, and well after the peak period.
• The observable signs of an approaching Typhoon were not heeded in time.
• Commanding Officers failed to realise sufficiently far in advance that it was
necessary for them to give up the attempt to maintain Station and formation
and give all their attention to saving their ships.
• There was a lack of appreciation that really dangerous weather conditions
existed, until it was too late to make preparations that may have been helpful.
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0641. Warning Signs of the Approach of a Tropical Storm (Tropical Revolving Storm)
a. Further Reading. An overview of Tropical Storms is at Para 0640, although more

detailed explanation of the formation, occurrence, characteristics and paths of Tropical
Storms is at Chapter 5 of NP 100 (The Mariners Handbook). Detailed advice on the
avoidance and weathering of an approaching Tropical Storm is at Para 0642.
b. Nomenclature. The following terms are used with Tropical Storms (see Fig 6-10).
• Point of Recurvature. The Point of Recurvature is the most westerly point
reached by the centre of the storm before it Recurves.
• Navigable Semicircle. The Navigable Semicircle is the semicircle which lies
on the side of the path farthest from the normal direction in which the storm
Recurves (that is, on the equatorial side of the path). A vessel in this semi-
circle will be blown away from the storm centre, and the Recurvature of the
storm will increase its distance from the centre. After the storm has Recurved,
the Navigable Semicircle is on the polar side of the path.
• Dangerous Semicircle. The Dangerous Semicircle is the semicircle which
lies on the side of the path nearest to the normal direction in which the storm
Recurves (that is, on the polar side of the path). A vessel in this semicircle
will be blown towards the path along which storm centre will pass, or the
storm may Recurve and the centre pass over it. After the storm has Recurved,
the Dangerous Semicircle is on the equatorial side of the path.
• Dangerous Quadrant. The Dangerous Quadrant is the leading quadrant of
the Dangerous Semicircle. When warning of a Tropical Storm has been
received, course and speed should normally be adjusted so that the ship keeps
out of the Dangerous Quadrant.
c. Availability of Warnings. The advent of weather satellite imagery and the

international exchange of comprehensive meteorological information ensures that, in
peacetime, timely warnings of Tropical Storms are always available by radio. However,
in periods of tension or war, this information may not be so readily available and so it is
important that ships are capable of being guided by their own observations. Tropical
Storms are intense but are of also of relatively small diameter, and without external
information little warning of their approach may be available to the observer at sea. The
following signs indicate the approach of a Tropical Storm.
d. Warning Signs - Barometer. At sea in the tropics, the barometric pressure varies
very little except for regular Diurnal Variations which have a range of about 3 mb (see
Note opposite). If the barometer reading (corrected for height, latitude, temperature,
Diurnal Variations and index error) is 3 mb or more below the mean for the time of year,
as shown in the appropriate volume of the Admiralty Sailing Directions, suspicions
should be aroused as a Tropical Storm may be within 500 nautical miles. If the
corrected reading is 5 mb below normal, avoiding action should be taken as there
can be no doubt that a Tropical Storm is in the vicinity, probably within 200 to 250
miles. Because of the importance of pressure readings, in geographical areas affected by
Tropical Storms, it is wise to monitor and record hourly barometric readings.
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Fig 6-10. Nomenclature and Typical Paths of Tropical Storms

Note. Barometric ‘Diurnal Variations’ (see Para 0641d opposite) are caused by Pressure
Waves which sweep round the Earth from east to west, with a period of 12 hours. In the tropics,
the barometer varies by about 3 mb at regular (approximate) Local Mean Times (at 0400 the
pressure is low, at 1000 high, at 1600 low, at 2200 high, and at 0400 low again). The predicted
values of Diurnal Variation are given in the Admiralty Sailing Directions for the area. Diurnal
Variations are masked by other pressure variations in latitudes outside the tropics.
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( 0641) e. Warning Signs - Barometer Movement as Tropical Storm Closes. In normal

circumstances, and on occasions when a Tropical Storm is going to pass uncomfortably
close to the observer, there are usually three fairly definite phases in the fall of the
barometer. In the rear of the Tropical Storm the barometer rises as rapidly as it fell in
advance of the storm.
• First Phase. The first phase is a slow fall during which the Diurnal Variation
is still apparent on the barograph trace. This usually occurs between 500 and
120 nautical miles from the centre of the Tropical Storm.
• Second Phase. The second phase is a distinct fall during which the Diurnal
Variation is almost completely masked. This usually occurs between 120 and
60 miles from the centre of the Tropical Storm.
• Third Phase. The third phase is a rapid fall, usually occurring between 60 to
10 nautical miles from the centre. It is not uncommon for the barometer at the
centre of a Tropical Storm to stand at 60mb to 70mb lower than in the region
outside the storm field. The steepest pressure gradient normally encountered
is 11mb in 15 nautical miles. An example of a typical barograph trace of a
Tropical Storm passing near an observer (Typhoon very close to Hong Kong)
is at Fig 6-11.
Fig 6-11. Passage of a Typhoon at Hong Kong
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f. Warning Signs - Swell. In the open sea, if there is no intervening land between the
ship and the Tropical Storm, the Swell may give the first indication of its approach. The
Swell may extend from 1,000 to 1,500 nautical miles from the centre of the Tropical
Storm and in a fully developed Tropical Storm can usually be relied upon to make itself
felt 400 nautical miles from the centre. Although the Swell increases as the Tropical
Storm approaches, its state does NOT give any reliable indication of the distance to the
centre. The Swell moves out from the centre of the Tropical Storm and thus its direction
DOES give a good indication of the Bearing of the centre. When the Tropical Storm
is at a distance greater than 200 nautical miles from a ship, the direction of the
Swell is the most reliable of all indications of the direction in which the centre lies.
g. Warning Signs - Radar. Radar may give warning of the approach of a Tropical
Storm within about 100 nautical miles. Tropical Storms are easily recognised on radar
by their large, solid circular shape and whorls on the display. The echoes cover a vastly
greater area than echoes from any other type of weather phenomenon, as well as being
more intense. The Eye (centre) of the Tropical Storm may also be a prominent feature
and even if it is outside the maximum range of the radar, it is often possible to estimate
its position from the curvature of the whirling cloud echoes.
h. Warning Signs - Wind. An appreciable change in the direction and /or strength of
the wind may indicate the presence or formation of a Tropical Storm.
i. Warning Signs - Sky. Extensive cirrus cloud generally precedes a Tropical Storm,
followed by much altostratus as the centre comes nearer, and subsequently by
nimbostratus and ‘scud’ (see Fig 6-12 overleaf).
j. Warning Signs - Together. Although the warning signs of the approach of a

Tropical Storm have been listed separately at Paras 0641d-i, it is important that all these
factors (barometer, Swell, radar, wind, sky) must be considered together.
k. Weather Reports by Ships. Despite the advent of weather satellite observations

for the prediction and tracking of Tropical Storms, meteorological observations from sea
level are extremely valuable. It is obligatory for ships in or near the vicinity of an actual
(or suspected) Tropical Storm should make weather reports by radio at frequent intervals
(EMCON permitting), providing the following information (see NP100 Chapter 5):
• UT (GMT) / date, and position, true course / speed of ship at observation.
• Position of the storm as far as can be ascertained.
• Barometric pressure at sea level (accurate barometer readings are particularly
important and should be corrected in the normal way (see Para 0641d), but
NOT for Diurnal Variation).
• Change in barometric pressure during the previous 3 hours.
• True direction and force of the wind.
• State of the Sea, Height of the Swell and the direction from which it comes.
• The Period and Length of the Swell.
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Fig 6-12. Hurricane Floyd Approaching the US Coast, Showing the Characteristic
Spiral Cloud Pattern and the Distinctive ‘Eye’ At the Centre. (© Fig 6-12 see page xiii).
Note. Hurricane Floyd struck the US in September 1999. At its worst, Floyd’s central pressure
dropped to 885 millibars with sustained winds of 160 knots in its circulation, gusting to 180
knots. A US ‘Federal Disaster Area’ was declared in Florida, Georgia and the Carolinas, and
3.5 million people were evacuated from coastal areas in Floyd’s path. Abnormal Swells reached
as far north as Massachusetts, some 1500 nautical miles to the north. Although Hurricane Floyd
was severe, a Tropical Storm of greater intensity (Hurricane Gilbert) struck Jamaica in 1988.
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0642. Avoidance and Weathering of a Tropical Storm (Tropical Revolving Storm)

To decide on the best course of action when a Tropical Storm is suspected to be in the
vicinity, the following information is needed:
• The Bearing of the centre of the Tropical Storm.
• The path of the Tropical Storm.
• Whether the ship is likely to be in the Dangerous or the Navigable Semicircle.
a. Bearing of the Centre of a Tropical Storm by Swell Direction. The Swell moves
out from the centre of the Tropical Storm and thus its direction (ie 90° to the waves)
gives a good indication of the Bearing of the centre.
b. Bearing of the Centre of a Tropical Storm by Wind Direction. The Bearing of

the centre of a Tropical Storm can be found by applying Buys Ballot’s Law, modified
slightly, as follows:
‘Stand facing the true wind, and the centre of the Tropical Storm will be from 100°
to 120° on your right hand in the northern hemisphere and on your left hand in the
southern hemisphere. The angular displacement of 100°-120° is true when centre
of the Tropical Storm is at 200 to 250 nautical miles (the barometer will then be
about 5mb below the corrected seasonal mean and the wind will be at about Force
6 - see Para 0641d). However, it reduces to nearer 90° the closer the centre
comes’.
c. Bearing of the Centre of a Tropical Storm by Radar. If long range air warning
radar is available, this can be used to give an accurate location at ranges of at least 100
nautical miles.
d. Establishing the Path of a Tropical Storm. It is possible to track the path of a

Tropical Storm and thus make an educated guess on where it might go next. However,
predicting the future path of a Tropical Storm is an uncertain art. It must be emphasized
that any predictions of the likely future path of a Tropical Storm (and in particular,
the position of the Point of Recurvature) can be no more than an educated guess. The
procedure for tracking the path being taken by a Tropical Storm is as follows:
• Bearing and Range of the Centre. Establish the Bearing of the centre of the
Tropical Storm by the methods at Paras 0642a/b with an interval of 2 to 3
hours between the observations. A rough idea of distance may be established
by the barometric pressure, but this must be used with caution.
• Plotting the Storm Centre. Whenever a Tropical Storm is reported, the
position of its centre should be plotted regularly and frequently to build up a
track history. If external information is not available, plot the ranges and
Bearings obtained as above (allowing for the movement of own ship) to give
a rough indication of the position and movement of the Tropical Storm.
• Likely Future Path. Despite the difficulties of predicting its future path, it
can be assumed that a Tropical Storm will not travel towards the Equator.
While in latitudes lower than 20°, a Tropical Storm’s path is most unlikely to
have an easterly component. On the rare occasions when neither of these
assumptions holds true, the Tropical Storm will be moving very slowly.
6-33
Original
BR 45(6)
(0642) e. Avoidance – General. It is a matter of vital importance to avoid passing inside 80

nautical miles of the centre of a well-developed Tropical Storm. It is preferable to keep
outside a radius of 200 to 250 nautical miles (when the barometer will be about 5mb
below the corrected seasonal mean and the wind will be at about Force 6 - see Para
0641d) and freedom to manoeuvre is maintained. If a ship has at least 20 knots at its
disposal and at that stage shapes a course that will take it most rapidly away from the
Tropical Storm, it is unlikely that the wind will increase sufficiently to restrict its
movement and the risk of damage is remote. Recommended tracks for avoiding
and/or weathering a Tropical Storm in various circumstances are shown at Figs 6-
13a and 6-13b (below) and explanations of these choices are at Para 0642f-k (below
and opposite). Sometimes a Tropical Storm moves so slowly that a vessel ahead can
easily outpace it and a vessel astern can overtake it. If it is certain that the ship is behind
the Tropical Storm it will evidently be sufficient to alter course away from the centre.
Fig 6-13a. Tropical Storm Avoidance Fig 6-13b. Tropical Storm Avoidance
in the Northern Hemisphere in the Southern Hemisphere
f. Avoidance & Weathering: Northern Hemisphere, from Dangerous Semicircle.

In the northern hemisphere, if the wind is veering the ship must be in the Dangerous
Semicircle (see Fig 6-13a). In this case, a power driven vessel should proceed with all
available speed with the wind 10° to 45° (depending on the ship’s speed and that of the
Tropical Storm) on the starboard bow. A sailing vessel should Heave-To on the
starboard tack. Both types of ship should alter course to starboard as the wind veers,
thereby tracing a path (relative to the Tropical Storm centre), as shown by track (1) at Fig
6-13a. See also Para 0634a-c (Heaving-to) and Para 0634d (Heaving-to with engines
stopped near the Eye of a Tropical Storm).
6-34
Original
BR 45(6)
(0642) g. Avoidance & Weathering: Northern Hemisphere, from Navigable Semicircle.

In the northern hemisphere, if the wind is backing, the ship is in the Navigable
Semicircle. A power driven vessel should proceed with all available speed with the wind
well on the starboard quarter. A sailing vessel should run with the wind broad on the
starboard quarter. Both types of ship should alter course to port as the wind backs,
thereby tracing a path (relative to the Tropical Storm centre), as shown by track (2) at Fig
6-13a. If there is NOT sufficient room to run when in the Navigable Semicircle, and it
is not practicable to seek shelter, a vessel should Heave-To with the wind on the
starboard bow. See also Para 0634a-c (Heaving-to) and Para 0634d (Heaving-to with
engines stopped near the Eye of a Tropical Storm).
h. Avoidance & Weathering: Northern Hemisphere, from the Storm’s Direct Path.
It is sometimes difficult to determine if the ship is nearly in the path of the Tropical
Storm as the wind does not always behave according to the following rule, which states:
if the wind remains steady in one direction, the ship is probably close to the direct path
of the Tropical Storm. In the northern hemisphere, if the ship is in, or nearly in, the
direct path of the Tropical Storm, then action as for the Navigable Semicircle should be
taken (see Para 0642g above), as shown by track (2) at Fig 6-13a. See also Para 0634a-c
(Heaving-to) and Para 0634d (Heaving-to with engines stopped near the Eye of a
Tropical Storm).
i. Avoidance & Weathering: Southern Hemisphere, from Dangerous Semicircle.
In the southern hemisphere, if the wind is backing the ship must be in the Dangerous
Semicircle (see Fig 6-13b). In this case, a power driven vessel should proceed with all
available speed with the wind 10° to 45° (depending on the ship’s speed and that of the
Tropical Storm) on the port bow. A sailing vessel should Heave-To on the port tack.
Both types of ship should alter course to port as the wind backs, thereby tracing a path
(relative to the Tropical Storm centre), as shown by track (3) at Fig 6-13b. See also Para
0634a-c (Heaving-to) and Para 0634d (Heaving-to with engines stopped near the Eye of
a Tropical Storm).
j. Avoidance & Weathering: Southern Hemisphere, from Navigable Semicircle.
In the southern hemisphere, if the wind is veering, the ship is in the Navigable
Semicircle. A power driven vessel should proceed with all available speed with the wind
well on the port quarter. A sailing vessel should run with the wind broad on the port
quarter. Both types of ship should alter course to starboard as the wind veers, thereby
tracing a path (relative to the Tropical Storm centre), as shown by track (4) at Fig 6-13b.
If there is NOT sufficient room to run when in the Navigable Semicircle, and it is not
practicable to seek shelter, a vessel should Heave-To with the wind on the port bow. See
also Para 0634a-c (Heaving-to) and Para 0634d (Heaving-to with engines stopped near
the Eye of a Tropical Storm).
k. Avoidance & Weathering: Southern Hemisphere, from the Storm’s Direct Path.
It is sometimes difficult to determine if the ship is nearly in the path of the Tropical
Storm as the wind does not always behave according to the following rule, which states:
if the wind remains steady in one direction, the ship is probably close to the direct path
of the Tropical Storm. In the southern hemisphere, if the ship is in, or nearly in, the
direct path of the Tropical Storm, then action as for the Navigable Semicircle should be
taken (see Para 0642j above), as shown by track (4) at Fig 6-13b. See also Para 0634a-c
(Heaving-to) and Para 0634d (Heaving-to with engines stopped near the Eye of a
Tropical Storm).
6-35
Original
BR 45(6)
( 0642) l. Avoidance & Weathering: in Harbour. In general, it is much better to proceed

to sea if there is sufficient time to avoid the worst of the Tropical Storm, than to remain
in harbour. However, circumstances may dictate that a vessel must remain in harbour
for the passage of a Tropical Storm, and if so, as much care must be taken in harbour as
at sea in watching the shifting of the wind and estimating the relative movement of the
Tropical Storm centre. From analysis of this information and other external data (eg
weather forecasts), it may be possible to make an advantageous shift of berth, or possibly
secure to a Typhoon buoy, or take other steps according to circumstances, before the
wind becomes too strong.
m. Avoidance & Weathering: in Harbour at a (Typhoon) Buoy. In some ports of

the world, specially strengthened mooring buoys (sometimes called Typhoon buoys) are
provided to allow ships to remain in harbour and ride out Tropical Storms. If secured to
a buoy of this type, ships may use their engines to ease the strain on the bridles and on
the focsle itself, but it is important to see that the bridles take an equal strain and do not
jerk or snub excessively. Due to the wind strength prevailing during a Tropical Storm,
it is unlikely that the ship will override the bridles or otherwise get out of position, but
care is still needed to ensure this does not occur. If the Tropical Storm passes directly
over the ship at the buoy, it may be possible to point the ship in the direction of the
violent wind which will come after the calm experienced in the Eye. Ships riding out a
Tropical Storm while secured to a (Typhoon) buoy also face the danger of being struck
by wreckage, other floating debris and even other vessels that might have broken loose
drifting down onto the ship. There is also the risk of the bridles parting under extreme
strain. For all these reasons, an enhanced state of watertight integrity should be
maintained for the duration of the Tropical Storm.
6-36
Original
BR 45(6)
ANNEX 6A
WIND AND FORMATION OF WAVE DATA
1. Data at Table 6A-1 (overleaf) provides an indication of the Wave Height (H) and Wave
Period (P) of the waves which may be expected after a wind of a particular Beaufort wind
strength has been blowing for a minimum Time (T) in hours. The Fetch (in nautical miles)
necessary for this to occur is tabulated at the extreme left and right of Table 6A-1. The Wave
Height (H) is tabulated in metres and the Wave Period (P) is tabulated in seconds. This table
is generic in nature and provides approximate guidance.
6A-1
Original
6A-2
BEAUFORT NUMBER
Original
Fetch Fetch
BR 45(6)
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
(n m) (n m)
T(h) H(m) P(s) T(h) H(m) P(s) T(h) H(m) P(s) T(h) H(m) P(s) T(h) H(m) P(s) T(h) H(m) P(s) T(h) H(m) P(s) T(h) H(m) P(s) T(h) H(m) P(s)
10 4.4 0.5 2.1 3.7 0.8 2.4 3.2 1.1 2.8 2.7 1.5 3.1 2.5 1.8 3.4 2.3 2.2 3.9 2.0 2.4 4.1 1.9 3.0 4.2 1.8 3.0 5.0 10
20 7.1 0.6 2.5 6.2 1.0 2.9 5.4 1.5 3.3 4.7 2.1 3.8 4.2 2.6 4.3 3.9 3.0 4.4 3.5 3.7 5.0 3.2 4.3 5.2 3.0 4.9 5.9 20
30 9.8 0.6 2.8 8.3 1.0 3.3 7.2 1.8 3.7 6.2 2.4 4.2 5.8 3.0 4.6 5.2 3.7 5.0 4.7 4.8 5.5 4.4 5.5 6.0 4.1 6.0 6.3 30
40 12.0 0.6 3.0 10.3 1.2 3.6 8.9 1.9 4.1 7.8 2.7 4.6 7.1 3.4 4.9 6.5 4.3 5.4 5.8 5.0 5.9 5.4 6.4 6.3 5.1 6.9 6.7 40
50 14.0 0.6 3.2 12.4 1.2 3.8 11.0 2.0 4.4 9.1 3.0 4.8 8.4 3.7 5.2 7.7 4.8 5.6 6.9 6.0 6.3 6.4 7.0 6.7 6.1 7.6 7.1 50
60 16.0 0.6 3.5 14.0 1.2 4.0 12.0 2.1 4.6 10.2 3.1 5.1 9.6 4.0 5.5 8.7 5.2 6.0 8.0 6.4 6.5 7.4 7.6 7.0 7.0 8.4 7.5 60
70 18.0 0.6 3.7 15.8 1.2 4.1 13.5 2.1 4.8 11.9 3.2 5.4 10.5 4.2 5.7 9.9 5.5 6.4 9.0 6.9 6.8 8.4 8.1 7.3 7.8 9.0 7.7 70
80 20.0 0.6 3.8 17.0 1.2 4.2 15.0 2.2 4.9 13.0 3.3 5.6 12.0 4.4 6.0 11.0 5.8 6.6 10.0 7.3 7.1 9.3 8.5 7.7 8.6 9.6 7.9 80
90 23.6 0.6 3.9 18.8 1.2 4.3 16.5 2.2 5.1 14.1 3.4 5.8 13.0 4.6 6.3 12.0 6.1 6.7 11.0 7.6 7.2 10.2 9.1 7.9 9.5 10.4 8.2 90
100 27.1 0.6 4.0 20.0 1.2 4.4 17.5 2.3 5.3 15.1 3.4 6.0 14.0 4.8 6.5 12.8 6.3 6.9 11.9 8.0 7.6 11.0 9.7 8.1 10.3 10.7 8.5 100
120 31.1 0.6 4.2 22.4 1.3 4.7 20.0 2.4 5.4 17.0 3.5 6.2 15.9 4.9 6.7 14.5 6.5 7.3 13.1 8.1 7.9 12.3 10.2 8.4 1.5 11.4 8.8 120
140 36.6 0.6 4.5 25.8 1.3 4.9 22.5 2.4 5.8 19.1 3.6 6.4 17.6 5.0 7.0 16.0 6.7 7.6 14.8 8.8 8.3 13.9 10.8 8.8 13.0 12.2 9.2 140
160 43.2 0.6 4.9 28.4 1.3 5.2 24.3 2.4 6.0 31.1 3.7 6.6 19.5 5.1 7.3 18.0 7.0 8.0 16.4 9.3 8.7 15.1 11.3 9.1 14.5 13.0 9.6 160
180 50.0 0.6 4.9 30.9 1.3 5.4 27.0 2.4 6.2 23.1 3.7 6.8 21.3 5.2 7.5 19.9 7.1 8.3 18.0 9.6 9.0 16.5 11.8 9.5 16.0 13.6 10.0 180
200 33.5 1.3 5.6 29.0 2.4 6.4 25.4 3.8 7.1 23.1 5.3 7.7 21.5 7.2 8.5 19.3 9.9 9.2 18.1 12.2 9.8 17.1 14.0 10.3 200
220 36.5 1.3 6.8 31.1 2.4 6.6 27.2 3.8 7.2 25.0 5.4 8.0 22.9 7.3 8.8 20.9 10.4 9.6 19.1 12.7 10.1 18.2 14.5 10.6 220
240 39.2 1.3 5.9 33.1 2.4 6.8 29.0 3.8 7.3 26.8 5.5 8.2 24.4 7.4 9.0 22.0 10.5 9.8 20.5 13.1 10.3 19.5 14.9 10.8 240
260 41.9 1.3 6.0 34.9 2.4 6.9 30.5 3.9 7.5 28.0 5.5 8.4 26.0 7.6 9.2 23.5 10.4 10.0 21.8 13.4 10.6 20.9 15.4 11.1 260
280 44.5 1.3 6.2 36.8 2.4 7.0 32.4 3.9 7.8 29.5 5.5 8.5 27.7 7.6 9.4 25.0 10.6 10.2 23.0 13.7 10.9 22.0 15.7 11.3 280
300 47.0 1.3 6.3 38.5 2.4 7.1 34.1 4.0 8.0 31.5 5.5 8.7 29.0 7.6 9.5 26.3 10.7 10.4 24.3 13.7 11.1 23.2 16.1 11.6 300
320 40.5 2.4 7.2 36.0 4.0 8.2 33.0 5.5 8.9 30.2 7.6 9.6 27.6 10.8 10.6 25.5 13.9 11.2 24.5 16.5 11.8 320
340 42.4 2.4 7.3 37.6 4.1 8.3 34.2 5.5 9.0 31.6 7.6 9.8 29.0 11.0 10.8 26.7 14.0 11.4 25.5 16.7 12.0 340
360 44.2 2.4 7.4 38.8 4.1 8.4 35.7 5.5 9.1 33.0 7.6 9.9 30.0 11.1 10.9 27.7 14.2 11.6 26.6 16.8 12.2 360
380 46.1 2.4 7.5 40.2 4.1 8.5 37.1 5.5 9.3 34.2 7.7 10.0 31.3 11.2 11.1 29.1 14.3 11.8 27.7 16.9 12.4 380
400 48.0 2.4 7.7 42.2 4.1 8.6 38.8 5.6 9.5 35.6 7.9 10.2 32.5 11.3 11.2 30.2 14.4 12.0 28.9 17.0 12.6 400
420 50.0 2.4 7.8 43.5 4.1 8.7 40.0 5.7 9.6 36.9 8.1 10.3 33.7 11.4 11.4 31.5 14.5 12.2 29.6 17.2 12.7 420
440 52.0 2.4 7.9 44.7 4.2 8.8 41.3 5.8 9.7 38.1 8.2 10.4 34.8 11.4 11.5 32.5 14.6 12.3 30.9 17.4 12.9 440
460 54.0 2.4 8.0 46.2 4.2 8.9 42.8 5.8 9.8 39.5 8.3 10.6 36.0 11.4 11.7 33.5 14.7 12.5 31.8 17.5 13.1 460
480 56.0 2.4 8.1 47.8 4.2 9.0 44.0 5.8 9.9 41.0 8.4 10.8 37.0 11.4 11.8 34.5 14.8 12.6 32.7 17.6 13.2 480
500 58.0 2.4 8.2 49.2 4.2 9.1 45.5 5.9 10.1 42.1 8.4 10.9 38.3 11.6 11.9 35.5 14.9 12.7 33.9 17.7 13.4 500
550 53.0 4.2 9.3 48.5 5.9 10.3 44.9 8.4 11.1 41.0 11.7 12.2 38.2 15.0 13.0 36.5 18.1 13.7 550
600 56.3 4.2 9.5 51.8 6.0 10.5 47.7 8.4 11.3 43.6 11.9 12.5 40.3 15.1 3.3 38.7 18.3 14.0 600
650 55.0 6.0 10.7 50.3 8.4 11.6 46.4 12.0 12.8 43.0 15.2 13.7 41.0 18.4 14.2 650
700 58.5 6.0 11.0 53.2 8.4 11.8 49.0 12.1 13.1 45.4 15.3 14.0 43.5 18.5 14.5 700
750 56.2 8.4 12.1 51.0 12.2 13.3 48.0 15.5 14.2 45.8 18.6 14.8 750
800 59.2 8.4 12.3 53.8 12.2 13.5 50.6 15.6 14.5 47.8 18.7 15.0 800
850 56.2 12.2 13.8 52.6 15.7 14.6 50.0 18.9 15.2 850
900 58.2 12.2 14.0 54.6 15.8 14.9 52.0 19.0 15.5 900
950 57.2 15.9 15.1 54.0 19.1 15.7 950
1000 59.3 15.9 15.3 56.3 19.2 16.0 1000
Table 6A-1. Minimum Time (T hours) for wind to form waves of significant Height (H metres) and Period (P seconds). Fetch (n. miles)
BR 45(6)
ANNEX 6B
INTERNAL WAVES
1. Introduction
Waves affecting surface shiphandling are propagated on the sea surface and the
difference in density between the sea and the atmosphere prevents the generation of waves with
both a long wavelength and a large amplitude, except during major storms. However, at depth
in the ocean, the main thermocline creates a gentle density gradient which allows the propagation
of undersea ‘Internal Waves’ which have both these characteristics.
2. Occurrence and Effect

Internal Waves are frequently observed in the oceanic and littoral zones and are known
to affect many forms of underwater operations. In particular, the Trim and buoyancy of
submarines and submersibles can be affected, as are sonar ranges.
3. Further Details
Further details will be incorporated in BR 4985 Volume 1 (Principles of Oceanography
and Acoustics).
6B-1
Original
BR 45(6)
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
6B-2
Original
BR 45(6)
HANDLING SHIPS IN OR NEAR ICE
CHAPTER 7
CONTENTS
Para
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0701
Scope and Limitations of Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0702
Other Important References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0703
SECTION 1 - GENERAL ICE WORK
Arctic and Antarctic Ice Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0710

Approaching and Detecting Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0711
Entry Into Sea Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0712
Working In Sea Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0713
Single-Ship Ice Operations - Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0714
Ice-Breaker Assistance and Ice Convoys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0715
Azipod-Fitted Ice-Breakers and Ice-Strengthened Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0716
Ice Reports and Forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0717
SECTION 2 - THIN SKINNED SHIP IN ICE
Warship Limitations - In or Near Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0720

Warship Ice Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0721
Entry and Transit of Warships Through Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0722
SECTION 3 - ICE ACCUMULATION
Ice Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0730

Causes of Ice Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0731
Dangers of Ice Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0732
Preparations to Combat Icing and its Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0733
Removal of Ice from the Upper Deck and Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0734
Personnel Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0735
7-1
Original
BR 45(6)
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
7-2
Original
BR 45(6)
CHAPTER 7
0701. Introduction
Warships are generally thin-skinned, have vulnerable underwater sonar domes, Stabiliser
fins, propellers and rudders. Such ships are unsuited for operations in or near Ice, and in normal
circumstances should try to avoid it. However, for operational or other reasons a thin-skinned
warship may have to approach or even enter Ice, and thus it is important to have an understanding
of the constraints and dangers Ice brings, and the best ways of minimising them. A further factor,
sometimes encountered in high latitudes when clear of Ice itself, is the possibility of ‘Icing’,
when sea spray, rain, fog or snow freezes on the superstructure; unless early action is taken either
to avoid or remove such Icing, the ship’s stability can be seriously affected very quickly.
0702. Scope and Limitations of Chapter

This chapter provides an overview of Ice operations and other references (see Para 0703)
should also be consulted before approaching Ice. Section 1 is written from a general perspective
including that of Ice-Strengthened ships. Section 2 provides additional guidance for thin-skinned
ships not designed to enter Ice but which may encounter it under operations conditions. It is
important that those operating thin-skinned ships in or near Ice are familiar with the
contents of Section 1. The Icing of ship’s superstructures and various countermeasures are at
Section 3. Navigation techniques for high (polar) latitudes are at BR 45 Volumes 2 and 4.
0703. Other Important References
a. The Mariners Handbook. Chapters 6 and 7 of NP 100 (The Mariners Handbook)

provides further information on:
• The formation, movement and characteristics of Ice.
• A series of colour photographs of various Ice formations.
• A comprehensive glossary of Ice terms.
• Advice on operating ships in or near Ice.
• Effects of cold on the body (Frostbite, Wind Chill, Hypothermia etc)
b. The Naval Arctic Manual. ATP 17 (The Naval Arctic Manual) contains much
which is also of relevance in the Antarctic. It provides further information on:
• The Arctic environment, climate and oceanography.
• Sea Ice and operating various types of ships in Ice.
• Preparations for Ice operations.
• Navigation and amphibious operations in Ice.
• Aviation and submarine / anti-submarine operations in Ice.
• Hull, engineering, electrical and combat system aspects of Ice operations.
• Personnel and survival aspects of Ice operations.
c. Sailing Directions (Pilots). The Pilots contain a wealth of local information.
7-3
Original
BR 45(6)
(0703) d. Meteorological and Oceanographic Data. Meteorological and oceanographic

data for Ice regions is available from the UKHO, in the following books of the NP series:
• NP 407 (Meteorology for Mariners)
• NP 486A(20) (Ice Accretion on Ships)
• NP 601 (A-H)(1A-B) (White Sea Oceanographic Atlas)
• NP 604 (A,C,E,F-H) (Southern Barents Sea Oceanographic Atlas)
e. Other Books. Readers who wish to pursue particular lines of enquiry are advised
to contact the Scott Polar Research Institute, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, which
maintains a comprehensive library. The following book is particularly
recommended:
• Polar Ships and Navigation in the Antarctic (J P Morley)(1963)
0704-0709. Spare
Fig 7-1. The Picturesque but Potentially Dangerous Remains of Small Weathered
Icebergs at the Height of the Antarctic Summer (vicinity 68° S), surrounded by some
Brash Ice (foreground), Open Ice, Growlers and Bergy Bits (middle-distance).
(See Para 0710c opposite)
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SECTION 1 - GENERAL ICE WORK
0710. Arctic and Antarctic Ice Environments

Although the Arctic and Antarctic are both polar regions, their climates and Ice
conditions vary considerably. The Arctic Ice Cap is relatively thin (average thickness only 4
metres) and floats above a very deep basin (3000 metres). By contrast the Antarctic is a
continental land mass covered by an Ice Cap up to 3000 metres thick which contains over 90%
of the Earth’s permanent Ice. The Antarctic is also much colder than the Arctic - the mean
annual temperature at the South and North Poles are minus 49° and minus 20°C respectively.
At sea, the mariner is likely to encounter two forms of Ice - Icebergs (plus smaller pieces known
as Bergy Bits and Growlers which break off from Icebergs) and Sea Ice. Of the two, Icebergs
(and their derivatives) are extremely hard, while Sea Ice is relatively soft. A useful (although not
perfect) analogy is to liken them respectively to the hard ice-cubes made in domestic freezers,
and the soft frost which forms near the door of the freezer.
a. Echo Sounder Policy. Charted depths are often sparse in areas in or near Ice
(particularly in the Antarctic) and in these waters the echo sounder should always be
operated, with the paper trace running and an operator monitoring it continuously.
Depths in polar regions can be extremely variable over very short distances (especially
in the Antarctic where rock pinnacles frequently rise steeply from oceanic depths with
little warning). Very prompt action may be needed to take all way off the ship at the first
suspicion of an uncharted pinnacle ahead. See NP 100 Chapter 7 for further details.
b. Icebergs. Icebergs are formed by the Ice Caps moving slowly outward and calving
large volumes of highly compressed hard Ice from Glaciers and Ice Shelves into the sea.
In the Antarctic, Icebergs are found in a wide belt completely surrounding the continent.
By contrast, in the Arctic, Icebergs are only found off Greenland and the east coast of
Canada. Icebergs are defined as protruding more than 5 metres above the sea surface.
The density of Icebergs varies slightly, but in general, it may be assumed that 90% of
their volume remains below the sea surface. However, Icebergs are not regular in shape,
either above or below the water line and so it cannot be assumed that the Iceberg’s
draught is 10 times the visible height above the water line. Antarctic Tabular Icebergs
(which can have an overall height of 300 metres) and the smaller but similar shaped
Arctic Blocky Icebergs normally have visible/submerged ratios of 1:5. Icebergs with
other shapes have different visible/submerged ratios ranging from 1:4 to 1:1 (see NP
100, Chapter 6). Due to their great draught, Icebergs move in the direction of the
prevailing tidal streams / currents, not the wind; they frequently appear to ‘plough’ a
channel through the wind-driven Sea Ice. Charted depths are often sparse in areas in or
near Ice and it is always prudent to plot the positions of Icebergs as soon as they are
detected; if stationary they are likely to be aground and this gives an indication of the
depth of the shoal water. Similarly, moving Icebergs indicate deep water.
c. Bergy Bits and Growlers. Bergy Bits (visible with 1-5 metres above the sea
surface) and Growlers (visible with less than 1 metre above the sea surface) are Calved
from a decaying Icebergs and will often be found in their vicinity (see Figs 7-1 & 7-5/6);
they may also be found much further afield as well. They are just as hard as Icebergs,
but much more difficult to detect (especially Growlers) and will cause damage if struck
at any speed by even an Ice-Strengthened ship. Thin-skinned ships striking a Growler
can expect to be badly holed well below the water-line and to suffer serious flooding.
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d. Sea Ice. The freezing point of water depends on its salinity, but in general terms,
sea water can be assumed to start freezing at about -1.8°C (see NP 100 Chapter 6 for
more details). Due to differences in climate, topography, the distribution of ocean
currents and thus water temperature and salinity, the Arctic Ocean remains almost
completely covered by Sea Ice whereas the greater part of the Sea Ice around the
Antarctic continent melts each summer. Although affected by wind and wave action,
given a sufficiently low temperature, the sea in both areas will freeze over, sometimes
with surprising speed if the air temperature drops suddenly. Photographs demonstrating
this effect are Figs 7-2 to 7-4, together with a detailed explanation of the circumstances
at Para 0710e. Sea Ice can either be attached to land in which case it is known as Fast
Ice, or floating freely in which case it is known as Drift Ice. The movement of Drift Ice
depends mostly on the wind.
e. Example of the Freezing of Sea Water into Sea Ice. A dramatic example of the
freezing of previously Open Water is shown at Figs 7-2 to 7-4, which were taken over
a 4 hour period with the ship stationary in the Antarctic (vicinity 68° S 70° W) after the
air temperature fell sharply from 0°C to -10°C, in calm weather with a cold sea. Shortly
after the drop in air temperature occurred, Open Water interspersed with a few pieces of
Brash Ice started to coat with a thin layer of Grease Ice which rapidly thickened after 1
hour into the beginnings of Pancake Ice with its characteristic raised edges, caused by
the pieces bumping into each other (see Fig 7-2). After a further hour (see Fig 7-3), the
rapid development of Pancake Ice had continued together with some Rafting of pieces
on top of each other, and after a total of 4 hours (see Fig 7-4) the Pancake Ice had
formed to a thickness sufficient to force the ship to make for Open Water, rather than
risk being Beset by increasing thicknesses of Ice within the next few hours.
Fig 7-2. Taken 1 hour after a drop in air temperature to -10°C, Open Water with a few
pieces of Brash Ice formed into the beginnings of Pancake Ice (see Para 0710e above)
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Fig 7-3. Taken 2 hours after a drop in air temperature to -10°C, the quickly forming
pieces of Pancake Ice start Rafting on top of each other (see Para 0710e opposite)
Fig 7-4. Taken 4 hours after a drop in air temperature to -10°C, the rapidly thickening
Pancake Ice obliged the ship to make for Open Water (see Para 0710e opposite)
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0711. Approaching and Detecting Ice

Attention is drawn to NP 100 Chapter 7 which provides further information.
a. External Sources. External Ice information, including satellite images, may be

obtained via the Fleet Weather Centre or the Internet. See Para 0717.
b. Detection of Ice in Poor Visibility and Darkness. Attention is drawn to NP 100

Chapter 7 which provides further information on this subject.
• Operating in Open Water with Icebergs / Bergy Bits / Growlers.
Depending on the inclination of their reflecting surfaces, some Icebergs may
not always be detected clearly by radar in Open Water. Other than in calm
conditions, radar is not effective in detecting Growlers in Open Water due to
their very small radar cross section and poor radar reflecting properties. Bergy
Bits might be detected on radar in some sea conditions in time to avoid
striking them, but factors similar to detecting Growlers apply. This means
that it is hazardous for any ship to move in fog in the vicinity of Icebergs
(especially as Bergy Bits and Growlers are usually found in large numbers
near Icebergs - see Para 0711e and Fig 7-6), or in other areas where isolated
Bergy Bits or Growlers might be encountered. In these circumstances,
speed should be reduced to the minimum or the ship stopped until
visibility improves. The same applies in darkness, only to a slightly lesser
extent, as night vision aids can be deployed to assist Ice detection.
• Operating in Sea Ice. Although the edge of Sea Ice will show on radar at
about 6 miles, the echoes inside the outer edge of Ice tend to be very broken
and difficult to interpret. Radar cannot distinguish between different
thicknesses of Ice and night vision aids can give misleading impressions. To
avoid accidentally driving into really serious Ice obstacles when operating
in Sea Ice, it is essential to stop the ship during periods fog, and ideally
during darkness. Paras 0713n/o provide guidance on the methods that can
be adopted. Extreme vigilance is needed when operating in or near Ice
during fog or darkness, even if the ship is stopped. See also Para 0711i.
c. Sighting of Icebergs. There are no infallible signs of Icebergs other than to sight
them visually (see Para 0711b), although some other warning signs may sometimes be
observed (see Para 0711d). In daylight with good visibility Icebergs may be detected at
10-18 miles (see Fig 7-5). Night vision aids can increase detection distances slightly in
darkness. Despite their size, Icebergs can sometimes be surprisingly hard to see.
• Iceberg Appearance at Night with Moonlight. On a clear night with a high
full moon, Icebergs may be seen at 3 miles, but there will be at some risk from
Bergy Bits or Growlers. Clouds can produce false impression of Icebergs.
• Iceberg Appearance at Night without Moonlight. On a clear night without
moonlight, an Iceberg may be seen at 1-2 miles with binoculars as a black or
white object. By that time the ship will probably already be well within the
Iceberg’s field of Bergy Bits or Growlers, and thus at considerable risk.
• Iceberg Appearance through Fog. In fog with the sun shining on it an
Iceberg will appear (when finally seen) as a luminous white mass. If the sun
is obscured an Iceberg will appear as a dark mass close aboard; the first sight
may be of Breakers at its base. The ship will be at serious risk.
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Fig 7-5. A Medium-sized Antarctic Iceberg

(No Bergy Bits are evident and the field of Growlers is not yet visible)
d. Non-Visual Warning Signs of Icebergs. Radar, sonar, siren echo-location and

changes in air / water temperature have all proved unreliable in detecting Icebergs.
Visual sighting is the only sure method, but there are some warning signs which may
sometimes be observed. Icebergs may be encountered without any of the following
occurring:
• When well offshore, the absence of waves in a fresh breeze may indicate the
presence of a large Iceberg (or a large area of Sea Ice) to windward.
• When Icebergs Calve Bergy Bits they produce a thunderous roar, like the
discharge of heavy calibre guns in the distance.
• On a quiet night, the sound of Breakers may be heard if an Iceberg is near,
often to windward.
• The presence of Bergy Bits and Growlers may indicate a nearby Iceberg.
• The presence of Brash Ice in otherwise Open Water is a good indication of a
nearby Iceberg. In calm weather Brash Ice forms an arc around the Iceberg.
e. Dangers of Passing or Stopping Close to Icebergs and Bergy Bits. Many

Icebergs have a field of Bergy Bits and Growlers around them which present a hazard
to ships, particularly at night or in fog (see Fig 7-6). If stopping, it is unwise to do so
close to an Iceberg as there is always the danger that it may Calve a Bergy Bit or
overturn altogether, with catastrophic consequences to a ship nearby. If a ship goes too
close to an Iceberg or Bergy Bit, it may also touch a Ram (underwater Ice projection -
see Para 0713m) which will hole a thin-skinned ship and may also damage the hull of
an Ice-Strengthened ship.
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(0711) f. Iceberg-Generated Fog Banks. Large Icebergs, (particularly the very large
Antarctic Tabular Icebergs) are capable of creating their own micro-climate and thus
generating substantial fog banks downwind. An example of such a fog bank is at Fig 7-6
below.
Fig 7-6. The leading edge of a large Antarctic Tabular Iceberg (20 miles in diameter)
generating it own fog-bank. A field of Bergy Bits and Growlers may also be seen.
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(0711) g. Approaching Sea Ice. A phenomenon known as Ice Blink, and an abrupt
smoothing of the Sea / Swell, which if observed, are generally reliable signs indicating
the proximity of Sea Ice. Fog and the sudden presence of certain birds, walruses, and
seals may also be indications but are not entirely reliable. Changes in sea temperature
are not a reliable indication of Sea Ice, but if the surface sea temperature falls to -0.5°C,
it would generally be wise to assume that the nearest Ice is within 50 miles. However
it is perfectly possible to encounter Sea Ice without observing any of these phenomena.
• Ice Blink. On approaching Sea Ice, Ice Blink is sometimes seen and appears
as a yellowish or whitish haze on the horizon in the direction of the Sea Ice.
Its height varies with proximity to the Ice and the height of the cloud base. Ice
Blink is usually observed some time before the Ice itself appears over the
horizon, but in fog, white patches may indicate the presence of Ice at a short
distance. It may on occasion be observed at night. Once seen, Ice Blink’s
unique characteristic appearance can never be mistaken. NP 100 Chapter 6
contains a good colour photograph of Ice Blink.
• Abrupt Smoothing of the Sea. When well offshore, the absence of waves in
a fresh breeze and the gradual lessening of ocean Swell may indicate the
presence of a large area of Sea Ice to windward, although the proximity of
large Icebergs can also result in abrupt localised smoothing of the sea.
h. Detection of Leads in Sea Ice. Detection of Leads in Sea Ice by reflections on

cloud, or by aerial surveillance are subjective arts and require some experience to be
effective.
• Water Sky. Leads in Sea Ice at up to 40 miles beyond the horizon are
sometimes indicated by dark streaks on the underside of low clouds, and this
is known as ‘Water Sky’.
• Aerial Surveillance. Sea Ice can be very misleading when observed from an
aircraft or helicopter, particularly if at height . Although completely Open
Water may be relatively obvious, pools of melt water on top of Sea Ice may
give the impression of Open Pack, when in fact the passage is unnavigable.
Conversely, thin Grease Ice or Brash may appear completely solid when it is
actually perfectly navigable. The observer in a helicopter should therefore
always look at the Ice from Bridge height as well as from several hundred
feet so that the type and composition of the Ice can be identified. Aerial
Ice observers will need thorough training to carry out this role effectively.
i. Use of an Ice Searchlight. An Ice Searchlight should be employed ahead on the

vessel’s track. Used in this way, it will usually enhance the sighting of all Ice at night.
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0712. Entry Into Sea Ice

Attention is drawn to NP 100 Chapter 7 and ATP 17 Chapter 11 which provide further
information on this subject.
a. Considerations Before Entering Ice. As a general rule, if it is possible to divert

around Sea Ice, this is preferable to entering it. Before deciding to enter Ice, take into
account the type of Ice present, the time of year, the likely weather and temperatures, the
Ice-Capability, material state and fuel reserves of the ship, together with the proximity
of Ice-Breaker assistance should it become necessary. If it is decided to enter Ice, the
point of entry should be carefully selected, with a view to minimising risk.
b. Considerations for Selecting the Point of Entry. A thorough reconnaissance

should be made using all available means including aircraft if available. The following
factors should be considered:
• Penetrability of the Ice. Consider the thickness, age and Concentration of
the Ice (see Table 7-1 at Para 0713c). If it is Very Open Ice (1/10th to 3/10ths)
or Open Ice (4/10ths to 6/10ths), it may be simple to cut through and there will
be soft and there will be room into which to push the pieces (see Fig 7-7
opposite). However, if it is Close Ice (7/10ths to 8/10ths), Very Close Ice
(9/10ths), much more power will be needed and Ice-Breaker assistance may be
needed. Beware of entering Consolidated Ice (10/10ths) which may have
partially melted and then re-frozen incorporating very hard Growlers or Bergy
Bits (see Fig 7-8 opposite), which are sometimes hard to distinguish,
especially if the Ice is Hummocked or if recent snow has covered the surface.
Underwater spurs of hard Ice may also be present. Striking embedded hard Ice
while attempting the cut through softer Ice can cause substantial damage, even
to Ice-Strengthened ships. This may be summarised by the analogy ‘Beware
the marshmallow with a brazil nut centre’.
• Pressure. Never deliberately enter Ice where pressure is seen to exist,
indicated by the Ice Hummocking, Rafting or Ridging (see Para 0713.l).
• Leeward Side. If possible, enter Ice from leeward, where the Ice will usually
be less Compacted and more likely to have been loosened by wave action than
the windward side.
• Bights. The Ice Edge usually has Bights between protruding tongues of Ice
and if possible, entry should be made in a Bight.
c. Method of Entry into Ice. The course of entry should be perpendicular to the edge
of the Ice to avoid the risk of a glancing blow which may cause damage to the flair of the
bow and deflect the ship into more hazardous Ice. The speed of entry should be the
slowest possible to minimise the impact on the stem, but as soon as contact has been
made, power should be increased to keep the ship moving.
d. Conning Position. The ship is best conned from the Bridge since the character and
thickness of the Ice in the immediate vicinity can best be determined from there.
However, an experienced lookout (wearing dark glasses for protection against glare and
UV light) in a high point forward (crow’s nest) can provide useful extra information
about Ice conditions further ahead than can be seen from the Bridge.
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Fig 7-7. An Ice-Strengthened ship cutting (First Year) Open Ice (4/10ths to 6/10ths)
Fig 7-8. An Ice-Strengthened ship cutting thin Consolidated Brash Ice (10/10ths)
incorporating very hard Growlers and Bergy Bits, which if struck may cause damage
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0713. Working In Sea Ice

Attention is drawn to NP 100 Chapter 7 and ATP 17 Chapter 11 which provide further
information on this subject.
a. Minimising Risk. Once committed to Sea Ice, it is likely the type of Ice will vary
as the ship works through it; alterations of course to avoid the worst Ice Concentrations
and power changes to maintain a steady speed will continually occur. Thus the
principles at Para 0712 to minimise risk (especially Para 0712c) also apply once in Ice.
b. Darkness and Fog. When in or near Ice, the ship should stop during darkness or
fog (see Para 0711b) except to manoeuvre clear of any Ice threatening the ship.
c. Descriptions of Sea Ice Concentrations. The description of Sea Ice is determined

by its Concentration, expressed as the ratio (in tenths) of the area covered by ice to the
total area under consideration. A list of these descriptions are at Table 7-1.
Table 7-1. Sea Ice Concentration Descriptions
TERM DESCRIPTIONS
Open Water A large area of freely navigable water in which Sea Ice is present in
Concentrations less than 1/10th.
Very Open Ice Floating Ice in which the Ice Concentration is 1/10ths to 3/10ths
Open Ice Floating Ice in which the Ice Concentration is 4/10ths to 6/10ths, with
many Leads & Polynyas; Floes usually not in contact with one another.
Close Ice Floating Ice in which the Ice is 7/10ths to 8/10ths, composed mainly of
Floes in contact.
Very Close Ice Floating Ice in which the Ice Concentration is 9/10ths to under 10/10ths.
Compact Ice Floating Ice in which the Ice Concentration is 10/10ths. No water visible.
Consolidated Ice Compact Ice (10/10ths), which contains Floes frozen together.
Drift Ice Term to include any area of Sea Ice, other than Fast Ice, no matter how it
(Pack Ice) is disposed. When Concentrations are high, ie. 7/10ths or greater, the
term Drift Ice may be replaced by the term Pack Ice. (The term Pack Ice
is used colloquially to describe Sea Ice greater than 2/10ths )
d. Very Open Ice. In Very Open Ice the majority of Floes are of greater size and age
than the Pancake Ice but are more widely separated, so that the area of clear water is
much greater than the area of Ice. The Floes may have relatively hard Rams (underwater
spurs) caused by exposed Ice melting back.
e. Open Ice. Open Ice normally has many Leads and Polynyas; the Floes are
generally not in contact with one another. If larger Floes cannot be avoided when
among the Open Ice, they should be approached with caution.
f. Close Ice. Close Ice is composed of Floes that are mainly touching each other.
Swell, wind, tidal stream and current will cause Cracks and Leads to open and close all
the time. This complex movement of Ice will result in areas of pressure and the
formation of Ridges. If the ship’s destination lies beyond an area of Close Ice, even an
Ice-Strengthened ship should try to circumvent it. In Close Ice, if the ship cannot leave
a lane of clear water astern, it is likely that it will result in the ship being brought to a
standstill and ultimately being Nipped and Beset between Floes.
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g. Leads. Where possible, Leads through the Ice Floes should be followed, but the
wind may cause the Ice to close over with very little warning. The Leads in Sea Ice can
best be seen from aloft, and it is recommended that a lookouts should be posted (see Para
0712d) to indicate the direction of suitable Leads. See also Para 0713h (Shore Leads).
h. Shore Leads. It is unwise to follow a Shore Lead if an onshore wind is blowing or

forecast. If near land, the ebb and flood tide may also affect the movement of Ice; the
flood will cause it to Compact and the ebb will loosen it up.
i. Ice Floes. If a large Floe blocks the way, the best action is to skirt around it. If
this is not feasible, rather than trying to break through, it may be possible to rest the stem
on the Floe, increase power until it starts to move and starts turning to one side. Once
the Floe is moving, power may be reduced to allow it to drift clear while the ship skirts
it. Where a Crack already exists in an Ice Floe, it may be possible for a ship to enter at
that point and widen the Crack to create a lane through the Ice. Similarly, where a
narrow bridge of Ice exists connecting two Floes, it may be possible to cut through there.
j. Icebergs in Sea Ice. The movement of Sea Ice is largely wind generated but that
of Icebergs is tidal stream or current generated. Thus a ship working through Sea Ice
may find itself taken onto an Iceberg. Similarly, an Iceberg may plough upwind through
stationary Sea Ice and hazard a ship in it. Conversely, the path of a moving Iceberg
through Compacted Ice might be used to advantage by a ship, although the Iceberg
should not be approached too closely due to the risk of Calving.
k. Astern Power. All ships working in Ice must be prepared to take the way off by
using ‘Full Astern’. However, the loss or damage of the propeller(s) due to impact with
Ice is one of the most serious events that can befall a ship working in Ice. For this
reason, most Ice-Strengthened ships have single propellers so that the hull provides the
propeller with some protection against being struck by broken pieces of Ice. In addition,
such ships normally have some form of ‘cow-catcher’ structure immediately forward of
the propeller to enhance this protection. However, if the astern power is applied when
the ship is stopped in Ice, the rudder and propeller are extremely vulnerable to Ice being
sucked in to its unprotected rear, with potentially catastrophic effects. For that reason,
the use of astern power when stopped by Concentrations of Ice should be avoided unless
absolutely essential and then only with the most thorough precautions as follows:
• Place rudder amidships and check both quarters for Ice.
• Ahead power should be applied for several minutes to wash any loose of Ice
clear of the ship. When no further loose Ice is likely to hazard the rudder, it
may be moved from side to side to widen the area of Ice clearance astern.
• Apply full astern power until ship is free. If any Ice is seen approaching the
propeller from aft, power should immediately be reduced to minimum.
• If necessary, repeat the above steps until clear.
l. Pressure Ridges. When cutting through Sea Ice, always attempt to avoid pressure
Ridges, which appear as a wall of Ice up to 10 metres thick. Ridges are formed on a line
roughly perpendicular to the direction of movement of the Ice and often contain a Crack
covered in thin Ice, running either parallel to the Ice masses on either side or at right
angles to it. With the slightest change of wind, the heavy Ice masses come together,
crushing the thin Ice of the Crack. Ships should therefore not enter such Cracks.
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(0713) m. Rams. Old weathered Sea Ice Floes, Bergy Bits and Icebergs often have sharp
underwater projections known as Rams. These are usually hard Ice and can cause a point
impact which may result in damage to the hull, even in an Ice-Strengthened ship. Ships
should avoid coming into contact with ice where Rams are likely. A good colour
photograph of a Ram is at NP 100 Chapter 6
n. Stopping in Sea Ice (1). When necessary to do so (ie darkness and fog) the ship
should stop and ideally drift, away from Sea Ice (see Paras 0711b and 0713b) in a large
patch of clear water. When stopped and drifting, some manoeuvring may be necessary
to avoid being blown onto Icebergs, Bergy Bits or Growlers, or be set by tidal streams
/ currents onto Sea Ice or grounded Icebergs; frequent sweeps with a signal projector or
night vision aid should be made to check for such Ice. Extreme vigilance is needed
when stopped in Sea Ice.
o. Stopping in Sea Ice (2). When stopping and drifting (see Paras 0711b and 0713b)
is not possible due to lack of enough clear water, the next best option is to stop with
some clear water to windward and lay the ship alongside the Ice, so that the wind keeps
the ship against the Floe. No Ice anchors are required, but frequent sweeps with a signal
projector or night vision aid should be made to check for other Ice closing in. Extreme
vigilance is needed when stopped in Sea Ice. If the Ice Concentration is such that
there is no area of clear water, stop the ship between small Floes rather than large ones,
so that if the Ice subsequently moves together, some of the pressure will be absorbed by
the small Floes, Rafting under the ship. Once the Floes meet under the ship, the danger
of the hull being damaged by the pressure is diminished, but damage to underwater
fitting is very likely. The ship should not be stopped between large Floes because
damage to the hull may occur if they draw close together.
p. Beset in Ice. The danger to the hull of a ship that is Beset depends on its
underwater shape, the time of year and the area. If a ship becomes Beset (particularly in
the spring and summer) the Sea Ice will not necessary damage the hull, but may do so
if the Sea Ice drifts into an area of pressure (ie in a place where the Sea Ice is pressed
against the shore or against Fast Ice). A ship’s hull with deep, straight sides is more
likely to be damaged than one with a rounded section, as the latter will tend to rise,
allowing the Ice to meet under it. A ship Beset may also be taken by the Sea Ice onto
Icebergs, Ice Fronts, shoals or the shore. Ships designed for work in Ice often have
pumps capable of transferring large quantities of ballast water from side to side very
quickly, causing a rocking motion which can help to free the ship; even moving the
ship’s company from side to side may help. These actions combined with working the
engine ahead and astern while moving the rudder from side to side, may loosen the grip
of the Ice and free a ship Beset. Explosives may sometimes be an effective method of
shifting the Ice, particularly when the ship has attempted to widen a Crack and become
Nipped. In such cases, small demolition charges placed 3-10 metres clear of the ship’s
side where the pressure seems greatest may cause a temporary movement of the Floes
that will enable the ship to come astern; the propeller should be rotating Full Astern
when the charges are detonated. In sunlight, it is possible to weaken the Ice Floes by
laying a dark-coloured substance across the Ice where a Crack is required; the local
heating that this causes will effectively cut the Ice. However, despite all these actions,
in most cases an Ice-Breaker will be required to free a ship Beset unless a change in wind
direction moves the Sea Ice and thus reduces the pressure holding the ship. Good
reserves of fuel and supplies are essential for any ship that risks being Beset in Ice.
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(0713) q. Operating Inshore. If entering a closed bay or narrow channel with the wind
blowing in, or when operating on a lee shore, there is a risk that the wind may bring in
Sea Ice which may Beset the ship. However, if Beset in an area mostly surrounded by
land, it is unlikely that sufficient Ice pressure will occur to damage the ship. Small
whaling vessels have taken advantage of this in the distant past to over-winter in shallow
bays with very narrow entrances, thus achieving protection from both Icebergs and Ice
pressure (see Para 0722.l).
r. Anchoring. Anchoring should be avoided when heavy Concentrations of Ice are

present. If the Ice is moving, its tremendous power can easily part the cable. If
anchoring is essential in light Ice conditions, capstans and engines should be kept at
immediate notice so that the ship can weigh and proceed without delay.
s. Ramming and Backing. ‘Ramming and Backing’ is a specialised technique used

by Ice-Breakers to force a channel through Ice. It consists of breaking the Ice through
the sheer impact of the ship, backing out through the Ice debris (with considerable risk
to propeller - see Para 0713k) and repeating the process on a broad front to open a
channel considerably wider than the ship’s beam. The procedure is dangerous; heavy
damage can occur and the ship can easily become Beset in the Ice. In ships not fully
designed for this purpose, ‘Ramming and Backing’ should only be used in emergency.
0714. Single Ship Ice Operations - Conclusion
a. Patience. Patience is essential when operating in Ice. Many difficult situations will
resolve themselves if patience is exercised to await a change in the wind or weather.
b. Experience. The ability to recognise hard Ice and soft Ice, to differentiate between
passable and impassable Sea Ice, to recognise weathered Floes with dangerous Rams,
to detect lines of weakness and to select the most suitable Leads, etc, can only be gained
by experience. No amount of text-book knowledge will stand in its stead, although it
provides an essential starting point.
c. Limitations of Radar. The use and limitations of radar in the detection of Ice
should be well understood.
d. Respect for Ice and Minimisation of Risk. Ice at sea is a navigational hazard of
the first order and should be accorded all due respect. On the other hand, it is a hazard
which can be greatly minimised by skilful shiphandling and by a sensitive assessment
of the risks.
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BR 45(6)
0715. Ice-Breaker Assistance and Ice Convoys

Operating an Ice-Breaker, to release a ship from being Beset or to conduct ships through
Ice in an Ice Convoy, is a highly skilled specialist task. It is thus essential that the Master of the
Ice-Breaker (or the leading Ice-Breaker in a composite Ice Convoy) directs the operation (see
ATP 17 Art 1109). More detailed guidance on Ice-Breaker assistance and Ice Convoys and is
at ATP 17 Chapter 11 and NP 100 Chapter 7, but the following summary gives a very brief
overview.
a. Freeing a Ship Beset. An Ice-Breaker will rarely approach a ship Beset from
astern, for fear of driving Ice into its propeller and rudder and either causing damage or
jamming them. Care must also be taken not to push heavy Floes if Ice against thin-
skinned ships which might rupture their hulls. Ice-Breakers have specially protected
propellers and often approach stern-first to a Beset ship’s beam, then go ahead again,
instructing the Beset ship to follow. The Beset ship should immediately move into the
Open Water left by the Ice-Breaker.
b. Towing. All Ice-Breakers are fitted with Towing winches and ships being assisted
or escorted must be prepared to be taken in Tow without delay.
c. Simple and Complex Ice-Convoys. A Simple Ice Convoy is where one Ice-
Breaker escorts a group of ships and a Complex Ice-Convoy is where two or more Ice-
Breakers escort two or more Simple Ice Convoys. It is normal to place the weakest ship
immediately behind the leading Ice-Breaker. The most powerful ships with the widest
beams are interspersed in the Ice Convoy so that less powerful ships can follow behind
them. One of the most powerful ships should be last in line. The Master of the leading
Ice-Breaker decides the distance apart of ships.
d. Importance of Signals. Signals that have ben adopted for use between Ice-
Breakers and escorted ships are at Chapter 13 of the International Code of Signals
(1969). Prompt response to these signals is essential in an Ice Convoy, as should either
the leading Ice-Breaker or a ship being escorted become stuck, very prompt manoeuvring
action will be needed by the next and subsequent ships astern in order to avoid a
collision.
e. Replenishment. Replenishment in Ice can be accomplished only if both ships are

stopped and lying as close to each other as possible.
0716. Azipod-Fitted Ice-Breakers and Ice-Strengthened Ships

The advent of Integrated Electric Propulsion (IEP) (see Para 0164e) and Azipod drive
(see Para 0127b), has allowed the design of large Ice-Breakers or Ice-Strengthened ships
(typically 16,000 to 100,000 tonnes) which have bows optimised for moving ahead in Open
Water and sterns optimised for moving astern through Ice. With these large ships, the
Azipod(s) fitted aft are sufficiently deep to pass under the Ice and thus can be used to pull the
ship, stern first, through the Ice rather than the conventional method of pushing the ship
and ramming its bows into the Ice. The propeller wash from the Azipod (which is at the
‘leading’ edge of the ship in Ice) passes along the hull and reduces Ice resistance by up to 40% -
50%. These ships require only 50%-70% of the power required by a conventional bows-first ship
to cut through the same thickness of Ice. In addition, because their bows have an optimum
hydrodynamic shape for moving ahead in Open Water and are so effective when stern-first
in Ice, they are very economical and efficient ships to operate.
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BR 45(6)
0717. Ice Reports and Forecasts
a. Ice Reports from Ships. The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS), 1974, requires the Master of every ship, when Ice is reported on or near his
track, to proceed at moderate speed at night or to alter course to pass well clear of the
danger zone. The following reports (see NP100) are also required, and should also be
made by RN warships:
• On Meeting Dangerous Ice:
< The type of Ice
< The position of the Ice
< The time (UT) and date of observation
• On encountering air temperatures below freezing associated with
gale force winds causing severe Ice accumulation on ships:
< The air and sea temperatures
< The force and direction of the wind
< The position of the ship
• The time (UT) and date of observations
b. Ice Reports for Ships. Ice reports are available for ships when Ice is prevalent for
the Arctic, Baltic Sea, East Coast of Canada, Gulf of St Lawrence, Gulf of Alaska,
Bering Sea, Sea of Okhotsk , Sea of Japan and Antarctica. The Admiralty List of Radio
Signals Volume 3 gives details and indicates which radio stations transmit them.
Another warning system is operated by the International Ice Patrol of the U S
Coastguard. This is funded by the signatory nations to the 1974 SOLAS Convention
with the object of warning ships of the extent and limits of Icebergs near the Grand
Banks of Newfoundland. The Admiralty List of Radio Signals, Volume 3 gives details
of this service, which operates during the Ice season from late February or early March
to about the end of June.
c. Fleet Forecasts. Ice reports and forecasts, and Ice satellite pictures may also be
sent to RN warships operating in or near Ice by arrangement with the Fleet Weather
Centre.
d. Internet. The Internet site www.natice.noaa.gov provides a particularly useful

satellite Ice service.
0718-0719. Spare
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BR 45(6)
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
7-20
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BR 45(6)
SECTION 2 - THIN SKINNED SHIP IN ICE
0720. Warship Limitations - In or Near Ice

Warships are not generally designed for operations in Ice and should try to avoid it.
However, on certain occasions a warship may have to approach or enter Ice or pass through areas
where there are Icebergs, Bergy Bits and Growlers (see Para 0710). The aim of this section is
to advise Non-Ice-Strengthened RN warships on how to minimise the hazards of Ice. Section
1 of this Chapter should be studied, together with the other references listed at Paras 0703
and 0717, before any attempt is made to approach or enter Ice.
0721. Warship Ice Avoidance
a. Navigational Planning. When operating in an area where there is any likelihood

of Ice, the following steps should be taken to keep the ship clear. The limits of known
Sea Ice and Icebergs should be plotted from the best available information (see
references at Paras 0703 and 0717) before the passage is planned or area of operations
chosen. If heavy weather is expected, any Sea Ice should be kept at long range if the
ship has to pass to windward of it. In the past, there have been occasions of a storm
forcing a ship to run downwind towards the Ice Edge and being unable to turn away until
the last minute. The navigational plan should also allow for slow passage speed at night
or in fog. If the ship has to pass through areas where there may be Icebergs, Bergy Bits
and Growlers it may even be necessary to stop outside daylight hours or clear visibility
(see Paras 0711b-e and 0713n/o).
b. Echo Sounder Policy. The echo sounder should be operated and monitored
continuously in polar waters (see Para 0710a).
c. Approaching an Area Containing Icebergs. In clear weather in daylight, it is

usually possible to conduct a ship safely through Iceberg infested waters. Any Icebergs
detected should always be plotted on the chart (see Para 0710b). At night and in fog
great care should be exercised; it is hazardous for a ship to pick its way through Icebergs
in thick weather (see Para 0711b-d). It is possible for an Iceberg to remain undetected
by radar due to the particular reflective properties that it may have (see Para 0711b).
When working through Iceberg infested waters in low visibility, a warship should reduce
to the lowest possible speed that enables it to manoeuvre, or stop altogether. If stopping,
it is unwise to stop close an Iceberg (see Para 0711e). If there is an accumulation of
stationary Icebergs, this will often indicate that they have grounded on a shoal (see Para
0710b).
d. Approaching and Skirting Sea Ice. Sea Ice (see Para 0710d-e) is a danger to thin-
skinned warships and the warning signs of its presence in the vicinity are at Para 0711g.
When a warship encounters Sea Ice lying across its track, a decision must be made
whether to withdraw, skirt or enter it; the latter course (see Para 0722) should only be
taken ‘in extremis’. If the Sea Ice boundaries are known and it is possible to do so, it is
best to pass to windward of Sea Ice, even if this means taking the longer way round.
Warships should normally keep well away from the weather edge of Sea Ice as it is not
usually straight and tongues of Ice may project to obstruct a ship’s passage. Give an
especially wide berth to any Ice that is obviously under pressure. If Ice Blink (see Para
0711g) is observed, it will indicate areas to be avoided, but Water Sky (see Para 0711h)
may indicate a more favourable direction for passing round Sea Ice.
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BR 45(6)
0722. Entry and Transit of Warships Through Ice

Thin skinned warships should only enter Sea Ice when absolutely essential for
operational reasons. Such entry may result in serious damage or even the loss of the ship.
WARNING
ENTRY OF THIN SKINNED WARSHIPS

INTO SEA ICE MAY RESULT IN SEVERE
DAMAGE OR EVEN LOSS OF THE SHIP
a. Reconnaissance. In the unlikely event of a thin-skinned warship having to move

into Sea Ice, the first action must be to reconnoitre the extent and Concentration of the
Ice Field. Any Leads and lines of weakness in the Ice Field should be observed from as
high a position as possible on board and use should be made of a helicopter if one is
available. Helicopter observation of Ice requires specialised knowledge and thoroughly
trained aircrew to be effective (see Para 0711h). Most aircrew embarked in warships
will not be specially trained in Ice observation; they should be briefed on the types of Ice
described in NP 100 Chapter 6 and given copies of the Ice photographs contained in this
book and in NP 100 for comparison purposes during the flight. It may be helpful for the
NO to accompany the first and some subsequent flights.
b. Considerations before Entering Ice. The factors listed at Para 0712a apply
equally to a warship as to any other vessel. The advice given in Section 1 of this book,
ATP 17 (The Naval Arctic Manual) Chapter 11 and in NP 100 Chapter 7 should be
studied carefully before making the decision whether to enter and work through Ice.
c. Descriptions of Sea Ice Concentrations. A description of Sea Ice Concentrations

is at Para 0713 (Table 7-1).
d. Use of Astern Power. Use of astern power can be dangerous when stopped in Ice
(see Para 0713k) but a twin propeller ship in Brash Ice can Cast (Turn at Rest), to clear
Brash Ice from astern. The ship can then move into this water (see ATP 17 Art 1108).
e. Very Open Ice - Warships. Very Open Ice ( 1/10th to 3/10ths) is probably the
greatest Concentration where it is practicable to take a thin-skinned warship. Water
preponderates over Ice, and the Ice may sometimes be so soft that Floes will break up
readily and do little damage to a warship’s hull. However, the guiding principles should
always be to take avoiding action and to keep the ship manoeuvrable. If an up-ended
Floe is encountered, its behaviour will be unpredictable and the ship should be kept well
clear. Although the ship may be going through Ice that is not hard enough to cause direct
damage to propellers and rudders, large masses of soft Ice should not be allowed to jam
between rudder and hull and near the A-brackets. Keeping the propellers rotating will
cut the Ice into small pieces and prevent the rudder jamming. Using small rudder angles
will also help prevent possible damage to the rudders and steering gear. Shiphandling
in Very Open Ice is a matter of careful Conning and moderate speed. Leads that look
favourable will often take the ship away from the desired track. Taking a point of land
or an Iceberg in the middle distance as a reference point will help select Leads running
in the general direction required. Even in Very Open Ice, it is very likely that thin-
skinned warships will suffer some damage.
7-22
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BR 45(6)
f. Open Ice - Warships. In the unlikely event of a warship having to enter Open Ice,
it is of paramount importance to maintain manoeuvrability because the ship will have to
negotiate tortuous Leads rather than just passing clear of individual Floes. In Open Ice
warships should proceed at slow speed through areas of clear water between the Floes.
When the ship has to pass close to Floes, they should be fended off with staves if
practicable, in particular from the quarterdeck to prevent Ice being drawn under the
counter where it may damage the rudder and propellers. In Open Ice, thin-skinned
warships will inevitably suffer some damage.
g. Close Ice - Warships. Close Ice is composed of Floes that are mainly touching
each other. It is doubtful whether thin-skinned warship should ever willingly enter Close
Ice. If caught with Close Ice moving upon it, a thin-skinned warship would probably
suffer severe damage.
h. Bergy Bits and Growlers -Warships. Bergy Bits and Growlers are much harder
than Sea Ice of any kind and should always be avoided both in Open Water and if they
are present an Ice Field.
i. Shore Leads -Warships. When close to a coast with an offshore wind, there may
be a Shore Lead of Open Water between the shore and the Sea Ice. The weather forecast
should always be taken into account as a change of wind could close the Shore Lead with
potentially disastrous consequences for a thin-skinned warship thus trapped (see Para
0713h/p/q).
j. Stopping in Sea Ice -Warships. When necessary to do so (ie darkness and fog -
see Para 0711b) the ship may stop in Sea Ice. Paras 0713n/o provide guidance on the
methods that can be adopted.
k. Beset. A thin-skinned warship is much more vulnerable to damage when Beset than
an Ice-Strengthened ship. See Para 0713p.
l. Overwintering in Ice. If compelled to winter in a region of Ice, the best place for
a ship is a relatively shallow, enclosed bay. By being enclosed the pressure from the Ice
is unlikely to crush the ship and by being shallow no Icebergs can drift in to threaten the
ship. The ship should be secured on the side of the bay that is normally to windward.
See also Para 0713q.
0723-0729. Spare.
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BR 45(6)
SECTION 3 - ICE ACCUMULATION
0730. Ice Accumulation on Superstructure, Weather Decks and Exposed Equipment

Ships operating in high latitudes must be prepared to deal with heavy Icing of the
superstructure, weather decks and exposed equipment. Under certain conditions Ice can form
very rapidly on the upperworks to create a stability hazard, and there are many recorded cases of
ships having capsized and been lost with all hands from this cause.
0731. Causes of Ice Accumulation

Ice accumulation may occur from the following causes:
• Fog, drizzle, rain or wet snow combined with freezing conditions.
• Sea spray or sea water breaking over the ship when the air temperature is
below the freezing point of sea water (about -2EC).
a. Fog, Drizzle, Rain or Wet Snow - Black Ice. Fog, drizzle, rain or wet snow will
not often cause a heavy weight of Ice to accumulate. However, under certain conditions,
moisture may freeze rapidly as Black Ice on every part of the ship to form a dangerous
top weight of Ice on masts and aerials within a few hours. The OOW must be alert for
this, particularly at night, as there may not be time to use physical methods of Ice
removal. The only remedy then is to move quickly away from the area towards warmer
air.
b. Sea Spray or Sea Water. Sea spray from broken waves (or even sea water itself
from unbroken waves coming inboard) is a much more common cause of Ice
accumulation, particularly when strong winds are blowing continuously over a vessel in
temperatures of -2°C or lower. Freezing winds may blow at gale force for days on end,
and it may be prudent to steer towards warmer conditions or to seek shelter. An
immediate remedy is to steer down-wind for a period to give an opportunity for all hands
to clear the Ice from the upper decks.
0732. Dangers of Ice Accumulation

The most serious danger is that of the additional top weight of Ice on a ship’s upper
works reducing her stability. However, there are also the dangers of personnel being injured by
slipping on icy decks or being struck by Ice breaking away from aloft. Added to these hazards
are the difficulties of handling exposed equipment and damage to radar aerials and similar
apparatus from the weight of Ice formed on them.
0733. Preparations to Combat Icing and its Effects

Comprehensive advice on the general preparations that should be taken for Arctic (or
Antarctic) operations is at Chapter 5 of ATP 17 (Naval Arctic Manual). Specific advice is
provided at subsequent chapters of ATP 17 for: ‘Hull, Engineering and Electrical’ (Chapter 6),
‘Combat Systems’ (Chapter 7), ‘Electronics and Characteristics of Electronic Emissions’
(Chapter 8), and Personnel (Chapter 9) . These references should be studied well before a
ship enters polar waters.
7-24
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BR 45(6)
0734. Removal of Ice from the Upper Deck and Superstructure

Modern ships without steam propulsion have a much reduced capability to remove Ice
from the upper deck and superstructure than the ships of earlier generations. Anti-Icing coatings
can be used to protect comparatively small areas or equipments and this will make subsequent
Ice removal easier (ATP 17 Table 5-2 provides a list of anti-Icing chemicals and their stock
numbers). Chapter 5 of ATP 17 (Naval Arctic Manual) gives advice on the methods of removal
of Ice which are summarised briefly below:
• Manual Methods. Ice may be broken away and chipped off using mallets, clubs
and scrapers. Caution must be exercised to avoid impact damage to surfaces,
equipment and cables under the Ice. ATP 17 Table 5-1 provides a list of the
implements used for manual removal of Ice and their stock numbers.
• Chemical Methods. Ice may be removed from certain areas and equipment by a
variety of chemical methods. Advice on the use of specific chemicals is at ATP 17
in the sections appropriate to the areas / equipment for which those chemicals are
suitable. Chemicals should not be used unless the relevant instructions have been
studied and it is known that the correct chemical is being applied for the
circumstances. ATP 17 Table 5-2 provides a list of the chemical used for removal
of Ice and their stock numbers.
• Steam Jets. A steam lance can be used (if steam is available) to undercut a layer
of Ice (eg freeing an anchor which has become frozen in its hawsepipe). It may also
be used for spot heating.
• Heated Salt Water under Pressure. If available, sea water heated to at least 50°C
(higher if possible) may be used in high pressure jets to ‘slot’ and undercut large
accumulations of Ice. The jet should not be used to melt a volume of Ice directly,
but to cut channels in it to facilitate manual removal. When using water to clear Ice
it is essential that scuppers and overboard drains must be clear, otherwise attempts
to clear Ice might actually make the problem worse.
0735. Personnel Issues

The success or failure of any polar operation will ultimately depend on the effectiveness
of the personnel involved. Polar conditions make special demands on the human body and
Chapter 9 of ATP 17 (Naval Arctic Manual) gives advice on the following subjects, which
should be studied before entering polar waters:
• Training and preparation
• Food and water and dehydration
• Cold weather clothing
• Personnel Welfare
• Frostbite and its treatment
• Immersion (Trench) Foot
• Hypothermia
• Snow Blindness
• Hypoxia and Carbon Monoxide poisoning
• Adjustment to 24 hour daylight
• Increase in static electricity
7-25
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BR 45(6)
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
7-26
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BR 45(6)
ASSISTANCE AND SALVAGE
CHAPTER 8
SHIPHANDLING FOR ‘ASSISTANCE’ AND ‘SALVAGE’
CONTENTS
Para
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0801
Arriving at the Casualty Vessel’s Position (Repeated from BR 45 Vol 4 Para 1322) . . . . 0802
Shiphandling - Approaching a Ditched Aircraft (Repeated from BR 45 Vol 4 Para 1373) 0803
8-1
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BR 45(6)
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
8-2
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BR 45(6)
CHAPTER 8
SHIPHANDLING FOR ‘ASSISTANCE’ AND ‘SALVAGE’
0801. Introduction
Detailed guidance on the conduct of ‘Assistance’ and ‘Salvage’ operations, including all
the legal implications, is contained at BR 45(4) Chapter 13, and that chapter should always
be consulted before attempting an ‘Assistance’ or ‘Salvage’ operation. However BR 45(4)
Para 1322a/b, (Arriving Casualty vessel’s position and the shiphandling necessary in its vicinity),
and Para 1373 (Shiphandling when approaching a ditched aircraft ) are repeated below at Paras
0802 and 0803 for the convenience of readers.
0802. Arriving at the Casualty Vessel’s Position (Repeated from BR 45 Vol 4 Para 1322)
When approaching the Casualty, the following should be taken into consideration:
a. Shiphandling. On arrival, an RN warship giving Assistance should move into a

position close up-wind of the Casualty vessel. This provides a lee, shortens the boat
transit time, allows the stern to be held up to the wind (to allow for escape by
Sternboard) and avoids the hazard of toxic fumes and smoke. Start by treating all smoke
as toxic as the hazards could be invisible and impossible to detect by odour. When the
Casualty vessels is in shallow water or aground, due regard should be given to both the
lack of under-keel clearance and any meteorological elements which may place the RN
warship in jeopardy. If it is too rough for boats to operate, use a helicopter (if available)
and manoeuvre the ship to allow for the flight path (see Fig 8-1). If there is no
helicopter, consider letting liferafts drift down-wind on lines to the Casualty vessel.
Fig 8-1. Position Relative to a Casualty vessel while Giving Life-Saving Assistance
b. Control of Boat Traffic. Fig 8-1 (above) shows the recommended route for boats
proceeding to and from the ship. The Boat Control Officer must regulate boat
movements to and from the Casualty vessel to prevent them obstructing their parent ship
from making a sternboard should it be necessary.
8-3
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BR 45(6)
0803. Shiphandling - Approaching a Ditched Aircraft (Repeated from BR 45 Vol 4 Para 1373)
When approaching an area of survivors and wreckage, it is usually best to make for a
position a short distance to one side of the wreckage. Depending on class, hold the ship stopped,
either stern-to-wind (similar to a Hanging buoy approach - see [BR 45 Volume 6] Para 0376b)
or head-to-wind (similar to a Tossing buoy approach - see [BR 45 Volume 6] Para 0376b), while
the Crash Boat picks up survivors. This has the advantage of keeping the ship reasonably close
to survivors so that time is not wasted in transit when bringing them back to the ship. The ship
should not be stopped broadside-on, upwind of the crash, because it will drift down on to
it in a very short time. If the ship has a helicopter operating in an SAR role, the ship should
stop downwind of the wreckage so that the helicopter’s flight path passes naturally over the area
of the crash.
8-4
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BR 45(6)(1)
TABLE OF MASTHEAD HEIGHTS
APPENDIX 1
|
1. Further information on heights and dimensions for the following RN warships is

contained in the appropriate chapter of BR 45 Volume 6 (Binders 2 & 3).
Table 1(App)-1. TABLE OF MASTHEAD HEIGHTS - RN WARSHIPS

BR 45 Ship (Highest Mast) (Forward) (Fore) Funnel
Vol 6 Masthead Masthead Light Height to
Ref Height to to Sidelight Water Line
Water Line Height
Chp 10 CVS - INVINCIBLE Class 45.5m (149.3ft) See Note1 33.6m (100.0ft)
Chp 11 LHD - OCEAN Class 39.1m (128.3ft) See Note 2 31.2m (102.4ft) |
Chp 12 LPD - ALBION Class 38.5m (126.3ft) 9.3m (30.5ft) |
Chp 13 FFGH - T22 (Batch III) 30.2m (98.9ft) 7.4m (24.3ft) 15.9m (52.2ft)
Chp 14 FFGH - T23 28.6m (94.2ft) 15.1m (49.5ft) 17.0m (55.8ft)
Chp 15 DDGH - T42 (Batch I and II) 30.8m (101.0ft) 12.5m (41.0ft) 15.9m (52.5ft)
Chp 15 DDGH - T42 (Batch III) 31.4m (103.0ft) 12.5m (41.0ft) 17.1m (56.0ft)
Chp 16 DDGH - T45
Chp 17 MHSC - HUNT Class 17.7m (58.0ft) 6.9m (22.6ft) 12.1m (39.6ft)
See Note 3 22.5m (73.8ft) |
Chp 18 MHC - SANDOWN Class 19.1m (62.5ft) 6.0m (19.7ft) 9.7m (31.8ft)
Chp 19 PG - RIVER Class 28.6m (93.8ft) 14.6m (47.9ft) |
Chp 19 PG - ISLAND Class 20.5m (67.2ft) 4.5m (14.8ft) 12.3m (40.3ft)
Chp 20 PG - CASTLE Class See Note 4 27.4m (89.7ft) 7.9m (26.1ft) 16.6m (54.6ft) |
Chp 21 PBR - ARCHER Class (P2000) 9.8m (32.1ft)
Chp 40 AGSA - HMS ENDURANCE 31.0m (101.7ft) 1.4m (4.6ft) 20.0m (65.6ft)
Chp 41 AGS - HMS SCOTT 37.8m (124.0ft) 15.6m (51.2ft)
Chp 42 AGS - ECHO Class 27.4m (89.9ft) 20.0m (65.6ft) |
Notes:
1. CVS has 2 sets of sidelights. Forward masthead light to: Island sidelights 5.26m
(17.3ft), Flight Deck (port)17.2m (56.5ft), Flight Deck (starboard)18.8m (61.7ft)
2. No data available yet. See Note 1.
3. Masthead height in normal font is with conductor down, in italics is with conductor up. |
4. Funnel and mast are combined; height is for funnel exhaust (radar platform height). |
App1-1
Change 1
BR 45(6)(1)
2. Further information on heights and dimensions for the following RFAs is contained in
the appropriate chapter of BR 45 Volume 6 (Binders 2 & 3).
Table 1(App)-2. TABLE OF MASTHEAD HEIGHTS - RFAs

BR 45 Ship (Highest Mast) (Forward) (Fore) Funnel
Vol 6 Masthead Masthead Light Height to
Ref Height to to Sidelight Water Line
Water Line Height
Chp 50 AG - RFA ARGUS 39.4m (129.3ft) 7.4m (29.3m) 21.6m (70.9ft)
Chp 51 AR - DILIGENCE 36.2 (118.8ft) 9.2m (32.2ft)
Chp 52 AFS - FORT ROSALIE Class 39.5m (129.6ft) 5.1m (16.7ft) 31.6m (103.7ft)
Chp 53 AOR- FORT VICTORIA Class 42.2m (138.5ft) 33.2m (109.0ft)
Chp 54 AO - RFA BAYLEAF 30.4m (99.7ft) 4.6m (15.2ft) 25.6m (84.0ft)
Chp 54 AO - RFA BRAMBLELEAF 31.0m (101.7ft) 4.6m (15.2ft) 25.6m (84.0ft)
Chp 54 AO - RFA ORANGELEAF 32.7m (107.2ft) 4.6m (15.2ft) 25.6m (84.0ft)
Chp 55 AO - RFA OAKLEAF 33.0m (108.3ft) 5.4m (17.7ft) 28.8m (94.5ft)
Chp 56 AORL - RFA BLACK ROVER 35.5m (116.5ft) 4.2m (13.8ft) 28.2m (92.5ft)
Chp 56 AORL - RFA GREY ROVER 36.0m (118.1ft) 4.2m (13.8ft) 30.4m (99.7ft)
Chp 56 AORL - RFA GOLD ROVER 37.7m (123.7ft) 4.2m (13.8ft) 29.6m (97.1ft)
Chp 57 AKR - RFA SEA CENTURION 35.3m (115.8ft) 8.1m (26.2ft) 31.0m (101.7ft)
| Chp 57 AKR - RFA SEA CRUSADER 39.0m (128.0ft) 24.6m (80.8ft) See Note 5
| Chp 57 AKR - POINT Class 37.6m (123.4ft) 30.6m (100.4ft)
Chp 58 LSL - RFA SIR GERAINT 27.7m (90.9ft) 7.9m (26.0ft) 18.8m (59.1ft)
Chp 58 LSL - RFA SIR PERCIVALE 28.5m (93.5ft) 7.9m (26.0ft) 18.8m (59.1ft)
Chp 58 LSL - RFA SIR BEDIVERE 36.1m (118.4ft) 6.6m (21.6ft) 23.7m (77.8ft)
Chp 58 LSL - RFA SIR TRISTRAM 29.5m (96.8ft) 1.7m (5.6ft) 24.1m (79.1ft)
Chp 58 LSL - RFA SIR GALAHAD 34.2m (122.2ft) 3.9m (12.8ft) 24.1m (79.1ft)
| Chp 59 LSDA - BAY Class 36.6m (120.1ft)
| Chp 60 AO - WAVE Class 39.2m (128.6ft) 15.0m (49.2ft) 25.2m (82.7ft)
| Note 5. Without funnel uptakes 25.5m (83.7ft), with funnel uptakes 28.3m (92.9ft).
App1-2
Change 1
UNCLASSIFIED BR 45(6)(1)
INDEX-GLOSSARY (ITALICISED TERMS FROM BINDER 1 ONLY)
INDEX-GLOSSARY
1. Purpose
The purpose of this ‘Index-Glossary’ is to provide a quick method of locating the primary
definition and/or explanation of each of the ‘technical terms’ used in BR 45 Volume 6 (all
binders), together with the location of other occurrences of their use in Binder 1 only. These
‘technical terms’ are indicated in the text of all BR 45 Volume 6 binders by being italicised.
2. Explanatory Notes in the Index Glossary.

Some words have more than one meaning (eg ‘compass Bearing ....’ and ‘bearing in
mind ....’, or ‘Pitch - meaning ship movement in rough seas’ and ‘Pitch - meaning CPP Pitch’.
Where appropriate, to avoid the risk of confusion between similar terms, a brief explanatory note
is included in the Index-Glossary for most entries, in addition to the paragraph locations.
3. Scope
This Index-Glossary gives the paragraph location in BR 45 Volume 6 (Binder 1) of
all instances of the italicised technical terms used in BR 45 Volume 6. Instances of words used
in Binder 1 in a sense which is NOT a technical term (eg ‘bearing in mind ....’ see Para 2 above)
are NOT included in the Index-Glossary. No new italicised technical terms are introduced in
Binders 2 and 3 (the class-specific chapters) of BR 45 Volume 6; as their usage should be read
primarily in conjunction with Binder 1, such references in Binders 2 and 3 are NOT included in
this Index-Glossary.
4. Primary and Secondary References

Within this Index-Glossary, the primary definition and/or explanation of an italicised
technical term is given in bold type, with secondary occurrences given in ordinary type.
Italicised Technical Term Paragraph Number

Abnormal Waves (Heavy Weather) 0611, 0615, 0616.
Acceleration Distance (Stationing) 0427, 0428.
Access Basin (Locks) 0362d.
Active Tank Roll Damper System (Heavy Weather) See ‘Roll Damper System’.
Added Mass (Hull) 0206d.
Advance (Turning) 0137, 0140, 0141, 0143, Annexes 1A & 1B, 0421, 0422,
0425, 0426.
Approaching Ship(RAS only) 0212, 0502, 0510, 0511, 0513, 0514, 0516-0518.
Aspect Ratio (Rudder) 0131.
Assistance (Lifesaving) (Primarily BR 45 Volume 4 Chapter 13). Also 0801,
0802, 0520.
Astern RAS 0211, 0510, 0511, 0515, 0518.
Auto Steering Unit 0170.
UNCLASSIFIED Index Glossary-1

Original
BR 45(6)(1)
Auto-Pilot Failure Alarm 0173.

Azipod (Propulsion 0121, 0127, 0165, 0716.
Back Spring (Ropes) 0320, 0322, 0323, 0324, 0329, 0330, 0362.
Bank Effect (Interaction) 0210, 0364.
Beam Approach (RAS) 0212, 0510, 0511, 0512, 0513.
Beam Sea (Heavy Weather) 0622, 0631.
Bearing (Compass) 0326, 0332, 0334, 0365, 0410, 0412, 0414, 0421, 0424,
0425, 0426, 0429, 0433, 0511, 0641, 0642.
Bergy Bits (Ice) 0710 / Fig 7-1, 0711 / Fig 7-5/ Fig 7-6, 0712 / Fig 7-8,
0713, 0720-0723.
Bernoulli / Bernoulli Phenomenon 0110, 0152, 0202, 0203, 0207,0210, 0211.
Beset (Ice) 0710, 0713, 0715, 0722.
Bight (Ice) 0712.
Bilge Keel (Hull, Heavy Weather) 0624.
Black Ice (Ice)
Blind Pilotage (Primarily BR 45 Volumes 1 and 4). Also 0365.
Block Coefficient (Cb) (Interaction) 0207, 0209.
Blockage Factor (S) (Interaction) 0209.
Blocky Iceberg (Ice) 0710 See also ‘Iceberg’.
Bollard Pull (Tugs) 0350, 0351, 0352, 0527.
Boundary Layer (Hull) 0111, 0112, 0152.
Bow Dome (Hull) 0302, 0314, 0315, 0324, 0326, 0328, 0330, 0340, 0341,
0342, 0343, 0345, 0350, 0353, 0364, 0371 / Fig 3-29,
0373, 0374, 0375, 0390, 0391.
Note. Bow Domes are always Fixed Domes, but the reverse is not always true; see Fixed Domes.
Bow Thruster (Propulsion) 0121, 0123, 0128, 0165, 0329, 0330, 0332, 0333, 0351.
Bower Anchor (Anchor fitted at the bow. Extensive references in Binders 2 and 3 only).
Brash Ice 0710 / Figs 7-1 to 7-4, 0722.
Breaker (Waves) 0611, 0614, 0711.
Breast (Ropes) 0320, 0322, 0342, 0364.
Bridge Control (Propulsion) See ‘Control (Propulsion)’.
Bridge Control (Tactical) See ‘Control (Tactical)’.
Bring to 0323.
Index Glossary-2
Original UNCLASSIFIED
Broach-To (Heavy Weather) 0611, 0632, 0634.

Bullring (Ropes) 0312, 0313, 0316, 0324, 0355, 0362, 0390.
Calve (Ice) 0710, 0711.
Canal Effect (Interaction) 0201, 0203, 0210, 0302, 0364.
Canal Speed (Interaction) 0210, 0364.
Carousel (Propulsion) 0126.
Cast / Casting (Manoeuvring, 0312, 0312b, 0313, 0313b, 0377, 0379, 0390, 0524,
Towing, Heavy Weather, Ice) 0526, 0625, 0722. See also ‘Turn / Turning at Rest’.
Casualty (vessel) - (Salvage) (Primarily BR 45 Volume 4 Chapter 13.) Also 0801,
0802.
Casualty (vessel) - (Towing) 0305, 0523, 0524, 0525-0528.
Cavitation (Propulsion) 0120, 0121.
Celerity (Heavy Weather) 0611.
Centre Line (Conning, RAS) 0305, 0334, 0354, 0511, 0523.
Note. ‘Centre Line’ in this context means that of a ship or tug. Other ‘centre-lines’ (eg of jetty,
harbour entrance etc) are not included or italicised in the text.
Centre of Gravity (Manoeuvring) 0134, 0135, 0137, 0139, 0140, 0210, 0324, 0328.
Centre of Rotation (Manoeuvring) 0126.
Centre of Windage (Manoeuvring) 0138.
Centripetal Force (Manoeuvring) 0133, 0134, 0135, 0137, 0139, 0141.
Clearing Bearing (Manoeuvring) (Primarily BR 45 Volume 1). Also 0318, 0365, 0433.
Close Ice 0712, 0713 / Table 7-1, 0722.
Cold Moves (Manoeuvring) 0351, 0353.
Command Authority (Tactical) (Primarily BR 45 Volume 4). Also 0183.
Command Open Line (Tactical) (Primarily BR 45 Volume 4). Also 0183.
Compact / Compacted (Ice) 0712, 0713 / Table 7-1.
Complex Ice-Convoy 0715. See also ‘Simple Ice Convoy’.
Con / Conning (Manoeuvring) 0180-0183, 0184, 0185-0187, 0189, 0304-0306, 0334,
0510, 0511, 0514, 0523, 0524, 0712, 0722.
Concentration (of Ice) 0712, 0713 / Table 7-1, 0722.
Consolidated Ice 0712, 0713 / Table 7-1.
Control (Propulsion) 0184, 0186, 0187, 0188.
Control (Tactical) (Primarily BR 45 Volume 4). Also 0183, 0302.

Original
BR 45(6)(1)
Controlled Pitch Propeller / CPP 0120, 0121-0125, 0132, 0138, 0150, 0162, 0164, 0165 /
(Propulsion) Table 1-1, 0184, 0185, 0310-0313, 0326, 0330-0331,
0350, 0364, 0377, 0379, 0511, 0534.
Corpo Mortos (Mooring) 0340.
Couple (Manoeuvring) 0122, 0125, 0134, 0137.
Crack (Ice) 0713.
Crash Boat (Lifesaving) 0530, 0803.
Crest / Wave Crest See ‘Wave Crest / Crest’.
Current Forces / Tidal Stream See ‘Tidal Stream / Current Forces’.
Cutaway (Steering) 0131, 0132.
Cycloidal / Cycloid 0121, 0610.
(Propulsion / Waves)
Cyclone (Heavy Weather) 0640. See also ‘Tropical Storm’.
Damage on Deck / DOD 0635.
(Heavy Weather)
Damage on Take-Off or Landing 0635.
/ DOTOL (Heavy Weather)
Dangerous Quadrant 0641.
(Tropical Storms - Heavy Weather)
Dangerous Semicircle 0641-0642.
(Tropical Storms - Heavy Weather)
Deadwood (Steering) 0130, 0131.
Deceleration Distance (Stationing) 0424-0427, 0429, 0511.
Delayed Executive Method (Primarily ATP 1 D). Also 0433. See also ‘Execute to
(Stationing) Follow’.
Delivering Ship (RAS) 0212, 0502, 0510-0518.
Displacement (Hull) 0103, 0150, 0203, 0204, 0207, 0211, Annex 2B, 0510,
0511, 0523, 0634.
Distance (or Range) (Stationing) 0410, 0411-0412, 0413, 0416, 0420, 0421, 0422, 0423,
0426, 0427, 0428, 0429, 0431, 0434, 0436.
Note. ‘Distance’ in this context means ‘Distance between ships Stationing’ in the sense of
‘Bearing and Distance’ or ‘Range and Bearing’. (The difference between ‘Distance’ and ‘Range’
is only in the units with which they are measured - apart from this distinction, the terms are
interchangeable in this context. The term ‘Distance’ has been used in most cases within
Chapter 4). See also separate entries for: ‘Acceleration Distance, Distance to New Course /
DNC, Intermediate Distance, Shadow Distances, Standard Distance, Stationing Distance,
Deceleration Distance)’.
Index Glossary-4
Distance to New Course / DNC 0137, 0140, Annexes 1A & 1B.

(Turning)
Diurnal Variation (Heavy Weather) 0641.
Down Sea (RAS / Heavy Weather) 0510, 0511, 0514, 0518, 0621, 0632, 0633.
Down Slack (Ropes) 0323.
Drag / Form Drag 0111, 0120, 0122, 0130, 0133, 0134, 0141, 0150, 0152,
(Propulsion / Steering) 0205, 0510, 0511, 0523, 0527, 0634.
(Note. Drag / Form Drag here refers to the frictional effect of water flow on propulsion and
steering - it does not include dragging an anchor).
Dredging an Anchor (Manoeuvring) 0315, 0360.
Drift (Yaw / Turning) 0113. See also ‘Yaw’ & ‘Drift Angle’.
Note. ‘Drift’ in this context is another word for ‘Yaw’. It does not refer to ‘drift’ meaning
‘Leeway’ (see ‘Leeway’ and ‘Drift Rate’ instead).
Drift Angle (Turning) 0137.
Drift Ice 0710, 0713 / Table 7-1.
Drift Rate (Leeway / Manoeuvring) 0332, 0333, 0523, 0524, 0634.
Drogue (Towing / Heavy Weather) 0527, 0634.
Dropping Anchorage (Manoeuvring) 0341, 0371, 0372, 0435.
Duct (Submarine propulsor) 0129.
Eggbeater (Manoeuvring submarine) See ‘Secondary Propulsion Motor / SPM’ .
Elliptical (Propeller blade) 0120.
Emergency Conning Position / ECP (References in Binders 2 and 3 only).
Emergency Breakaway (RAS) 0510, 0511, 0517, 0532.
Emergency Slip (Tugs - Girding) 0354.
Engine Telegraph (Propulsion) 0185-0187.
Equal Speed Manoeuvre (Stationing) 0425, 0427, 0429.
Execute to Follow (Stationing) (Primarily ATP 1 D). Also 0433, 0435. See also
‘Executive Signal’.
Executive Signal (Stationing) (Primarily ATP 1 D). Also 0435. See also ‘Execute to
Follow’.
Eye (Heavy Weather,Tropical Storm) 0634, 0640, 0641 / Fig 6-12, 0642.
Failure Alarm (Steering) 0172, 0173.
Fast Approach (RAS) 0510, 0511, 0512, 0153.
Fast Backdown (RAS) 0511, 0512.

Original
BR 45(6)(1)
Fast Ice 0710, 0713 / Table 7-1.

Fetch (Waves) 0611, 0613, 0616, 0625, 0634, Annex 6A.
Fin Stabiliser (Hull, Heavy Weather) See ‘Stabiliser’.
Final Diameter (Turning) 0140.
First of Class / FOC 0140, 0143, 0153. See also Annexes 1A & 1B.
(Manoeuvring Trials)
Fishtail (Stationing) 0420, 0427, 0429.
Fixed Dome (Hull) 0314, 0341, 0371.
Note. A ‘Fixed Dome’ may or may NOT be a ‘Bow Dome’; see ‘Bow Dome’.
Fixed Pitch Propeller / FPP 0120, 0121-0125, 0138, 0150, 0164, 0165 / Table 1-1,
(Propulsion) 0184, 0310-0312, 0313, 0330, 0511.
Floes (Ice) 0713 / Table 7-1, 0714, 0715, 0722.
Flow Stream Lines (Interaction) 0111, 0112, 0203, 0212.
Flying Course (RAS, Heavy Weather) 0510, 0635.
Force (Kinetic Energy) 0630. See also ‘Kinetic Energy’.
Force / Group Clearing Bearing (Primarily BR 45 Volumes 1 & 4). Also 0433.
Fore Spring (Ropes) 0320, 0322, 0323, 0324, 0328-0330, 0361, 0362, 0390.
Form Drag (Propulsion, Steering) See ‘Drag / Form Drag’.
Free Surface (Stability and 0139, 0523, 0621, 0623, 0640.
Heavy Weather)
Frostbite (Ice) 0703, 0735.
Full Displacement (Hull) 0103. See also ‘Displacement’.
Gain of Speed (Manoeuvring) 0150, 0151, 0302, 0411,0420, 0424, 0427, 0428.
Gemini (Boats) 0535, Annex 5B.
Girding / Girting (Tugs) 0316, 0317, 0351, 0352, 0354.
Glacier (Ice) 0710.
Grease Ice 0710, 0711.
Gross Tonnage (Hull) 0103.
Growlers (Ice) 0710-0713, 0720-0722.
Guide (Stationing) 0410, 0413-0416, 0420-0423, 0424-0425, 0426-0430,
0435, 0436.
Guide Speed (Stationing) 0425, 0426, 0427, 0429.
Hammerbach (Turn) 0532.
Index Glossary-6
Hand Pump/Hand Wheel (Steering) 0174, 0175, 0302.

Hand Steering Unit / HSU (Steering) 0170-0174, 0182.
Handbrake (Turn) 0141.
Hanging (Buoywork) 0376, 0803.
Hawsepipe (Hull) 0314, 0345, 0371, 0372, 0382.
Head Rope (Ropes) 0320, 0322, 0328, 0329, 0362.
Head Sea (RAS, Heavy Weather) 0411, 0510, 0514, 0518, 0622 / Table 6-1, 0633.
Heave in / Hove in (Ropes) 0323, 0328, 0340, 0342, 0344 ,0351, 0352 ,0357, 0375,
0527, 0528, 0529.
Heaving Line (Ropes) 0323, 0326, 0328, 0329, 0525.
Heaving-To (Heavy Weather) 06 33, 0634, 0642.
Height (H) / Wave Height See Wave Height / Height (H).
Hinged Rudder (Steering) 0131.
Hogging (Hull, Heavy Weather) 0611, 0622.
Hose (RAS) 0518.
Hose Marker Float (RAS) 0518.
Hoseline (RAS) 0518.
Hot Move (Manoeuvring) 0353.
Hummocked / Hummocking (Ice) 0712.
Hurricane (Heavy Weather) 0625, 0634, 0640, 0641 / Fig 6-12.
Hurricane Hawser (Ropes) 0322.
Hypothermia (Ice) 0703, 0735.
Ice 0127, 0139, 0601, 0623, 0624, 0701, 0702, 0703, 0710-
0717, 0720-0722, 0731-0732, 0734.
Ice Blink 0711, 0722.
Ice Cap 0710.
Ice Concentration See ‘Concentration (of Ice)’.
Ice Convoy 0715 (Also ‘Complex Ice Convoy’/ ‘Simple Ice Convoy’).
Ice Edge 0712, 0721.
Ice Field 0722.
Ice Fronts 0713.
Ice Hummocking See ‘Hummocking’.

Original
BR 45(6)(1)
Ice Rafting See ‘Rafting’.

Ice Ridging See ‘Ridging’.
Ice Searchlight 0711.
Ice Shelves 0710.
Ice-Breaker 0127, 0712-0715, 0716.
Ice-Capability 0712.
Ice-Strengthened 0127, 0710-0713, 0716, 0720, 0722.
Iceberg 0710 / Fig 7-1, 0711 / Figs 7-57-6, 0713, 0717, 0720-
0722.
Icing 0701, 0702, 0730, 0734.
Immediate Execute / Executive (Primarily ATP 1 D). Also 0430, 0433, 0435, 0441.
(Stationing)
IMO 0103.
(International Maritime Organisation)
Indirect Towing 0316, 0352.
Integrated Electric Propulsion / IEP 0127, 0164, 0165, 0716.
Interaction 0110, 0201, 0203, 0210, 0211, 0212, 0428, 0501, 0510-
0514, 0517, 0518.
Intermediate Course (Turning) 0140.
Intermediate Distance (Turning) 0140.
Internal Waves 0610, Annex 6B.
Into Sea (RAS / Heavy Weather) 0510, 0518, 0630, 0632-0634.
Jet Ski (Propulsion) See ‘Water Jet’.
Joining from Ahead (Stationing) 0425, 0426.
Kinetic Energy (Hull, Propulsion & 0114, 0315, 0351, 0373, 0630.
Heavy Weather)
Laminar Flow (Hull) 0111, 0152, 0205.
Lateral Separation (Interaction, RAS) 0212, 0511-0514, 0516-0518.
Lateral Separation (Joining fm Ahead) 0425.
Lateral Separation (Unberthing) 0333.
Lateral Wash (Propulsion) 0120, 0122, 0125, 0312, 0313.
Leads (Ice) 0711, 0713 / Table 7-1, 0714, 0722.
Leeway (Manoeuvring, 0302, 0311, 0312, 0327, 0330, 0332, 0372, Annex 3A,
Towing and Heavy Weather) 0524, 0529, 0625, 0634.
Index Glossary-8
Left-handed (Propeller) 0121, 0124, 0310, 0311.

Length / (L) (Waves) See ‘Wave Length / Length (L)’.
Lever Order Instrument (Propulsion) 0186-0188.
Lift (Propulsion, Steering) 0110, 0120, 0121, 0130-0135.
Light Displacement (Hull) 0103. See also ‘Displacement’.
Line Guide (Stationing) 0410, 0430.
List / Listing (Stability, Towing) 0142, 0523, 0527.
Local Handwheel (Manoeuvring) 0174, 0302.
Longitudinal Pressure (Hull) 0111. See also ‘Drag / Form Drag’.
Loss of Speed (Manoeuvring) 0150, 0151, 0302, 0411,0420, 0424, 0427, 0428.
Machinery Control Room (Propulsion). See ‘MCR/SCC’.
Man Overboard / MOB 0302, 0402, 0443, 0530-0534.
(Manoeuvring)
Manoeuvring Data (Turning) 0137, 0140, 0143, 0160, Annexes 1A & 1B. See also
‘Turning Data’.
Manoeuvring Interval (Stationing) 0420, 0435.
Mass (Kinetic Energy, Hull and 0114, 0133, 0206, 0523, 0614, 0630. See also ‘Virtual
Heavy Weather) Mass’ and ‘Added Mass’.
MCR/SCC (Propulsion) 0174, 0184, 0187, 0188, 0189, 0302.
MCR/SCC Control 0184, 0187, 0188, 0302.
Mediterranean Moor 0340, 0342.
Medium Inflatable Boat / MIB 0535, Annex 5B.
Medium Speed Approach (RAS) 0511, 0512.
Messenger (Ropes / Towing / RAS) 0323, 0340-0342, 0518, 0523, 0524-0525, 0529.
Minimum Swing Radius / MSR 0431.
(Anchorage)
Monitor Alarm (Steering) 0172.
Mules (Ropes - in major canals) 0363.
Navigable Semicircle 0641, 0642.
(Heavy Weather- Tropical Storm)
Net Tonnage (Hull) 0103.
Nip / Nipped (Ice) 0713.
Off-Course Alarm (Steering) 0173.

Original
BR 45(6)(1)
Onset Depth / SWE Onset Depth Annex 1A, 0204, 0205, 0211, Annex 2A, 0382, 0510-
(Interaction, RAS) 0512, 0517.
Open Ice 0712, 0713 / Table 7-1, 0722.

Open Pack 0711.
Open Water (Ice) 0710 / Figs 7-2 to 7-4, 0713 / Table 7-1, 0715-0716,
0722.
Ops Control (Tactical) See ‘Control (Tactical)’.
Ordered Speed (Stationing) 0424, 0436.
Pacific (Boat - RIB) 0532, 0535, Annex 5B.
Pack Ice 0713 / Table 7-1.
Paddlewheel Effect (Propulsion) 0120, 0122, 0124, 0125, 0141, 0310-0313, 0330, 0343,
0634.
Pancake Ice 0710, 0713.
Parallel Index / PI (Radar) (Primarily BR 45 Volumes 1 & 4). See also 0511.
Passive Tank Roll Damper System (Heavy Weather) See ‘Roll Damper System’.
Period (P) / Wave Period See ‘Wave Period / Period (P)’.
Period of Encounter (Waves) 0611, 0622, 0630, 0631.
Period of Pitch (Waves) 0611, 0622, 0630.
Period of Roll (Waves) 0611, 0622-0624, 0631.
Pin Mast (Manoeuvring) 0334.
Pitch-Power Control Lever / PCL 0132, 0152, 0185-0187.
(Propulsion)
Pitch / Pitching (of Hull, in Waves) 0374, 0510, 0514, 0518, 0527, 0611, 0621-0623, 0630-
0632, 0634, 0635.
Pitch (Propeller blades) 0120, 0121, 0124-0126, 0132, 0150, 0165, 0326, 0364,
0511.
Pivot Point (Manoeuvring) 0124, 0125, 0130, 0132, 0137, 0138, 0140, 0312, 0315,
0352, 0354, 0372, 0625.
Point of Recurvature (Heavy Weather - Tropical Storms). See ‘Recurve’.
Polynyas (Ice) 0713 / Table 7-1.
Pooped / Pooping (Heavy Weather) 0611, 0632, 0633-0635.
Portable Navigational Suitcase 0523.
Power Demand Lever / PDL 0186.
Index Glossary-10
Pounding See ‘Slam / Slamming’.

Pressure (Interaction) 0202-0203, 0205, 0207,0210-0212
Note. ‘Pressure’ is referenced above only when it is used in isolation in the context of
Interaction. It does NOT cover the isolated word ‘pressure’ in the context of the effects that
make a propeller / rudder work, or of Ice pressure. See also: “Longitudinal Pressure,‘Pressure
and Suction’, Pressure Wave and Pressure Zone” which are listed separately.
Pressure Wave (Interaction and 0137, 0364, 0641.
Heavy Weather)
Pressure Zone (Interaction) 0202, 0212, 0514, 0517.
Propulsor (Azimuth Propulsion) 0127.
Propulsor (Submarine propulsion) 0124, 0129.
Pull-Back (Tugs) 0328, 0353.
Push-On (Tugs) 0352, 0353, 0356.
Push-Pull (Tugs) 0327, 0328, 0351-0353, 0355, 0356.
Radian Rule (Stationing, RAS) 0424, 0429, 0511.
Rafting (Ice) 0710, 0712, 0713.
Raked (Propellers) 0120.
Range (or Distance) (Stationing) See ‘Distance (or Range)’.
Rams (Ice) 0711, 0713, 0714.
RAS (Replenishment At Sea) 0180, 0203, 0211, 0212, 0302, 0305, 0402, 0501, 0502,
0510-0512, 0514, 0516-0518, 0621.
Note. ‘RAS’ is referenced above only when it is used in isolation. See also: ‘ Astern RAS, Beam
Approach (RAS) , RAS Control Ship, RAS Course, Fast Approach (RAS), Fast Backdown
(RAS), Medium Speed Approach (RAS), Onset Depth / SWE Onset Depth (Interaction, RAS),
RAS Speed and RAS Station’ which are listed separately.
RAS Astern See ‘Astern RAS’.
RAS Beam Approach See ‘Beam Approach (RAS)’.
RAS Control Ship 0502, 0515.
RAS Course 0510, 0511, 0513, 0514, 0515.
RAS Fast Approach See ‘Fast Approach (RAS)’.
RAS Fast Backdown See ‘Fast Backdown (RAS)’.
RAS Medium Speed Approach See ‘Medium Speed Approach (RAS)’.
RAS Onset Depth / SWE Onset Depth See‘Onset Depth / SWE Onset Depth (Interaction, RAS)’
RAS Speed 0510, 0511, 0514, 0518.
RAS Station 0212, 0510, 0511, 0514.

Original
BR 45(6)(1)
Recurve (Heavy Weather) 0641, 0642.

Reduced Tactical Diameter 0420, 0421, 0422. See also ‘Tactical Diameter’.
(Turning / Stationing)
Relative Speed (Stationing) 0422, 0424, 0428, 0429.
Relative Track (Stationing) 0422, 0426.
Relative Velocity / Rel Vel 0420, 0423, 0426.
(Stationing)
Relative Bearing (Stationing) 0425, 0426.
Replenishment At Sea / RAS See ‘RAS’.
Rigid Inflatable Boat / RIB (Boat) 0525, 0530, 0532, 0533, 0535, Annex 5B.
Ridge / Ridging (Ice) 0712, 0713.
Right-handed (Propeller) 0121, 0122, 0124, 0141, 0310, 0311.
Roll Damper Systems (Hull and 0102, 0624.
Heavy Weather)
Note. ‘Roll Damper Systems’ references include both ‘Active’ and ‘Passive’ variants. See also
‘Stabiliser’.
Rotary Vane Actuator (Steering) 0171.
Rotor (Submarine propulsor) 0129.
Rudder Servo Amplifier (Steering) 0171.
Rudder Servo Gearbox (Steering) 0171.
Running Anchorage (Manoeuvring) 0340, 0371, 0430, 0435.
Safe Towing Pull / Towing Pull See ‘Towing Pull / Safe Towing Pull’.
Safe Towing Speed / Towing Speed See ‘Towing Speed / Safe Towing Speed’.
Safety Factor (Towing) 0527, Annex 5A.
Safety Swinging Circle (Anchorage) 0431.
Sagging (Hull, Heavy Weather) 0611, 0622.
Salvage (Primarily BR 45 Volume 4 Chapter 13). Also 0801.
Sea (Waves) - see Note 0610, 0611, 0614, 0621, 0625, 0630-0635, 0640-0641,
0711.
Note. ‘Sea’ is referenced above only when it is used in isolation in the sense defined in Para
0610a (ie ‘Wave’). It does not refer to ‘sea’ in the context ‘sea level, sea temperature’ etc). See
also: ‘Sea Anchor, Sea Ice, Beam Sea, Down Sea, Head Sea, Into Sea, Replenishment At Sea’
which are listed separately.
Sea Anchor (Heavy Weather) 0634.
Sea Ice 0703, 0710-0713 / Table 7-1, 0714, 0721-0722.
Index Glossary-12
Searider (Boat - RIB) 0532, 0533, 0535, Annex 5B.

Secondary Propulsion Motor / SPM 0127.
(Manoeuvring - submarines)
Sector Screen (Stationing) 0416.
Semi-Spade Rudder (Steering) 0131.
Separation of Flow (Steering) 0112, 0120, 0132.
Set Course Unit (Steering) 0170, 0173, 0182.
Shaft Brake (Propulsion) 0121, 0125, 0132, 0162, 0185, 0189, 0326, 0333, 0377,
0379, 0525, 0534.
Shallow Water Effect / SWE Annex 1A, 0201, 0203-0209, 0211, Annex 2A, 0362,
(Interaction) 0364, 0382, 0510-0512, 0517. See also ‘Onset Depth /
SWE Onset Depth’.
Sheet Anchor (Anchoring) 0371.
Ship Control Centre / SCC See ‘MCR/SCC’.
(Propulsion)
Ship Proximity Interaction 0201, 0203.
Shore Lead (Ice) See ‘Lead’.
Simple Ice Convoy 0715. See also ‘Complex Ice Convoy’.
Skeg (VSP Propulsion / Steering) 0126.
Skew / Skewed (Propeller) 0120.
Slam / Slamming (Heavy Weather) 0510, 0622, 0625, 0630-0634.
Slip (Equipment / Rope) 0342, 0354, 0356, 0377, 0527.
Slip (Action) 0333, 0344, 0351, 0355- 0356, 0374, 0375 ,0379, 0523,
0528, 0533.
Slow Speed Drive / SSD (Propulsion) 0165.
Smelling the Ground (Interaction) 0210, 0364.
Spade Rudder (Steering) 0131.
Speed See: ‘Stationing Speed (Stationing), Towing Speed,
Wave Speed, Canal Speed (Interaction), Equal Speed
Manoeuvre (Stationing), Gain of Speed (Manoeuvring),
Guide Speed (Stationing), Loss of Speed (Manoeuvring),
Medium Speed Approach (RAS), Ordered Speed
(Stationing), RAS Speed, Relative Speed (Stationing)’.
Spring Hawser (Ropes) 0322.
Spring (Ropes) See ‘Fore Spring (Ropes)’ & ‘Back Spring (Ropes)’.

Original
BR 45(6)(1)
Squat (Interaction) 0109, 0201, 0203, 0207-0209, 0302, 0364.

Stabilisers (Hull, Heavy Weather) 0102, 0302, 0326, 0353, 0624, 0631, 0701.
Stalling (Propeller and Rudder) 0122, 0130, 0132.
Stalling (Turning) 0625, 0633.
Standard Distance (Stationing) 0420, 0422, 0429, 0431, 0435.
Standing Waves (Waves) 0611, 0614.
Station / Stationing 0151, 0211, 0212, 0351, 0354, 0410, 0411, 0414, 0416,
(Stationing, RAS) 0420-0427, 0429, 0430, 0434, 0502, 0510-0511, 0514,
0517, 0640.
Station-keeping (Stationing, RAS) 0403, 0410, 0412, 0413-0416, 0434, 0511, 0514.
Station-keeping Marker Float (RAS) 0518.
Stationing Distance (Stationing) 0424, 0428.
Stationing Speed (Stationing) 0420, 0422, 0424, 0425, 0428, 0429.
Stator (Submarine propulsor) 0129.
Steady Turning Diameter (Steering) 0140. See ‘Tactical Diameter’.
Steepness (Wave) See ‘Wave Steepness’.
Steering Centre (VSP) 0126.
(Propulsion / Steering)
Steering Control Box 0171.
Stern Azimuth Drive / Z Drive 0121, 0127, 0351, 0352, 0354, 0357.
Sternboard (Manoeuvring) 0303, 0317, 0318, 0330, 0333, 0340-0342, 0352, 0354,
0372, 0377-0378, 0524, 0802.
Stern Rope (Ropes) 0320, 0322-0324, 0328, 0329, 0344, 0362.
Stern Swinging Circle (Anchoring) 0431.
Still Water Line 0611.
Storm Surge (Heavy Weather) 0611, 0616.
Suction (Interaction) 0110, 0202, 0207, 0210-0212.
Suction Zone (Interaction) 0202, 0209, 0212, 0302, 0364, 0510, 0513.
Summer Load Line (Hull) 0103.
Surf / Surfing (Wave) 0611, 0614, 0632.
Surface Drift / Surface Drift Current 0625, 0634.
Surge (Movement of ships) 0210, 0331, 0364, 0514.
Index Glossary-14
Surge (Ropes) 0323, 0377, 0379.

SUTT (Single Unit Tractor Tug) 0126, 0328, 0351, 0352.
SWE Onset Depth (Interaction, RAS) See ‘Onset Depth / SWE Onset Depth’.
Swell (Waves / Heavy Weather) 0333, 0518, 0601, 0610, 0611, 0613, 0621, 0635, 0640-
0642, 0711, 0711, 0713.
Synchronous Self Shifting / SSS 0164.
(Propulsion)
Tabular Iceberg 0710, 0711 /Fig 7-6. See also ‘Iceberg’.
Tactical Control See ‘Control (Tactical)’.
Tactical Diameter (Turning / 0140, 0142, 0420-0422. See also ‘Reduced Tactical
Stationing) Diameter’.
Tail Rotor Immersion / TRI 0635.
(Heavy Weather)
Tank Roll Damper Systems See ‘Roll Damper System’ .
(Hull, Heavy Weather)
Tectonic Plate (Effect on Waves) 0616.
Thrust Blocks (Propulsion) 0120, 0122.
Tidal Stream / Current Forces Annex 3B.
Tossing (Buoywork, Salvage) 0376, 0803.
Tow / Towing / Towed 0114, 0302, 0305, 0351-0356, 0501, 0513, 0520-0529,
0715, Annex 5A.
Towing Conning Position / TCP 0523, 0524.
Towing Hawser 0521-0529, Annex 5A.
Towing Hook 0351, 0354, 0355.
Towing Pendant 0527, 0529.
Towing Point 0521.
Towing Pull / Safe Towing Pull 0527, Annex 5A.
Towing Ship 0522-0529.
Towing Slip 0356, 0527.
Towing Speed / Safe Towing Speed 0523, 0527-29, Annex 5A.
Transfer (Turning) 0137, 0140, 0143, Annexes 1A & 1B, 0423, 0425.
Trim (Stability, Heavy Weather) 0142, 0207,0381, 0382, 0523, 0524, 0527, 0630.
Tropical Revolving Storm See ‘Tropical Storm’.
(Heavy Weather)

Original
BR 45(6)(1)
Tropical Storm (Heavy Weather) 0634, 0640-0642.

Trough (Wave) 0510, 0610-0612, 0630, 0632.
True Bearing (Stationing) 0421, 0424-0426.
Tsunamis (Heavy Weather) 0616.
Turbulent Flow 0111, 0112, 1120, 0152, 0204, 0205.
Turn / Turning Together 0421, 0421, 0433, 0435.
(Formation Manoeuvre - Stationing)
Turn up (Ropes) 0323.
Turn / Turning at Rest (Towing, 0120-0122, 0125, 0204, 0303, 0310, 0312, 0312b, 0313,
(Manoeuvring, Heavy Weather, Ice) 0313b, 0318, 0524, 0625, 0722. See ‘Cast / Casting’.
Turning Circle 0133-0134, 0137, 0140-0143, Annexes 1A & 1B, 0316,
(Manoeuvring / Steering / Stationing) 0421, 0426.
Turning Data Annexes 1A & 1B, 0420-0421, 0423, 0426-0427, 0429,
(Manoeuvring / Steering / Stationing) 0435. See also ‘Manoeuvring Data’.
Note. ‘Turning Data’ is provided for all classes of RN warship and RFA in Binders 2 and 3.
Turning Moment 0120, 0122, 0124-0125, 0130, 0132, 0134, 0137, 0139,
(Manoeuvring, Steering , Towing, 0210, 0212, 0312-0313, 0315, 0510, 0521, 0523-0524,
RAS, Heavy Weather) 0526, 0527, 0633.
Turning Short (Manoeuvring) 0204, 0303, 0310-0314.
Turning Short on an Anchor 0314.
TUTT (Twin Unit Tractor Tug) 0328, 0351, 0352.
Typhoon (Heavy Weather) 0634, 0640-0642. See also ‘Tropical Storm’.
Veer / Veering / Veered (Ropes) 0323, 0328-0329, 0340-0343, 0345, 0351, 0357, 0373,
0374.
Velocity (Kinetic Energy) 0630. See also ‘Kinetic Energy’.
Velocity / Velocity (V) (Water flow) 0110, 0111, 0114, 0120, 0203, 0205, 0207, 0209-0210.
Very Close Ice 0712, 0713 / Table 7-1.
Very Open Ice 0712, 0713 / Table 7-1.
Vibration (Propulsion, Interaction) 0120, 0212.
Virtual Mass (Hull) 0114, 0205, 0206, 0327.
Voith-Schneider (Vertical Axis or Cycloidal) 0121. See ‘Voith-Schneider Propulsion - VSP’.
Voith-Schneider Propulsion - VSP 0126, 0165, 0351-0352, 0354, 0357, 0362.
Volume of Displacement (Hull) 0207. See also ‘Displacement (Hull)’.
Waiting Station (RAS) 0511.
Index Glossary-16
Wake Shadow (Hull, Water Flow) 0120.

Wake System (Waves) 0381, 0383.
Wake Waves 0380-0384. Also known as ‘Wash’.
Warp (Ropes, Manoeuvring) 0361, 0364, 0391.
Wash (Waves) See ‘Wake Waves’.
Note. ‘Wash’ in this context means that of ‘Wake Waves’. ‘Wash’ in the context of ‘propeller
wash’ is not included or italicised in the text, except for ‘Lateral Wash’ which is covered
separately.
Water Jet (Propulsion) 0121, 0123, 0128, 0165.
Water Sky (Ice) 0711, 0721.
Wave Crest / Crest 0610, 0611, 0612-0613, 0622, 0630, 0632, 0634.
Wave Height / Height (H) 0611, 0612-0616, 0622, 0632, 0641, Annex 6A.
Wave Length / Length (L) 0611-0616,0622, 0632, 0641.
Wave of Translation (Interaction) 0210.
Wave Period / Period (P) 0611-0614, 0641, Annex 6A.
Wave Speed 0611-0614, 0616, 0632.
Wave Steepness 0611, 0613.
Weather Helm Trim Control (Steering) 0172.
Wheel / Wheeling 0415, 0422, 0425, 0430.
(Formation Manoeuvre - Stationing)
Wheel-Over (Turning, Stationing) 0140, 0422, 0425, 0426.
Williamson (Turn) 0532.
Willy-Willies (Heavy Weather) 06. See also ‘Tropical Storm’.
Wind Chill (Ice) 0703.
Wind Sheer (Manoeuvring) 0137, 0138, 0311,0312, 0325, 0328, 0352, 0364.
Yaw / Yawing (Steering) 0113, 0131, 0133-0137, 0173, 0175, 0211, 0212, 0331,
0332, 0374, 0510, 0514, 0518, 0523, 0527, 0528, 0632.
Z Drive (Propulsion) See ‘Stern Azimuth Drive / Z Drive’.
Zero Pitch (Propulsion) 0132, 0326, 0364, 0511.
Zig Zag (During RAS) 0515, 0518.

Original
BR 45(6)(1)
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
Index Glossary-18
BR 45(6)(1)
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1-35 / 1-36 Change 1 |
1-41 to 1-44 Change 1 |
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1-47 / 1-48 Change 1 |
1-53 / 1-54 Change 1 |
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1A-1 / 1A-2 Original
1B-1 to 1B-4 Original
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5-25 / 5-26 Change 1 |
5-39 / 5-40 Change 1 |
5-45 / 5-46 Change 1 |
5A-1 to 5A-4 Original
LEP-1
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Change 1

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Issued March 2002

Dated August 1995

By Command of the Defence Council

COMMANDER IN CHIEF FLEET

Copied to the Sponsor Desk Officer:

Copied to the Subject Matter Specialist:

© UK Crown Copyright 2001

The Admiralty Manual of Navigation (BR 45) consists of seven volumes:

PROPOSALS FOR CHANGES

Protective Marking ......................................................................................

Ship/Establishment ....................................... Originating Dept .................................... Date

Page Para Comment

Continue on a separate sheet if required

Protective Marking ......................................................................................

RECORD OF CHANGES: VOLUME 6 - BINDER 1

CHANGE DATE SIGNATURE NAME REMARKS

RECORD OF TEMPORARY AMENDMENTS: VOLUME 6 - BINDER 1

REFERENCE DATE SIGNATURE NAME REMARKS

CONTENTS - VOLUME 6 (BINDERS 1-3)

CONTENTS - VOLUME 6 (BINDER 1)

Chapter 1 The Propulsion and Steering of RN Warships

Chapter 2 Principles of Interaction

Chapter 3 Handling Ships in Confined Waters

Chapter 4 Shiphandling in Company

Chapter 5 Replenishment, Towing and Man-Overboard

(VOLUME 6 BINDER 1) - PART 1 (continued)

Chapter 6 Waves, Wind and Heavy Weather

Chapter 7 Handling Ships In or Near Ice

Chapter 8 Shiphandling for ‘Assistance’ and ‘Salvage’

CONTENTS - VOLUME 6 (BINDER 2)

PART 2 - CLASS-SPECIFIC SHIPHANDLING CHARACTERISTICS:

Chapter 10 CVS - INVINCIBLE Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 11 LHD - OCEAN Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 12 LPD - ALBION & FEARLESS Classes - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 13 FFGH - T22 - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 14 FFGH - T23 - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 15 DDGH - T42 - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 16 DDGH - T45 - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 17 MSHC - HUNT Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 18 MHC - SANDOWN Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

(VOLUME 6 - BINDER 2) PART 2 (continued)

Chapter 19 PG - RIVER & ISLAND Classes (OPV) - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 20 PG - CASTLE Class (OPV) - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 21 PBR - ARCHER Class (P2000) Shiphandling Characteristics

CONTENTS - VOLUME 6 (BINDER 3)

PART 3 - CLASS-SPECIFIC SHIPHANDLING CHARACTERISTICS: SUBMARINES

Chapter 30 SSGN - S & T Classes - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 31 SSGN - ASTUTE Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 32 SSBN - VANGUARD Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapters 33-39 Spare

PART 4 - CLASS-SPECIFIC SHIPHANDLING CHARACTERISTICS: SURVEY SHIPS

Chapter 40 AGSA - HMS ENDURANCE - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 41 AGS - HMS SCOTT - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 42 AGS - ECHO Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapters 43-49 Spare

PART 5 - CLASS-SPECIFIC SHIPHANDLING CHARACTERISTICS: RFAs

Chapter 50 AG - RFA ARGUS - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 51 AR - RFA DILIGENCE - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 52 AFS - FORT ROSALIE Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

VOLUME 6 (BINDER 3) - PART 5 (continued)

Chapter 53 AOR - FORT VICTORIA Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 54 AO - APPLELEAF Class - Shiphandling Characteristics

Chapter 55 AO - RFA OAKLEAF - Shiphandling Characteristics