Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
VOL. I
GEORGE BELL & SONS
LONDON : YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN
AND NEW YORK, 66, FIFTH AVENUE
CAMBRIDGE : DEIGHTON, BELL & CO.
THE
POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY
OF
AUGUSTE COMTE
FREELY TRANSLATED AND CONDENSED BY
>
HARRIET MARTINEAU
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
FREDERIC HARRISON
IN THREE VOLUMES
VOL. I.
LONDON
GEORGE BELL & SONS
T896
CHISWICK PRESS
:
—
CHARLES WHITTlNliHAM AND CO.
TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.
Oonege
Library
V.I
INTRODUCTION.
"If it cann(»t be said of Comte that has created a science, it
lie
THE foregoing-
authorities
quotations
who have most
f]-om the
severely
two English
criticized the
" Positive Polity " of Auguste Comte, bear witness to
the profound imj^ulse given to modern thought by the
publication of the " Positive Philosophy," more than half
a century ago. Miss Martineau's condensation appeared
eleven years later, during the lifetime of Comte and before
the completion of his later works. It was warmly
welcomed by the philosopher himself, and adopted by him
as the popular form of his own voluminous treatise.
Since that time an immense amount of discussion has
arisen about the philosophy itself, about the subsequent
development of Comte's own career and sj^eculations, and
on the incidents of his strenuous life. In placing before
the public Miss Martineau's version of the " Philosophie
Positive " in a new form, it seems a fitting occasion to in-
troduce it by some notice of Comte's own life and labours,
1569S98
VI INTRODUCTION.
sixth volume, liis wife carried out the intention which she
had long meditated and announced, and insisted on a
separation. The story of Comte's married life is full of
interest and of tragedy, but it is too intricate, and still too
much disputed, to be here fully told. The case of Madame
Comte has been presented by M. Littre in the work cited
above, and the case of Auguste Comte has been recently
set forth by M. Lonchampt, one of his executors, in the
"Revue Occidentale" (vol xxii., p. 271 and vol. xxiii.,
;
pointof view of the unity of Comte's career these ten pages are
crucial, for they contain the entire scheme of Comte's future
philosojjhical labours as he designed them in 1842. ainl as
they were ultimately carried out in the "Polity," "Cate-
chism," " Synthesis," etc., etc. These important pages
have been added by the present writer, in the condensed
form adopted by Miss Martineau.
A few words only are needed as to her very remarkable
work. It has been already shown that the singularly arti-
ficial style in which Comte chose to express his ideas, with
HAERIET MARTINEAU.'
may appear strange that, in these days, when the
ITFrench language is ahiiost as familiar to English
readers as their own, I should have spent many months in
rendering into English a work which presents no diffi-
culties of language, and which is undoubtedly known to
all philosophical students. Seldom as Comte's name is
mentioned in England, there is no doubt in the minds of
students of his great work that most or all of those who
have added substantially to our knowledge for many years
past are fully acquainted with it, and are under obligations
to it which they would have thankfully acknowledged, bul
for the fear of offending the prejudices of the society in
which they Whichever way we look over the whole
live.
field of science, see the truths and ideas presented by
we
Comte cropping out from the surface, and tacitly recog-
nized as the fuumhition of all that is systematic in our
knowledge. This being the case, it may appear to be a
needless labour to render into our own tongue what is
hope was one reason, though, as I have said, not the chief,
for my undertaking to reproduce his work in England iu a
form as popular as its nature admits.
A stronger reason was that M. Comte's work, in its
original form, does no justice to its importance, even in
France and much less in England. It is
; m
the form of
lectures, the delivery of which was spread over a long
course of years and this extension of time necessitated
;
tude, who might and should he among the wisest and best
of our citizens, are alienated for ever from the kind of
faith which sufficed for all in an organic period which has
passed away, while no one has presented to them, and
they cannot obtain for themselves, any ground of con-
viction as firm and clear as that which sufficed for our
fathers in their day. The moral dangers of such a state
of fluctuation as has thus arisen are fearful in the ex-
treme, whether the transition stage from one order of
convictions to another be long or short. The work of
M. Comte is unquestionably the greatest single eft'oi-t that
has been made to obviate this kind of danger and my ;
.........
.......
Preliiiiiuaiy survey
PAGE
1
First stage
Second stage
... ......
Law uf human develojimt
...........
111 1
'2
Third stage
.... ...
........•'{
Ultimate point of eacii
-'
Actual ...........
Evidences of the Law
.......... 3
Theoretical
.....
......
Character of the Positive Pliilosopliy
3
o
..........
of Positive Pliilosophy
6
7
Social l^hysics
.......
....
Secondary aim of this work
S
^S
^
Glance at speciality
Prcjposed new
.........!)
To review the jiliilosophy of the sciences
.10
class of students . . . . .
8 J
Advantages
1. .....
......
.11
of the Positive Philosophy
Illustrates Intellectual function .
. . . .
11
2. regenerate Education
]\Iust
CHAPTER IL
......
.......
Failure of proposed classifications 19
20
CONTENTS.
Characters .....
True principle of classification.
.....
26
26
1. Generality
2.
1
Independence ....
norganic and Organic phenomena .
26
26
27
1.
1.
Inokganic
Astronomy .....
.....
27
28
2.
3.
Physics
Chemistry ..... 28
28
II.
1.
2.
Organic
Physiology
Sociology
.....
.....
28
29
29
Five Natural Sciences their filiation
: 29
Corroborations
1
.....
Palliation of their parts
BOOK I.
MATHEMATICS.
CHAPTER I.
Description of Mathematics 37
Object of Mathematics 37
General Method
E.xamples .....
True Definition of Mathematics
38
38
40
Its two parts 41
XXXlll
C0^• TENTS.
PAGE
42
Their difterent oLjects 43
Their different natures 43
Concrete Mathematics 44
Abstract Mathematics 45
Extent of its domain
45
Its Universality
46
Its limitations .
CHAPTER II.
50
True idea of an equation
51
Abstract functions .
51
Concrete functions .
52
Two parts of the Calculus 53
Algebra .
53
Arithmetic
53
Its extent
54
Its nature .
55
Algebra .
55
Creation of new functions . . • •
56
Finding equations between auxiliary quantities
57
Division of the Calculus of functions .
....••••
.
Direct
Section 1. Ordinary Analysis, or Calculus of
tions
Its object ...•••••
....
Classihcation of Equations
58
58
58
59
Algebraic equations
59
Algebraic resolution of equations .
60
Om- existing knowledge . . . . •
61
Numerical resolution of equations .
62
The Theory of equations . _. _
.
62
Method indeterminate coefficients
of ,
• ,
•
Indirect
Section 2. Transcendental Analysis, or Calculus of 63
Functions . .
63
Three principal views 63
History '
64
Method of Leibnitz .
66
Generality of the formulas
67
Justification of the Method
68
Newton's Method. 68
Method of Limits 69
Fluxions and Ihients.
70
Lagkange's Method .
71
Identity of the three methods
Their comparative value . -
Two ])ortions
Subdivisions
....
The Differential Cdlculus.
....
Reduction to the elements
Transformation of derived functions for new variables
Analytical applications .
Its divisions
Subdivisions
....
The Integral Caleulus
....
One variable or several
Quadratures
Algebraic functions
....
Orders of differentiation
.
.
Transcendental functions
Singular Solutions .
Definite integrals
Prospects of the Integral Calculus
Caleitlus of Variations
Problems giving rise to this calculu>
Other applications .
CHAPTER III.
Kinds of extension .
Geometrical measurement
Measurement of surfaces and volumes
Of curved lines.
Its illimitable field .
Descrii)tive Geometry
Algebraic solutions .
Trigonometry .
.....
Analytical representation of figures
Position
CONTENTS. XXXV
Position of a jioint
Plane curves
....
.....
Exjjression of lines by equations
Expression of equations by lines
Change in the line changes the equation.
Every definition of a line is an equation
Choice of co-ordinates
Determination of a point in space .
Curves
.....
Determination of Surfaces by Equations, and of Equations by
Surfaces
double curvature
of
Imperfections of Analytical Geometry
Imperfections of Analysis
CHAPTER IV.
KATIONAL MECHANICS.
Its nature.
Its characters
Its object .... .
Secondary divisions .
Statics by itself
Second method
Want
....
Statics through Djaiamics
Moments
of unity in the method
Virtual Velocities
Theory of Couples .
......
. . 144
144
The invariable plane
Moment .........
..........
of inertia
. . 145
146
Principal axes
Conclusion .......... 146
147
BOOK 11.
ASTRONOMY.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL V I E AV.
Its Nature
Definition
Restriction
...........
..........
148
149
149
.......
. . . . . . . .150
151
When it
.......
became a
science
Reduction to a single law
152
152
........
Relation to other sciences
Divisions of the science
Celestial Geometry . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.153
.155
155
CHAPTER II.
.........
. . . . . . . . .157
157
158
The pendulum
........
Measurement of angles
Requisite corrections
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.159
159
.161
CONTENTS. XXXvii
PAGE
Section 2. Refraction 161
Section 3. Parallax 163
Section 4. Catalogue of stars 165
CHAPTER III.
Means
........
Planetary atmospheres
Earth's form and size
of discovery
171
171
.172
...........
. . . . . . . .
......
Motion of the Earth
........
Evidences of the Earth's motion
Ancient conceptions.
176
177
177
How they gave way. . . . . . . . .178
Earth's rotation
.... . . .
.......
Earth's translation
....
Precession of the equinoxes
. . . . . . . . .ISO
180
.........
Retrogradations and stations of the planets
Aberration of light
.....
181
181
Annual parallax.........
182
184
184
Circles I85
Kepler ."
185
His three laws 186
First law
Second law
Third law
.......... 186
186
I87
Three problems
........
Prediction of Eclipses
Transit of Venus . . . . . . . .
188
188
.189
Foundation
Section
Gravitation
2.
. .
Mechanics
of Celestial
Dynamical Phenomeiui
. . .
.....
. . . .
189
190
.190
Character of laws of Motion 190
Their history 191
Newton's demonstration . I93
Old difficulty explained . . . . . . . .194
Term Attraction inadmissible 194
Extent of the demonstration .195
xxxviir CONTENTS.
PAGE
Term Gravitation unobjectionable 196
Gravitation is that of Molecules 197
Secondary gravitation 198
Domain of the laAV .
198
CHAPTER IV.
CELESTIAL STATICS.
Consummation by NeAvton
Statical considerations
Second method
Third method
.....
First method of inquiry into masses
(xeometrical estimate
Estimate from perturbations .
Of the moon
Composite influence .
CHAPTER V.
celestial dynamics.
Perturbations .
Instantaneous .
Gradual perturbations
Perturbations of translation
Problem of three l)odies .
Centre of the Solar System
Problem of the Planets .
Of the Satellites
Of the Comets .
Perturbations of rotation
The Planets .
The Satellites . .
Resistance of a Medium .
Independence of the solar system
Achievements of celestial dynamics
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI.
CHAPTER II.
BAROLOGY.
Divisions
Section
...........
1. Statics
PAGE
249
249
History
.........
...........
Cases of liquids
249
250
First case
Second case
Case of g.ises
.......... 251
252
253
History
Section 2.
........
Condition of the problem
Dynamics
.253
254
255
History 255
Fluids 257
Case of liquids 257
Existing state of Barology 258
CHAPTER III.
THERMOLOGY.
Its nature 259
History 259
Relation to Mathematics
Section
Two parts.
1. Mutual tlmruwlogical
. . .
'
itiflncncc .... 260
260
260
Mutual influence 260
Radiation of Heat
Propagation by contact
Condiictibility
........ 261
262
263
Permeability 263
Penetrability 263
Heat
Specific 264
Section 2. Constituent changes hy heat 265
Latent heat
Change
Change
of volume .........
......
in state of aggregation
266
266
267
Law of engagement and disengagement of heat . . . 268
Vapours
.......
.......
Temperatures of ebullition
Hygrometrical equilil)riuni
268
269
269
Sections. The7'niolugy connected tvith analysis 270
..........
. . .
CHAPTER IV.
ACOUSTICS.
PAGE
Its nature 274
Relation to the study of Inorganic bodies 274
Relation to Physiology . 275
Divisions
Section
.....
To Mathematics
1. Propagation of sound
275
278
279
Eftect of atmospheric agitation 279
Section 2. Intensity of sounds 280
Section 3. Theory of tones . 281
Composition
Recapitulation
of
....
sounds 2S.S
2S3
CHAPTER V.
optics.
....
292
292
Imperfections
Photometry
Section 2. Catoptrics
.... .
292
293
294
Great law of reflection 294
Law of absorption not found . 294
Section Dioptrics
3. 295
Creat law of refraction 295
CHAPTER VL
electrology.
History 300
Condition 300
Arbitrary hypotheses 300
Relation to Mathematics
Unsound application
Sound application
........
.........
301
302
302
Limits 302
Divisions 302
xlii CONTENTS.
PAGE
Section Electric production
1. 303
Causes of electrization 303
Chemical action 303
Theiniological action 303
Friction 304
Pressure . 304
Contact 304
(Jther causes 304
Instruments 304
Section 2. Electric stedics 306
Great law of Distril)ution 306
Electric equilibrium 306
Section 3. Electric dynamics 307
Amjjere's experiments 307
Conclusion of Physics 310
BOOK IV.
CHEMISTRY.
CHAPTER I.
Itsnature ....
Great imperfection .
312
313
Capacities. 313
Object of Chemistry. 314
Specific character of its action 315
Definition
Elements
....
Condition of action
....
. 315
316
317
Combination 317
Rational definition . 318
Means of investigation 318
Observation 318
Experiment 318
Comparison 319
Chemical analysis and synthesis 320
Rank of the science . 321
Relation to Mathematics 322
To Astronomy . 322
To Physiolo_<,'y . 323
To Sociology . 324
Degree of possible perfection 324
Intrusion of hypotheses . 325
Actual imperfection 326
Comparative imperfection 326
Relation to human progress 327
Art of Nomenclature 327
CONTENTS. xliii
PAGE
State of chemical doctrine
Divisions of the science
No organic chemistry
....
....
329
330
331
Princiijles of comp(jsition and decomposition 331
CHAPTER II.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
As to doctrine ....
Requisite preparation as to method
....
338
339
First condition
Second condition
Method
...
of analysis .
339
340
340
Chemical dualism 340
Law of double saline decomposition 344
Chemical theory of air and water 345
Air 346
AVater .347
CHAPTER III.
CHAPTER IV.
CHAPTER V.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
To Physiolof,''y . .....
Relation of Chemistry to Anatomy
....
383
384
384
THE POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY OF
AUGUSTE COMTE.
INTEODUCTION.
CHAPTER I.
A GENERAL
may be
statement of any system of philosophy
either a sketch of a doctrine to be established,
or a summary of a doctrine already established. If greater
value belongs to the last, the first is still important, as
characterizing from its origin the subject to be treated.
In a case like the present, where the proposed study is
vast and hitherto indeterminate, it is esjjecially important
that the field of research should be marked out with all
possible accuracy. For this purpose, I will glance at the
considerations which have originated this work, and which
will be fully elaborated in the course of it.
In order to understand the true value and character of
the Positive Philosophy, we must take a brief general view
of the progressive course of the human mind, regarded as
a whole for no conception can be understood otherwise
;
—
each braucli of our knowledge, passes successively through
three different theoretical conditions the Theological, or
:
the positive.
The Law of human development being thus established,
let us consider what is the proper nature of the Positive
Philosophy.
As we have seen, the first characteristic of Character of
the Positive Philosophy is that it regards all the Positive
phenomena as subjected to invariable natural Philosophy.
—
Laws. Our business is, seeing how vain is any research
into what are called Causes, whether first or final, — to
pursue an accurate discovery of these Laws, with a view
to reducing them to the smallest possible number. By
speculating upon causes, we could solve no difficulty about
6 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
a complete state. m
.
i , , ,
chief results.
The two aims, though distinct, are inseparable for, on ;
yet there are very few who can embrace in idea the whole
of any one science each science moreover being itself only
:
rate Education.
The best minds are agreed that our European education,
still essentially theological, metaphysical, and literary,
must be superseded by a Positive training, conformable to
our time and needs. Even the governments of our day
have shared, where they have not originated, the attempts
to establish positive instruction and this is a striking in-
;
14 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
CHAPTER II.
Action.
We must not, however, fall into the error of our time, of
regarding Science chiefly as a basis of Art. However great
may be the services rendered to Industry by science, how-
ever true may be the saying that Knowledge is Power, we
must never forget that the sciences have a higher destina-
tion still;
—
and not only higher but more direct ;
—
that of
satisfying the craving of our understanding to know the
laws of phenomena. To feel how deep and urgent this
need is, we have only to consider for a moment the physio-
logical effects of consternation, and to remember that the
most terrible sensation we are capable of, is that which we
experience when aiiy phenomenon seems to arise in violation
of the familiar laws of nature. This need of disposing
facts in a comprehensible order (which is the proper object
of all scientific theories) is so inherent in our organization,
that if we could not satisfy it by positive conceptions, we
must inevitably return to those theological and metaphy-
sical explanations which had their origin in this very fact
of human nature.— It is this original tendency which acts
as a preservative, in the minds of men of science, against
the narrowness and incompleteness which the practical
habits of our age are apt to produce. It is through this
that we are able to maintain just and noble ideas of the
importance and destination of the sciences and if it were
;
their parts
principle which gives this order to the whole
body of science arranges the parts of each
science and its soundness will therefore be freshly attested
;
lication follows
taken place among the branches of natural
the order of philosophy, when pursued separately, and
disclosure of without any purposeof establishing such order,
sciences. Such an accordance is a strong presumption
that the arrangement is natural. Again, it coincides with
the actual development of natural philosophy. If no lead-
ing science can be effectually pursued otherwise than
through those which precede it in the scale, it is evident
that no vast development of any science could take place
prior to the great astronomical discoveries to which we owe
the impulse given to the whole. The progression may
since have been simultaneous but it has taken place in
;
BOOK I.
MATHEMATICS.
CHAPTER I.
aud again, the length must be neither too great nor too
small, and it must be conveniently situated and a line
;
the height from which the body falls, and the time
occupied in its descent. These two quantities are connected,
as they vary together, and together remain fixed. In the
language of mathematicians, they are functions of each
METHOD OF APPLICATION. 39
side and two angles, or two sides and one angle. The
knowledge required is obtained by the mathematical
labour of deducing the unknown distance from the ob-
served elements, by means of the relation between them.
The process may, and commonly does, become highly com-
plicated by the elements supjDosed to be known being them-
selves determinable only in an indirect manner, by the aid
of fresh auxiliary systems, the number of which may be
very considerable. The distance, once ascertained, will
often enable us to obtain new quantities, which will offer
occasion for new mathematical questions. Thus, when we
once know the distance of any object, the observation,
simple and always possible, of its apparent diameter, may
disclose to us, with certainty, however indirectly, its real
dimensions and at length, by a series of analogous in-
;
quiries, its surface, its volume, even its weight, and a mul-
titude of other qualities which might have seemed out of
the reach of our knowledge for ever. It is by such labours
that Man has learned to know, not only the distances of the
planets from the earth and from each other, but their actual
magnitude,- —their
true form, even to the inequalities on
their surface, and (what seems much more out of his reach)
their resj^ective masses, their mean densities, and the lead-
ing circumstances of the fall of heavy bodies on their
respective surfaces, etc. Through the power of mathema-
tical theories, all this and very much more has been
obtained by means of a very small number of straight
lines, properly chosen, and a larger number of angles. We
might even say, to describe the general bearing of the
science in a sentence, that, but for the fear of multiplying
mathematical operations unnecessarily, and for the conse-
quent necessity of reserving them for the determination of
quantities which could not be measured directly, the know-
ledge of all magnitudes susceptible of precise estimate
which can be offered by the various orders of phenomena,
would be finally reducible to the immediate measure-
ment of a single straight line, and of a suitable number of
angles.
True defini- We can now define Mathematical science
tion of mathe- with precision. It has for its object the
matics. indirect measurement of magnitudes, and it
ACTUAL SCOPE OF MATHEMATICS. 41
mine the value of the one when that of the other is given.
In this instance the concrete question is the more difficult
of the two. If the same phenomenon were taken in its
greatest generality, the reverse would be the case. Take
the two together, and they may be regarded as exactly
equivalent in difficulty. The mathematical law may be
easy to ascertain, and difficult to work or it may be diffi-
;
,1
We must first admit that, in
. . .-1
a logical
'^. -,
view, r±
1
•
i-^.
Itsiiniversahty,
this science is necessarily and. rigorously
universal. There is no inquiry which is not finally reducible
to a question of Numbers for there is none which may
;
mvich less than that of the sun they are far distant from
;
CHAPTER II.
.
''
I
"HE historical develoinneut of the Ab-
-L Mathematical science
stract portion of
has, since the time of Descartes, been for the most part
determined by that of the Concrete. Yet the Calculus in
all its principal branches must be understood before pass-
ing on to Geometry and Mechanics. The Concrete portions
of the science depend on the Abstract, which are wholly
independent of them. We will now therefore proceed to a
rapid review of the leading conceptions of the Analysis.
. , ^ First, however, we must take some notice
1 rue idea oi o ,-, ^ i • • <• -\
and fourteen but not the less is the operation merelv one
:
SECTION I.
of Eouations
of the analytical elements of which their
members are comjiosed. Accordingly, analysts first divide
equations Avith one or more variables into two principal
classes, according as they contain functions of only the first
three of the ten couples, or as they include also either ex-
ponential or circular functions. Though the names of
algebraic and transcendental functions given to these prin-
cipal groups are inapt, the division between the corre-
sponding equations is real enough, insofar as that the re-
solution of equations containing the transcendental func-
RESOLUTION OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS. 59
single geometer for two centuries past who has not sti'iven
to advance the resolution of equations. The general equa-
tion of the fifth degree has itself, thus far, resisted all
attempts. The formula of the fourth degree is so difficult
as to be almost inapplicable and analysts, while by no
;
SECTION II.
dition that the new elements shall differ from the precediniij
only by quantities infinitely small in relation to them. It
is thus that it becomes possible in geometry to treat curved
lines as composed of an infinity of rectilinear elements, and
curved surfaces as formed of plane elements ; and, in
mechanics, varied motions as an infinite series of uniform
motion'', succeeding each other at infinitely small intervals
of time. Such a mere hint as this of the varied application
of this method may give some idea of the vast scope of the
conception of transcendental analysis, as formed by Leibnitz.
It is, beyond all question, the loftiest idea ever yet attained
by the human mind.
It is clear that this conception was necessary to complete
the basis of mathematical science, by enabling us to estab-
lish, in a broad and practical manner, the relation of the
concrete to the abstract. In this respect, we must regard
it as the necessary complement of the great fundamental
idea of Descartes on the general analytical representation of
natural phenomena an idea which could not be duly
;
pressing m
• •,• i i i j.
a single equation each determinate
x
•
ases or union
'"'*^
, .-,' i ^ • j •
of the two
differentially only those magnitudes whose
relations are sought. It would often be impossible to
establish, equations without introducing other magnitudes
whose relations are, or are supposed to be, known. Now
in such cases it is necessary that the differentials of these
intermediaries should be eliminated before the equations
are fit for integration. This elimination belongs to the
differential calculus for it must be done by determining,
;
tial Calculus
study from that of the abstract principles
of differentiation and integration. The con-
sequence of the common practice of confounding these
principles with their application, especially in geometry, is
that it becomes difficult to conceive of either analysis or
geometry. It is in the department of Concrete Mathe-
matics that the applications should he studied.
The first division of the differential calculus is grounded
on the condition whether the functions to be differentiated
rp ^ ... are explicit or implicit; the one giving rise
,
hubuivisions.
•
,,
calculus IS again divided
.
T,i- .^T.,,
and this sub-
1
:
,
•
e ,x • Its divisions,
separation ot these two cases is even more
J.
subdivisions,
andT £tor analogous
T 1 J.1
i!
I'easons, each ot these two
i.
^'
variable or functions with several indepen-
^^ several
dent variables. This distinction is, like the
preceding, even more important for integration than for
differentiation This is especially remarkable with respect
to differential equations. In fact, those which relate to
several independent variables may evidently present this
I. G
82 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
Calculus of Variations.
CHAPTER III.
W E
have seen that Geometry is a true
natural science ; —
only more simple,
and therefore more perfect than any other. We
^
' ^^*
must not
suppose that, because it admits the application of mathe-
matical analysis, it is therefore a purely logical science,
independent of observation. Every body studied by geo-
meters presents some primitive phenomena which, not
being discoverable by reasoning, must be due to observation
alone.
The scientific eminence of Geometry arises from the
extreme generality and simplicity of its phenomena. If
all the parts of the universe wei'e regarded as immovable,
geometry would still exist whereas, for the j^henomena of
;
tension
1
"^ made1 1
beiore
1. J.
Position
figure, and the position of the extensions in
question. The relation of the first, magnitude, to numbers
is immediate and evident: and the other two are easily
brought into one for the figure of a body is nothing else
;
m .•
, ii
i
his analytical method
i
:
the first ;
—
that is, there exists between them a certain
equation of a nature corresponding to that of the line on
which the point is to be found. The co-ordinates of the
point each require it to be on a certain line and again, its
:
—
The choice of co-ordinates the preference ^. . .
CHAPTER IV.
RATIONAL MECHANICS.
MECHANICAL phenomena ^ -• 1 T
are by
"^
their j. ,
Its nature,
nature more particular, more comph-
,
its characters.
We have nothing to do here with the
, „ ,- ,• .,
causes
i e i
or modes of production ot motion, but only
with the motion itself. Thus, as we are not treating of
Physics, but of Mechanics, forces are only motions pro-
duced or tending to be produced and two forces which
;
—
11 i- 1 Matter not in-
-J.
all activity being ^^.^
•
^^ Plivsics
•
—
cumstances, as the resistance of media, friction, etc.,
even if bodies are conceived of as in a fluid state, that their
mechanical phenomena cannot be estimated with any
accuracy. And when we
proceed to electrical and chemical,
and especially to physiological phenomena, we are yet more
baffled. General gravitation affords us the only simple and
determinate law and even there we are pei'plexed, when
;
less fruitless search into the vhy with regard to this second
law than to the first.
Law of co-ex- The third fundamental law of motion
istence of involves the principle of the independence or
motions. coexistence of motions,-w\iich. leads immediately
to what is commonly called the composition of forces. Galileo
is, strictly speaking, the true discoverer of this law, though
in the same way, but on the grandest scale, the great globe
rushes through space, without its motion at all affect-
itself
ing the movements going on on its surface. As we all
know, it was ignorance of this third law of motion which
THIRD LAW OF MOTIOX. 121
SECTION I.
STATICS.
—
,
1 T-.
•
T VV ant of unity
•
ancients,
and proceed directly to the investigation of
the laws of equilibrium regarded by itself, by means of a
direct general principle of equilibrium. Geometers strove
after this as soon as the general equations of equilibrium
were discovered by the dynamic method. But a higher
motive than even the desire to place statics in a more
philosophical position impelled them to establish a direct
Statical method and this it was which caused Lagrange
:
has hardly yet entered upon its chief office. Its value will
be appreciated when it is fonnd to render the notion of the
movements of rotation as natural, as familiar, and almost
as simple as that of forward movement or translation.
Share of eqiia- ^^^^ more consideration should, I think, be
tions in pro- adverted to before we quit the subject of
ducing equili- statics as a whole. When we study the nature
bruuii.
q£ ^j-^g equations which express the conditions
of equilibrium of any system of forces, it seems to me not
enough to establish that the sum of these equations is in-
dispensable for equilibrium. I think the fiu'ther statement
is necessary,— in what degree each contributes to the result.
It is clear that each equation must destroy some one of the
possible motions that the body would make in virtue of
existing forces ; so that the whole of the equations must
EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM. 131
—
be regarded only as an approximation, sufficiently exact
for average circumstances, but not to be rigorously applied
in any case whatever.
Some confirmation of the philosophical character of this
method of treating hydrostatics arises from its enabling us
to pass, almost insensibly, from the order of bodies of
invariable form to that of the most variable of all, through
—
intermediate classes, as flexible and elastic bodies,
whereby we obtain, in an analytical view, a natural filiation
of subjects.
We have seen how the department of Statics has been
raised to that high degree of speculative perfection which
transforms its questions into simj^le problems of Mathema-
tical Analysis. We
must now take a similar review of the
other department of general Mechanics, — that more ex-
tended and more complicated study which relates to the
laws of Motion.
THEORY OF RECTILINEAR MOTION. 137
SECTION II.
DYNAMICS.
of being able to pass from any one of them to all the rest.
The preliminary theory of varied motion relates to these
138 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
- i'
—
developed by Lagrange, consists in this, that in any
system equilibrium is stable or unstable according as
144 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
areas and the times proves the action upon the body of a
force directed towards the fixed point. This discovery of
Kepler's is the more remarkable for having been made
before dynamics had been really created by Galileo. Its
importance in astronomy we shall see hereafter. But
though, in its simplest form, it is one of the bases of celes-
tial Mechanics, it is, in fact, only the simj^lest particular
case of the great general theorem of areas, exhibited in the
middle of the last century by D'Arcy, Daniel Bernouilli,
and Euler. Kepler's discovery related only to the motion
of a point, while the later one refers to the motion of any
system of bodies, acting on each other in any manner what-
ever which constitutes a case, not only more complex, but
;
inertia
and the principal axes,
which are among the most important general
PrinciDal axes
I'^sults of rational Mechanics. By means of
these we are able to arrive at a complete
analysis of the motion of rotation. —
By means of all the
theorems just touched upon, we are j)ut in the direct way
to determine the entire motion of any body, or system of
—
bodies whatever. Besides them, geometers have discovered
some which are less general, but, though by no means in-
dispensable, yet very important from the simplification
they introduce into special researches. Students will re-
cognize their functions, when their mere names are pre-
sented which is all that our space allows
; —
I refer to the
:
BOOK II.
A S T E N M Y.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL VIEW.
on their surface. We
may obtain positive knowledge of
their geometrical and mechanical phenomena but all;
could not teach us the figure of the earth, nor the path of
a planet. They are combined and rendered serviceable by
long-drawn and complex reasonings ; so that we might
truly say that the phenomena, however real, j, , ,
mulation of facts could effect this, till the facts were made
the basis of reasonings. Till the rising of the sun, or of
some star, could be accurately predicted, as to time and
place, there was no astronomical science. Its whole j^rogress
since has been by introducing more and more certainty and
precision into its predictions, and in using smaller and
smaller data from direct observation for a more and more
distant prevision. No part of natural philosophy manifests
more strikingly the truth of the axiom that all science has
prevision for its end : an axiom which separates science
from erudition, which relates the events of the past, with-
out any regard to the future.
However impossible may be the aim to
I'educe the phenomena of the respective
a '«ino'le law
sciences to a single law, supreme in each,
this should be the aim of pliilosophers, as it is only the
imperfection of our knowledge which prevents its accom-
PRE-EMINENCE AS A SCIENCE. 153
;
Principles of Natural Philosophy for it would be im-
'
— —
necessary data the fewest possible for tlie calculations
of general mechanics. This is the link by which astronomy
and physics are connected, and connected so closely that
some great phenomena render the transition almost in-
sensible as in the theory of the Tides.
; But it is evident
that the whole reality of celestial mechanics consists in its
having issued from the exact knowledge of true movements,
furnished by celestial geometry. It was for want of this
point of departure that all attempts before the time of
Newton, even Descartes', however valuable in other ways,
failed to establish systems of celestial mechanics. This
division of the science into two parts has therefore nothing
arbitrary in it, nor even scholastic : it is derived from the
nature of the science, and is at once historical and dog-
matic. As for the subdivisions, we need not trouble our-
selves with them now.
In regard to the point of view from which the science
should be regarded, Lacaille thought it would simplify
matters extremely to place his observer on the surface of the
sun. And so it would, if the thing could be done in accor-
dance with positive knowledge but undoubtedly the solar
;
CHAPTER II.
SECTION I.
INSTRUMENTS,
ALLnaveastronomical
,
observation as we
seen, compreuenaea m the measure-
1 1 1 • .1
is, ^, ,.
Observation,
SECTION II.
REFRACTION.
sopliers have tried the logical way and the empirical, and
have ended by combining the two.
If our atmosphere were homogeneous, the refraction of
light would be uniform and calculable. But our atmo-
sphere is composed of strata and the consequent refrac-
;
SECTION III.
PARALLAX.
SECTION IV.
CATALOGUE OF STARS.
CHAPTER III.
SECTION I.
STATICAL PHENOMENA.
of the moon from the zenith must thus afford the necessary
data for the resolution of the triangle which must give the
distance sought and thus we have obtained a very exact
:
but it is far more accurate, and the only one now admissible,
for determining the parallax of those planets and of the
sun, and therefore the distance of the sun from the earth,
through the differences in the transit observable at two
very distant stations. By this method, we can estimate,
within a hundredth part, the distance of the sun from the
earth. This distance being ascertained, we have it for a
basis for other calculations. We have only to observe the
angular distance from the sun to the pi'oposed body, at two
periods separated by six mouths, — that is, from opposite
points of the earth's orbit. This gives us an immense
triangle, the base of which is twice the length of the dis-
tance of the earth from the sun and thus it is that our
:
—
the remoter planets, which alone are in question here,
—
move very slowly; Saturn's circuit, for instance, occupying
thirty years ; and our times of observation being practically
—
reducible to a shorter time than six months, even to two
or one, with regard to those planets of our system which
move more rapidly while the slower ones may be con-
;
all we know.
The remaining statical topic is that of the „ .^^ ^ .
f
form and size of the earth, which has been left j^j^^^ ^j^e
to the last, on account of its special nature.
172 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
useful and sound at this day, within their own range. The
science has thus always exhibited a character of stability,
through all incidents of progression, from the earliest days
of the Alexandrian school till now.
Such are the statical aspects of the planets of our system.
We have now to look at the geometrical theory of their
motions.
Like all other bodies, the planets have a .
first ;
geometrical study of their rotations is
yet the
easier, because the motions of the observer have no effect
upon them whereas they largely affect questions of trans-
;
sider the —
great end of astronomical pursuit the exact
prevision of the state of the heavens at some future time.
Besides that the movement of the earth constitutes an
important elemeut in such a study, it must make a differ-
ence with regard to other stars, whether the observer is
fixed or moving, as his own movement must affect his
observations of other motions. We might indeed decide
with certainty, without this introductory knowledge, that
the sun and not the earth is the true centre of the motions
of all the i:)lanets, as Tycho Brahe did when he denied our
own motion for it is enough, with this view, to establish
;
which its orbit meets the plane of the ecliptic, and the
inclination of the orbit to this plane. It is evident that
176 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
•
£ i X " Ancient con-
this case tor it is clear ii
,1 -j:
•
1 /
; that, to our eyes (as
ceptions
we do not feel the rotation), it must be
exactly the same thing whether we move round among the
heavenly bodies, or whether they, fixed in a system, move
round us in a contrary direction. There was nothing
absurd in the latter supposition, in the old days when men.
had no doubt of the stars being very near, and not much
larger than they appear to the eye, while they exaggerated
the size of the earth. They could not avoid supposing that
such a mass must be immovable, while the small stars,
with their little intervals, were seen moving every day.
Even when the Grreek astronomers had sketched out the
true geometrical theory of the movements of the planets,
they treated only of the directions, and had no idea of
measuring distances and it required the whole strength of
;
—
seemed to be contradicted by what is before our eyes, the
fall of heavy bodies, etc. Copernicus himself could not
remove the objections which arose out of men's ignorance
of the laws of Mechanics. These objections held their
ground for a century, till Galileo established the great law
which we have recognized as one of the three on which
—
Rational Mechanics is based, that the relative motions of
different bodies are independent of the common motion of
the whole. Till this was established, the supposition of the
rotation of the earth was inadmissible. It is a curious fact,
•casting much light upon the action of the human mind, that
the opponents of Galileo taunted him with the so-called fact
that a ball let down from the top of the mast of a ship in
motion would not fall at the foot of the mast, but some way
PROOFS OF THE EARTIl'S ROTATION. 179
—
behind, neither they nor anybody else having tried the
experiment, which would have shown them that their sup-
posed fact was a mistake. The followers of Copernicus did
worse,— they admitted the so-called fact, but tried to
reason away its bearings with fantastic subtleties. The
matter was not settled even by the demonstrations of
Galileo, nor till Gassendi compelled observation by a public
experiment in the port of Marseilles.
That order of experiments has been carried on, and
would be of high value if we could obtain perpendicular
stations of sufficient height for the purpose. It is clear
that a lofty tower must describe a larger circle in the same
time at the top than at the base and that any body
;
lation
tainable only by asti'onomical proofs, for the
"
Precession oi ,i i i
^ tt- ii
, .
1 , 1 , .
T p ,, . Alierration
science rests is that derived trom tlie various ^^ Uo-ht
phenomena of the aberration of light, which
are quite incompatible with the stability of the globe.
Eoemer's observations of the satellites of Jupiter suggested
to him the use of light as a measure of distance. Know-
ing what changes must be taking place at various distances
from ns in the heavens, and knowing the velocity of light,
the variations in time at which the changes become visible
to us will be a measure of our change of place and distance.
For instance, the first satellite of Jupiter is eclipsed every
forty-two hours and a half. The eclipse will take place in
a shorter or a longer time than this to our eyes, in propor-
tion as we are removed to the one side or the other of our
mean distance from Jupiter, on account of the smaller or
182 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
Kepler's Laws.
very near the sun, we need only observe its short revolution,
to be able to calculate its distance, which, in that position,
we could not effect by other means. Astronomers are
every day using this double facility, afforded them by
Kepler's third law.
These are the thi-ee laws which will for ever constitute
the basis of celestial geometry, in regard to planetary
motions. They answer for all the bodies in our system,
regulating the satellites, by 2>lacing the origin of areas and
the focus of the ellipse in the centre of the respective planets.
188 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
bleiiis
' ^^^^ ^^^ system, is naturally divided into
three j^roblems the problem of the planets
;
;
SECTION 11.
DYNAMICAL PHENOMENA,
Gravitation.
of Motion
^'^^^^' than those of extension, and later in
1 s
being discovered, are quite as certain, uni-
'
the same time more marked. The curve of the orbit was
evidently identical at these two j^oints the action then had
;
;
1 -J. £ 1
various ways and it is found demonstration
to vary inversely to the square of the distance,
and that it is indej^endent of the direction. Furthermore,
the same method shows, in accordance with Kepler's third
law, that the action varies in proportion to distance alone
so that the sun acts upon all the planets alike, whatever
may be their dimensions, their distance only being the cir-
cumstance to be considered. Thus Newton completed his
demonstration of the fundamental law that the solar action
is, in every case, proportionate, at the same distance, to
the fact of tlie action, and not at all witli its nature. It
was the use of this metaphysical term, it now appears,
which occasioned the opposition that the Newtonian theory
encountered so long, and especially in France. Descartes
had, by laborious efforts, banished the notions of occult
qualities, which he perceived to be so fatal to science ; and
in this theory of attraction, his followers saw a falling back
into the old metaphysical delusions. We perceive this in
the writings of John Bernouilli and Fontenelle and it:
CHAPTER IV.
CELESTIAL STATICS.
left imperfection,
this —
that phenomena which ranked
tinder two of these laws had no necessary connection with
each other. Newton brought under one head all the three
classes of general facts, uniting them in one more general
still and since that time we have been able to perceive
;
mical afterwards.
To know the mutual gravitation of the heavenly bodies,
we must know their masses. Such knowledge once ap-
peared inaccessible from its very nature but the New-
;
1 ^T 1 •
1 1 -n 1
is that which JNewton employed witli regard
, , ,
next. We are less sure about the other three which have
—
been calculated, Mercviry, Venus, and Mars; though the
uncertainty about them cannot be very !:^reat. Of the
telescopic planets and the comets we know scarcely any-
thing, owing to their extreme smailness, which precludes
their exerting any sensible influence on perturbations.
Comets pass, during their prodigious course, near very
small stars, such as the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn,
without producing any perceptil)le derangement. As for
the satellites, we have no knowledge except of the moon,
and approximately, of those of Jupiter. No comparison
of results has as yet exhibited any harmony whatever
between them. The only essential circumstance which
they present is the vast superiority of the size of the sun
to the whole contents of the system. Those entire con-
tents, if thrown together, would scai'cely amount to a
thousandth part of the mass of the sun. Looking abroad
from the sun, we see alternating, without any visible order,
here decreasing, there increasing masses. We might have
supposed, a priori, as Kepler did, that the masses were
regularly connected with the volume (which are them-
<
SECTION I.
SECTION II.
rr^^•
n \j. •
-ce j. j. r>stimate troni
•
SECTION III.
THE TIDES.
—
There remains the question of the tides, the last im-
portant inquiry under the head of celestial statics. Under
the astronomical point of view, this is evidently a statical
question, —
the earth being, in that view, regarded as
motionless and it is not less a statical question in a
:
tends away from the second point and in each case the ;
our globe which causes this rise and fall, by carryiug the
waters successively into all the positions in which the other
body can raise or depress them. Hence arise the four
nearly equal periodical alternations, when the two greatest
elevations take place during the two passages of the
heavenly body over the meridian of the place, and the
lower levels at its rising and setting the total period
;
is times
more powerful than that of the sun and that, conse- ;
CHAPTER Y.
CELESTIAL DYNAMICS.
our knowledge became more precise and now, all are ex- ;
V .,. . , ., Instantaneous,
. .
tion are less altered than the other class, within our own
system and they are less important to be known.
;
1 j_
',
j_ ^1 • Perturbations
£•
very feAV, very far from each other, and very unequal in
mass the result of all which is that, in almost every case,
;
exact theory will suffice for them than for the moon, whose
slightest irregularity is very evident to us.
. . The comets intervene to increase our diflB-
the Comets
culties about the satellites. From the ex-
treme prolongation of their orbits, and their
inclination in all directions, comets are in a state of ever
variable mechanical relations, from the number of bodies
that they approach in their course whilst the planets, and
;
PROBLEM OF THE COMETS. 217
their small mass, and the great surface which they present
222 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
CHAPTER VI.
,, ,^.
Multiple
,
Stars.
„^ '
I "HE
only branch of Sidereal Astronomv
I ^ *
appears xto admit
^ i • ii n"-j. -
which
J- ot exact stuclv
is that of the relative motions of the Multiple Stars, first
discovered by Herschell. By multiple stars astronomers
understand stars very near each other, whose angular dis-
tance never exceeds a half minute, and which, for this
reason, appear to be one, not only to the naked eye, but
to ordinary telescopes, only the most powerful lenses being
able to separate them. The relative movements of these
stars tend to deceive us as to their precise multiple cha-
racter, as, for instance, by mutual occultations, which do
not permit us to separate them. Among some thousands
of multiple stars registered in the catalogues, before the
southern heavens had been really explored, almost all were
only double, and we have found none which are more than
triple, —
a circumstance which may be owing solely to the
imperfection of our telescopes, as we knew of none but
single stars before Herschell's time. However interesting
the study of them is, they constitute only a particular case
in the universe, as the intervals of the stars which compose
them are probably much smaller than those which divide
the suns of the universe, so that the study of their relative
motions does not lead us up to any of the great general
phenomena of the heavens, and the speciality would be
more conspicuous if astronomers did as I think they ought.
— form their catalogues of those double stars only whose
motions they have fully established. With regard to
others, we cannot be sure whether their duality is a real
relation or an accident. Knowing nothing whatever of
their interval, or of the distance of either of them from us,
we cannot Ite sure whether they form a system any more
than any other two stars combined by chance in the
MULTIPLE STARS. 225
linear distance from our system and from each other, our
conceptions can neither be accurate, nor of great importance.
M. Savary has proposed a method, founded on the known
velocity of light, by which these distances will, if ever, be
estimated :
^ but the uncertainty of some of the elements
which must enter into the question is so great that the
most that can be hoped for is the fixing of certain limits
within which the real distance may be supposed to lie
and this is all that M. Savary himself proj^osed. At
present, we know only the nearer limit, beyond which, not
only the double stars, but the whole starry host, are known
to lie.
BOOK III.
PHYSICS.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL VIEW.
ASTRONOMY was a positive science, in Imperfect
its geometrical aspect, from the earliest condition of
days of the School of Alexandria; but the science.
Physics, which we are now to consider, had no positive
character at all till G-alileo made his great discoveries on
the fall of heavy bodies. We shall find the state of
Physics far less satisfactory than that of Astronomy, not
only on account of the greater complexity of its pheno-
mena, but under its speculative aspect, from its theories
being less pure and systematized, and, under its j^ractical
aspect, from its previsions being less extended and exact.
The precepts of Bacon and the conceptions of Descartes
have advanced it considerably in the last two centuries, in
its character of a positive science ; but the empire of the
primitive metaphysical habits is not to be at once over-
thrown and Physics could not be immediately imbued
;
-, • ' 1
T , i -1 , 1Instruments,•
i-
by sight, under two aspects only, tueir torms
and motions. All considerations but these are excluded.
But in Physics, on the contrary, the bodies we haye to
study are recognized by all our senses, and are regarded
under an aggregate of general conditions, and therefore
amidst a complication of relations. It is clear, not only that
this science is inferior to astronomy, but that it would be
impractica,ble if the group of fundamental obstacles was
not compensated for, up to a certain jjoint, by the extension
of our means of exploration. We meet here the law,
before laid down, that in proportion as phenomena become
complicated they thereby become explorable under a pro-
portionate yariety of relations.
shall see hereafter. But the other two methods are en-
tirely suitable to Physics. Obseryation was, ^i, _ ,.
in astronomy, restricted to the use of a single
sense but in Physics, all our senses find occupation.
;
stances —
in placing bodies in artificial conditions, expressly
;
Matheinatics
connected
i^^ctly with Mathematics. There
is also a direct connection, as some physical
phenomena have a geometrical and mechanical character,
as much as those of astronomy, though under a great com-
plication of the circumstances. The abstract laws of space
and motion must j^revail as much in the one science as in
the other. If the relation is thus unquestionable in the
doctrine, it is not less so in the spirit and method which we
must bring to the study of physics. It must be ever re-
membered that the true positive spirit first came forth
from the pare sources of mathematical science and it is ;
only the mind that has imbibed it there, and which has
been face to face with the lucid truths of geometry and
mechanics, that can bring into full action its natural posi-
tivity, and apply it in bringing the most complex studies
into the reality of demonstration. No other discipline
can fitly prepare the intellectual organ. We might further
say that, as geometrical ideas are more clear and fvmda-
mental than mechanical ideas, the former are more neces-
sary, in an educational sense, to physicists than the latter,
though the iise of mechanical ideas is the more immediate
and extended in jjhysical science. Thus we see how we
must conclude that the education of physicists must be
more comijlicated than that of astronomers. Both have
need of the same mathematical basis, and physicists m.ust
also have studied astronomy, at least in a general way.
And this, again, assigns the position of their science.
Its rank is equally clear, if we look in the opposite direc-
tion, — at the sciences which come after it.
the rest
languages of thinking peoj^les, the word which
originally indicated the study of the whole
of nature should have become the name of the particular
science we are now considering. Astronomy is, in fact, an
emanation from mathematics. Every other natural science
was once comprehended under the term Physics and that ;
—
one power or the other, the power of foreseeing or of
—
modifying, is necessary to our outgrowth of theological
philosophy. Our j^revision disproves the notion that phe-
nomena proceed from a supernatural will, which is the
same thing as calling them variable and our ability to
:
understood, —
so often as it is violated, and to such a degree
as to alter the whole character of Physics. The use of
conjecture is to fill up provisionally the intervals left here
and there by reality but practically we find the two mate-
;
minds witness the ease with which they destroy each other,
they naturally conclude the whole science to be arbitrary,
consisting more in futile discussion than in anything else.
Each sect or philosopher can show how untenable is the
hypothesis of another, but cannot establish his own and ;
CHAPTER II.
BAEOLOGT.
SECTION T.
STATICS.
—
was indicated by several phenomena, especially the trans-
—
mission of sound by water, and it is now proved by un-
questionable experiments. The contraction as yet produ-
cible is very small and we do not know what law the
;
SECTION II.
DYNAMICS.
The —
elementary notion about gravity, that of the
last
necessary proportion between weight and mass, which —
was wanting to statical barology, was established by
still
the admirable observation that all bodies in a vacuum fall
thi'ough the same space in the same time. Proceeding
from this, we must examine the discovery of the laws of
motion produced by gravity. We shall find „.
herein, not only the historical origin of
physics, but the most perfect method of philosophizing of
which the science admits. Aristotle observed the natural
acceleration of bodies in their fall but he could not
;
dynamics of solids. To
give it the last degree of precision,
it is necessary to consider the resistance of the air, though
that resistance is small in comparison with the case of
projectiles. This is done, with ease and certainty, by
comparing theoretical oscillations with real ones exposed
to the resistance of the air when, of course, the difference
;
orifice. —
As for more complex cases, their theory is yet
entirely in its infancy.^
'
The subjects here spoken of by M. Conite have recently received
remarkable elucidation through experiments entered ui)on chietly
by the instrumentality of the " liritish Association for the advance-
ment of Science." There cannot be much liope, in the present
state of our knowledjje, of ascending otherwise than empirically
towards any general law or rules which will either comprehend
—
phenomena, or be of use in practice. J. P. N.
I. s
258 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
state • j.-
means or investigation, rw
h^xistino; •
Observation, t\
j. j.-
^f n^r-^f^rnr Jiixpen-
ment, and Comparison, have been succes-
sively applied to it and thus its future progress depends
;
CHAPTER III.
THERMOLOGT.
SECTION I.
rp ^
, Physical thermology consists of two parts,
.
influence
,
First: Mutual
, ,
,P
tween bodies or precisely XT
,
IT
the same tempera-
•
1
and conducting power of the air could not account for the
effects observed in the majority of oi'dinary cases. This
action, like that of gravity, extends, no doubt, to all dis-
tances, in conformity to the fundamental approximation
between these two great phenomena, pointed out by Fourier:
for we can conceive of the jilanets of our system as exerting
an appreciable mutual influence in this respect and it
:
sine of the angle that they form with each siarface.— The
last consideration, and the most important, is the difference
of temperatures between the two bodies. When this dift'er-
euce is not very great, the intensity of the action is in
precise proportion to it but this relation appears to cease
:
^'
still in gases. As to penetrability, while
partly depending on the state of aggregation of bodies, it
depends much more on the state of their surfaces, on —
colour, polish, and the regularity in which radiation in
various directions can take place, and divers other modifi-
264- POSITIVE PIIILOSOPHV.
SECTION II.
least ignorant.
These phenomena are independent of those of warming
and cooling, though they are found together. When we
heat any substance, the elevation of temperature is deter-
mined solely by the portion of heat consumed, the rest of
which (often the greater part), insensible to the thermo-
meter, is absorbed to modify the physical constitution.
266 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
y We
have now done with physical thermo-
But the laws of the formation and
logy.
tension of vapours now form an appendix to it and also
;
.
The study of hvgrometrical equilibrium ..
, • . 1 i"^- .11 ^
HvOTometncal
between moist bodies seems a natural acl- e(,\{iiiiji-inni.
i
SECTION III.
SECTION IV.
TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES.
CHAPTEE IV.
ACOUSTICS.
of uniform impressions), —
is clearly shown to exist, in a
greater or smaller degree, iu inorganic apparatus. By
vibratory motions, also, two mechanical structures, placed
apart, act remarkably upon each other, as in the case of two
clocks placed upon the same pedestal.
On the other hand, acoustics forms a basis
to physiology for the analysis of the two
Ph\'siolo"v
elementary functions which are most impor-
tant to the establishment of social relations,— hearing and
the utterance of sound. Putting aside, in this place, all
the nervous phenomena of the case, it is clear that the in-
quiry rests on a knowledge of the general laws of acoustics,
which regulate the mode of vibration of all auditory apjm-
ratus. It is remarkably so with regard to the production
of the voice, —
a phenomenon of the same character with
that of the action of any other sonorous instrument, except
for its extreme complication, through the organic variations
which affect the vocal system. Yet, it is not to physicists
that the study of these two great phenomena belongs. The
anatomists and physiologists ought not to surrender it to
them, but to derive from physics all the ideas necessary for
conducting the research themselves for physicists are not
:
void.
'J^he thre«' parts referrinl to are, first, the mode of propa-
galion of sounds: next, their degree of intensity; and
thirdly, their nuisical tone. Of these departments, the
sci'ond is that of which our lau)wledge is most imperfect.
DIVlSIO^s: Till': i'kopa(;ation of sound. 279
SECTION I.
PROPAGATION OP SOUND.
SECTION II.
INTENSITY OF SOUNDS.
SECTION III.
THEORY OF TONES.
CHAPTER V.
OPTICS.
and then those who come after them conclude that the
chimerical conceptions must be inseparable from the im-
mortal discoveries. There is a use, as I have before
asserted, in these imaginaiy conceptions, which, in regard
to their one function, are indispensable. They serve,
transiently, to develope the scientific spirit by carrying us
over from the metaphysical to the positive system. They
can do this and nothing more, and they accomplished their
task some time ago. Their action can henceforth be only
injurious, and especially in the case of Optics, as any one
may see who will inquire into the state of this science,
particularly since the almost universal adoption of the im-
dulatory in the place of the emissive system.
Excessive ten- One more error must be noticed before we
dency to sys- leave the subject of the unscientific pursuit
teniatize. ^f Optics. Some enlightened students ima-
gine that the science acquires a satisfactoi-y rationality by
being attached to the fundamental laws of universal
mechanics. The emission doctrine, if it means anything,
must suppose luminous phenomena to be in analogy with
those of ordinary motion and if the doctrine of undulation
;
SECTION I.
SECTION II.
CATOPTEICS.
SECTION III.
DIOPTRICS.
i-gfraction
at the same time, under two distinct and
equivalent forms, by Snellius and Descartes. It consistsi
of the constant proportion of the sines of the angles that
296 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
SECTION IV.
DIFFRACTION.
CHAPTER VI.
ELECTROLOGY.
y..
'
I
"HIS
last branch of Physics, relating as it
does to the most complex and least
J-
can see that they have borne no share in the great dis-
coveries of the last half-century, though the discoveries,
once made, have been afterwards attached to the hypo-
theses. Most people regard them now as a sort of
mnemonic apparatus, useful for connecting facts in the
memory, though originally designed for a very different
purpose. They are a bad apparatus for even this object,
which would be much better answered by a system of
scientific formulas esjiecially adapted to that use. And,
though less mischievous than in Optics, hypotheses of this
order do harm in electrology, as everywhere else, by con-
cealing from most minds the real needs of the science. It
should be remembered, moreover, that anti-scientific action
like this extends its inflvience over the succeeding and more
complex sciences, which, on account of their greater difli-
culty, require the severest method, the type of which will
naturally be looked for in the antecedent sciences. It is a
serious injury to transmit to them a radically vicious model.
While physicists are using these hypotheses as having
avowedly no intrinsic reality, their very use leads students
of the successive sciences, and especially physiologists, to
consider them the very sublimity of physics, and to proceed
to take them for the bases of their own labours. We
see
how the notion of magnetic and electric fluids tends to
confirm that of a nervous fluid, and to encourage wild
dreams about the nature of what is called animal mag-
netism, in which even eminent physicists have shared.
Such consequences show how a study which is naturalh'
favourable to the positive development of human intelli-
gence may, by vicious methods of philosophizing, become
fatal to our understandings.
From the complex nature of the pheno- p ,• ,
SECTION I.
ELECTRIC PRODUCTION.
as
, ,
—
changes in the mode of aggregation, the fusion of solids,
and the evaporation of liquids. Even simple motion
sufiices, under special conditions, to induce an electric
state, as M. Arago has shovm in the experiment of the in-
fluence of the rotation of a metallic disc upon a magnetized
needle, near but not contiguous. Our philosophers how-
ever must beware of passing into the other extreme from
that with which they justly rej^roach their predecessors.
It is, no doubt, prejudicial to electrology to neglect all
sources of electrization but the most conspicuous but it :
may be not less so to carry analysis too far, and see causes
of electrization in all sorts of minute phenomena.^
I
, .
,
A special instrument, or class of instru-
ments, naturally corresponds to each of the
general modes of electrization, in order to realize the most
favourable conditions for the production and sujjport of the
electric state. However important these may be, it is clear
that we cannot here enter upon the consideration of them.
In this paragraph, M. Comte alludes to the now most fertile,
'
SECTION II.
ELECTRICAL STATICS.
SECTION III.
ELECTRICAL DYNAMICS.
element.
M. Ampere so arranged his experiment as to guard the
conducting threads from the perturbing influence of the
earth's electricity and this done, he could easily seize the
;
tion when the parts taken are infinitely small, and the
result sought must be affected by the form and magnitude
of the conductors. However, it may be mathematically
demonstrated that, in the hypothesis adopted by M.
Ampere, the action of a rectilinear conductor, of an
indefinite length, upon a magnetized needle, must vary
exactly in the inverse ratio of their shortest distance.
This consequence has been precisely verified by experi-
ment and it places beyond a doubt the reality of the pro-
;
posed law.
Under this law, electric action would seem to be, mathe-
matically, in analogy with that of gravitation. But this
case affords a lesson against incaution in transfen-iug to the
study of these singular movements the ordinary procedure
of abstract dynamics. Gravitation is independent of
mutual direction, which is the determining influence in
electrical dynamics and thus the parallel fails. We see,
:
,, ,
Lonclusion or
. r We
have now reviewed the philosophy of
-ni • j.-/ pre-
turn the as])ects
x^hysics, noticing
•
m
• j. j.i
Physics
sented by the study of the properties com-
mon to all substances and all structures. These are not so
much branches of a single study as distinct sciences. Part
of our business has been to carry on a philosophical
operation, hardly necessary in astronomy, but becoming
more and more so as we descend to the more complex
sciences ;
—
that of disengaging real science from the in-
fluence of the old metaphysical philosoi:)hy, under which it
still suffers deplorably, and which manifests itself in
Physics through illusory and arbitrary conceptions about
the primitive agents of phenomena. I have been able only
to indicate the mischief, and where it resides and I must ;
BOOK IV.
C H E M I S T K Y.
CHAPTER I.
—
type of natural philosophy, Astronomy. But so much of
its inferiority seems to be due to a vicious philosophy, and
to the defective education of philosophers, that I cannot
but hope that a judicious philosophical analysis may con-
tribute to a speedy perfecting of so important a science.
This is the conviction that I desire to awaken by the rapid
sketch which I propose to offer of chemical philosophy, re-
garded in all its essential aspects. Little as can be done
314 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY.
itself was was mixed xvp, as its title shows, with physiology ;
—
which was the case up to a very recent time. It is by this
general character of its phenomena that Chemistr}^ is dis-
tinguished from Physics which precedes it, and Physiology
which follows it. The three sciences may be considered as
having for their object the molecular activity of matter, in
all the different modes of which it is susceptible. Each
corresponds to one of three successive degrees of activity,
which are essentially and naturally distinguished from
each other. The chemical action obviously presents some-
thing more than the physical action, and something less
than the vital. The physical activity modifies the arrange-
ment of particles in bodies and these modifications are
;
—
phenomenon are no longer recognizable, so much has the
aggregate of their properties been disturbed. Again, phy-—
siological phenomena show us the molecular activity in a
CHARACTER AND 'CONDITIOX OF CHEMICAL ACTIOX. 315
conditions.
Chemistry would not be classed among the Specific cha-
inorganic sciences unless its phenomena were racter of its
genei'al; that is, unless every substance were action,
ality is manifested.
The other characteristic relates to the p ,. .
^*'" °
mode of chemical action. The immediate ac^t'ion
contact of antagonistic particles is absolutely
necessary to chemical action and therefore one at least
;
the first two orders and beyond the third their comjiosition
;
vestio-ation
that in chemistry the law holds
^^^ shall find
good that the complication of phenomena
coincides with the extension of our means of inquiry.
^, . , Here Observation begins to find its full
development. Up to this time it has been
more or less j^artial. In astronomy, it is confined to the
sense of sight in physics we use hearing and touch also
:
;
explanations,
,^.. — a mere reproduction, in ab-
c ji ^xj.rj.1 1
t ^ •
Intrusion of
t
c •
J. i.- 1 J. 1 • Kelatioii to hii-
ot experimentation not as being our exclu- ,„^„ v>,.,..r.-a
: .
, 1 ,,1 p x- 1 Artornomen-
1
])resent ;but tJie art of rational nomencla-
i.
^lature
tures, which is quite uncounected with classi-
fications. Since the reform in chemical language, attempts
have been incessantly made, to this hour, to form a syste-
matic nomenclature in anatomy, in pathology, and especi-
ally in zoology but these endeavours have not had, and
:
CHAPTER II.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
the first order. This plan has the advantage that simple
bodies are more completely known from the beginning
than by the usual method, which scatters through the
different parts of the science the most important chemical
properties of each of them. But, on the other hand, the
history of any element remains incomplete ;a factitious
inequality is established among chemical researches into
different elementary substances and the didactic incon-
;
himself.
,,,,,.
Method of
It is of the more importance to set the
•
i j.- xi
i- i * u- f
analvsis
consideration or the order of composition oi
immediate principles above that of their
degree of pkirality, as before proposed, because the first is,
,,,, . - by its nature, clear and incontestable, while
1
the last case apply equally to the first. The most striking
achievement is that of M. Wcehler, in producing the animal
substance urea. He could not have done this if he had
tried, according to the common prejudice, to combine
directly oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and azote, which concur
in the elementary constitution of this substance, instead of
uniting only its two immediate principles, till then un-
known in this quality. Is there any reason to suppose
that it is otherwise in any other case ? — It appears then
that chemists will be safe in attributing an entire gene-
rality to the fundamental principle of the dualism of all
combinations, under the one easy condition of regarding as
still very imperfect the analysis of substances exceeding
the binary composition and esj)ecially the substances
;
of chemical duty.
The study of water requires much more ex- „.
tended and complex researches than that of
the air and it is indispensable to the general system of
;
CHAPTER III.
As ,
—
was, though limited, very great, the binary assemblages
would be so multiplied that we might as well have combi-
nations in any proportions whatever and then the atomic
;
salts. The case of the acid salts was j^erhaps the most
unfavourable possible for the ascertainment of the prin-
ciple of invariable proportions. Wollaston effected the
proof in the most satisfactory manner and this sjjecial
;
is, by its —
nature, homogeneous, -that is, inorganic. And
thus, if we admit of the enormous exception of the nume-
rical composition of so-called organic substances, the
doctrine of definite proportions is overthrown as a rational
theory. As it evidently cannot be founded on any a priori
considerations, it is only by a strict generality that it can
become a rational theory.
If we could not hold at once the grand Application of
principle of the dualism which pervades the principle
chemistry, and constitutes its homogeneous °^ (uiahsm.
character, and the doctrine of definite proportions, I should
not hesitate to sacrifice the latter for it is more important
:
CHAPTER IV.
analysis, —
favoured as the latter pursuit had been by the
ease with which we destroy, in comparison with the diffi-
culty with which we recreate. Once more, these researches
of M. Becquerel have comj^leted the general constitution of
electro-chemistry, which, being henceforth at once syn-
thetical and analytical, can only expand in one of these two
directions, however great the improvements remaining to
be attained.
Such has been the filiation of electro -chemical discoveries,
since the beginning of our century. A
little attention to
the great phenomenon which was the original subject of
the electro-chemical theory will show how this study has
gradually led to a new fundamental concejition for the
whole of Chemistry.
It has been said, through all periods of
combustion
chemical research, that the study of Com-
bustion must be the central point of the
science. So it was thought in the ancient theological
period of the science and also in the more recent meta-
;
this analysis was that every acid and every salifiable base
must be a result of combustion that is, of the combina-
;
of chemical science, —
the prevision of the qualities of com-
pounds by those of their constituent elements. Moreover,
in any case, the great body of chemical phenomena opposes
insurmountable obstacles as when oxygen, the most nega-
;
Thus, to sum
up, the great chemical influence of elec-
that of weight, and yet more of heat, is un-
tricity, like
questionable and I have endeavoured to exhibit the high
;
CHAPTER V.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
materials for it. The rest is the business of the the physio-
logists. If we turn to animal physiology for examples, the
case is yet more striking.
After all the inquiry that has been made into the chemi-
cal phenomena of respiration, no fixed point is yet estab-
lished. was long supposed that the absorption by the
It
lungs of atmospheric oxygen, and its transformation into
carbonic acid, would exj^lain the great phenomenon of the
conversion of venous into arterial blood. But the problem
is much more complicated than was supposed by the
chemists who established this essential part of the phe-
nomenon, and whose labours present the most contra-
dictory conclusions in regard to the facts under their
notice. We do not know, for instance, whether the quantity
of carbonic acid formed really corresponds to the quantity
of oxygen absoi'bed and even the simple general difference
;
be divided ; what
the duty of physiologists with regard
is
to their share of it and how the extension of dualism will
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KING JOHN. TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA.
KING LEAR. WINTER'S TALE,
KING RICHARD II. POEMS.
KING RICHARD III. SONNETS.
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A fascinating little edition.' Notes ajid Queries.
'A cheap, very comely, and altogether desirable edition.' —
IVesimitisUr dizette.
But a few years ago such volumes would have been deemed worthy to be considered
Editions de luxe. To-day, the low price at which they are offered to the public alone
prevents them being so regarded.' Studio.
'
Handy in shape and size, wonderfully cheap, beautifully printed from the Cam-
bridge text, and illustrated quaintly yet admirably by Mr. IJyani Shaw, we have nothing
but praise for it. No one wfio wants a good and convenient Shakespeare without —
—
excursuses, discursuses, or even too many notes can do better, in our opinion, than
subscribe to this issue : which is saying a good deal in the.se days of cheap reprints.'
Vanity Fair.
'What we like about the.se elegant booklets is the attention that has been paid to the
paper, as well as to the print .inddecoration ; such stout laid paper will last for ages.
On this account alone, the Chiswick ' sliould easily be first among pocket Shake-
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Hints on Billiards. By J. P.
Piquet and Rubicon Piquet.
Buchanan. Double vol. 2s. By Berkeley.'
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WEBSTER'S
INTERNATIONAL
DICTIONARY.
2348 PAGES. 5000 ILLUSTRATIONS.
NEW EDITION, REVISED THROUGHOUT WITH A
NEW SUPPLEMENT OF 25,000 ADDITIONAL
WORDS AND PHRASES.
Dr. MURRAY, Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary; says ;— In this its
'
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latest form, and with its large Supplement and numerous appendices, it is a wonderful
volume, which well maintains its ground against all rivals on its own lines. The defini- '
as particularly terse and well-put ; and it is hard to see how anything better could be
done within the limits.'
Professor JOSEPH "W RIGHT, M.A., Ph.D., D.C.i:.,, LL.D., Editor oj
—
the English Dialect Dictionary; .says
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The new edition of " Webster's International
: '
Dictionary " is undouljtedly the most useful and reliable work of its kind in any country.
No one who has not examined the work carefully would believe that such a vast amount
of lexicographical inlormalion could possibly be found within so small a compass.'
Kev. JOSE^'H \VOOD, D.D., Head Master of Harrow, says :— I have always '
thought very highly of its merits. Indeed, I consider it to be far the most accurate
Kngiish Dictionary in existence, and much more reliable than the "Century." For
daily and hourly reference, "Webster" seems to me um-ivallcd.'