KHAJURAHO : AN ANALYSIS IN THE LIGHT OF COOMAR SWAMY'S CRITERIA OF ART

CRITICISM
Author(s): PUSHPA TIWARI
Source: Proceedings of the Indian History Congress , 1994, Vol. 55 (1994), pp. 882-886
Published by: Indian History Congress

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44143474

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Indian History Congress is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Proceedings of the Indian History Congress

This content downloaded from

47.31.99.98 on Mon, 29 Jan 2024 06:52:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 147

KHAJURAHO : AN ANALYSIS IN THE LIGHT

OF COOMAR SWAMY'S CRITERIA
OF ART CRITICISM

PUSHPA TIWARI *

1.1 Khajuraho group of temples1 belong to the golden phase of Indian Temple
architecture. They were built under the royal patronage of Chandella dynasty2 of
central india. They have been the subject of many historical, artistic and
intellectual theories since their discovery in 1838 by T.S. Burt. As they contain
the liberal depiction of erotic themes, the study of these temples is almost
dominated by the multilayered interpretation of their erotic depictions. They are
either harshly criticised or philosophically defended for their erotic character. In
either of the ways, the beauty, harmony and grandeur of their architectural lay-
out, the genesis of their form, the purpose for which they were built, gets lost and
the erotic character comes to the forefront. As they were built in the feudal society,
therefore they also have to bear the burden of evils ascribed to the general
environment of early medieval society3 such as exploitation of Shudras, Antyajas,
dominance of priestly class, luxurious and extravagant ways of the ruling class,
etc. But all these theories have one great drawback. They are formed in contrast
with the modern concepts of democracy, progress and classless society, they
projecting medieval times as crude, barbaric and inhumans.

* LM-00755, Senior Lecturer, Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology,

Universit) of Allahabad, Allahabad.

This content downloaded from

47.31.99.98 on Mon, 29 Jan 2024 06:52:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Pushpa Tiwari : Khajuraho - An Analysis in the Light of Coomar S w amy's Criteria

1.2 Ironically, these very temples are cited by the historians as the symbol of
prosperity and cultural heritage given to us as the legacy of medieval times and
which we are proud of to posssess. Keeping these academic paradoxes and
short-comings into mind, an attempt has been made to evaluate, judge and
analyse these temples in the light of Coomarswamy's criteria of art-criticism4. In
several of his writings and particularly in context of medieval and oriental art he
has set the criteria of judging any traditional art on the theory of four causes,
which are as follows:

a-the form of the thing (to be made) is what is called the 'formal cause' of its
appearance.

b- application of the suitable material is called the 'material cause'.

c- employment of technique or knowledge or skill as the 'means' is called the

efficient or working cause.

d- patron's need of certain goods-a house, a temple, etc. is the 'first' and th
'final' cause of the artifact's being what it is. In other words this first and fina
cause is the occasion or necessity of the work.

II

2.1 As far as the question of material and efficient causes is concerned they refle
the regional and common tradition of their times respectively. The fine graine
pinkish, reddish and buffish sandstone belonging to Kaimur range enhanced
the sculpted contour of Khajuraho temples. The art style represents the
contemporary tradition with minor regional manifestations-a style belonging t
the spirit and responding to the emotional, psychological and practical need
of contemporary life in general and religion in particular. Technique and skil
though very simple yet is very effective, piling up the huge blocks of hewed
stones, the method of downward pressure or stress is applied in the
construction of 'monumental walls' in real sense. Trabeate system with the hel
of corbelling and spanning supports the monumental weight of domes and
spires and false ceilings with curped concentric designs soften the heavy and
massive characters of stone blocks as well as create the illusion of
weightlessness and self-supported roofs. Total disregard and nega
arches, reflects the typical indigenous Indian characteristics of Khaju
architecture. In short the material and efficient causes suggest the local
as contemporary Indian tradition related with Khajoraho temples. Most
above mentioned theories belong to the last two causes of Coomarswa
criteria. Let us examine them one by one.

2.2 As far as the question of orthodoxy and superstitious rites and their eff
context of actual stability of these temples is concerned it should be ob
that in spite of all our scientific knowledge, there exists a significant
between the neglect of architecture as a sàcred and symbolic art and an
instability of buildings. In Coomarswamy's words, "It remains that in cons
only materials and stresses, responsible for the stability of an actual bu
we are leaving out the builder. Does nothing depend upon him, upon his ho

883

This content downloaded from

47.31.99.98 on Mon, 29 Jan 2024 06:52:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Proceedings , I HC: 55 th Session, 1 994

for example

of the architect in metaphysica

macrocosmic with microcosmic p
dignity and a responsibility for o
may calculate that 'honesty' is t
orthodoxy and superstitions in re
the human element involved in th
testimony to their efficacy and

2.3 As far as the question of feud

Khajuraho is concerned, followi
Incriptional evidences prove that
royal patronage. Many votive i
community in general, also part
In traditional societies theme an
by whims of royal patronage, r
beliefs. In such unanimous cult
never at cross-purposes. Their c
by means of religious artefacts were virtually held in common. Our
individualistic notion of art prevents us from realizing the sacerdotal and royal
arts of the Middle Ages were the arts of a people, and not the arts of individuals
or classes. In traditional societies patron, whether royal or commoner, was no
more free, to project his private or personal ideas, through religious art than the
artist himself. Royalty and authority always had many ways and means to
satisfy their erotic or extravagant desires. There was no compulsion for them to
use these temples for erotic expressions. They could have easily built big and
luxurious palaces with lots of erotic scenes. Even then we didn't find a single
residential complex, worth its name, which can be described as royal palace,
related to their luxurious and extravagant ways of life. For constructing these
magnificent temples, with which Hindu community, even at present times, can
easily identify itself, these feudal kings are conemned, but why they are not
praised for their non-indulgence related with the non-availability of their
palaces. Their extravaganza and concept of feudal luxury expressed in the form
of these beautiful temples, seems more preferable compared to the palatial
residential complexes of present day, humble servants of democracy, or in other
words we can not relate these temples with feudal eroticism.

2.4 As far as the question of Tantric relationship and- influence is concerned I would
like to put forward following arguments: There are so many inscriptions which
are found engraved in these temples. None of them associates Tantiricism with
these temples. While reconstructing the social and political history, Chandella
inscriptions, land-grants, etc. are accepted as the foolproof evidence of what
actually happened in those times. But why they have been neglected and
ignored in context of these temples. Almost all the inscriptions found in these
temples, suggest Bhakti as the basic idea underlying these temples. Very
genesis of temple architecture itself is related to the Bhakti cult in early
medieval period. When there are no internal evidences of Tantric influence in
chandella temple inscriptions, then the Bhakti base of these temples should not
be ignored by the art Scholars. Eroticism always existed as an under current
884

This content downloaded from

47.31.99.98 on Mon, 29 Jan 2024 06:52:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Pushpa Tm ar i : Khajuraho - An Analysis in the Light of Coomar Swarny s Criteria

not only in Indian but in the whole Oriental world. The great Indian poet
Kalidasa describes Shiva and Parvati, on the one hand, as the divine father
and mother, but on the other hand, he leaves nothing for imagination while
describing their married life. My argument is why Kumarsambhava or Kamsutra
are not labelled as Tantric Texts. Ttie fact, that pictorial imagery of open erotic
nature even in the context of divine couple is taken for granted, but plastic
manifestation is described as Tantric or feudal eroticism, is beyond any
comprehension. What I want to suggest is that art historians must recognize
their guesses for what they are. In the absence of any positive concrete
evidence, Khajuraho's eroticism should be taken for granted as
Kumarsambhava is taken. We must also, not forget the fact, that no art is exotic,
arbitrary or quaint in its own environment. In order to understand, we must learn
to think about art in the way that the patron's inscriptions tell us about the
Bhakti base of these temples. Therefore they must be taken in that light.

2.5 As far as the question of social disparity and artists' exploitation at the hands
of their royal patron is concerned, it should be observed, that non-availability of
artists' names in most of the temples and their lowly social position are taken
as the basis for this type of allegation. We can quote Dahejia on this point 'lhe
social position of the artist in ancient India rarely allowed him the choice of
mentioning his own name. Clearly the artists worked behind the scenes, so to
say, and their lowly social position went hand in hand with the proclaimed glory
of the patron, who certainly never renounced his ego or forshook his identity.5"

2.6 But social position was never the criteria of anyone's name being mentioned in
his or her creation whether visual or verbal. If we go by the argument of social
position then how will we explain the non-availability of author's names in many
of the texts though the authors are supposed to be higher caste persons. I think
the whole issue is out of context and raised, over against our modern notions
of individualistic equality and freedom. I would like to put forward two simple
questions before this august gathering. How many of us, remember or mention
the names of skilled labours, or artisans whom we had the privilege of hiring after
payment as a customer or patron? How many foundation or inaugural stones are
there related to modern times which tell us even about their master architect or
artisan, not to talk about skilled labours? We take this phenomenon for granted
if related to our own times, but as an indicator of social exploitation and what not,
if related to medieval times. We must realize and perhaps remind ourselves again
and again that those whom we now call artists were once artisans who were hired
by their patrons against payment. If artists are looked upon in the light of patron-
artist relationship, then the whole ground of social exploitation and non-availability
of artists' signature related with their low status, becomes irrelevant.

Ill

3.1 Thus, we conclude that in the light of this criteria on of four causes, it is beyond
the purview of the art historian, to criticise the artist or the artifact, for the good,
or bad use, for its or immoral aims. To quote Coomarswamy "works of art are
only good or bad, beautiful or ugly in themselves, to the extent, that they are,
or, are not, well and truly made"6. Khajuraho Temples pass this test

885

This content downloaded from

47.31.99.98 on Mon, 29 Jan 2024 06:52:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Proceedings, IHC : 55th Session, 1994

successfully. As far as their hidden political or social statement is concerned,

it should be observed that monumental works of any time always convey some
statement behind their practical garb. Anyone can verify this by comparing the
self assessed public utility constructions enumerated by different political
parties constructions being done at ths cost of taxpayers' money but credited
to the account of political leaders as their personal achievements which even
feudal lords were hesitant to proclaim.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. Krishna, Deva, Temples of Khajuraho, 2 Vols, ASI, New Delhi, 1990.

2. R.K. Dikshit, The Candellas of Jejak Bhukti, New Delhi, 1977.

3. B.N.S. Yadava Society and Culture in Northern India, Allahabad, 197

Coomarswamy, A.K. "Medieval and Oriental Art" Roger Libsey, ed. Trad
Art and Symbolism, Delhi, 1977, pp. 56-9

4. A Ibid, p.15

5. Dahejia Vidya, Marg. XXXIX pp.6-7

6. Coomorswamy A.K. op. cit. p. 75

886

This content downloaded from

47.31.99.98 on Mon, 29 Jan 2024 06:52:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms