AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 135:75–84 (2008)
Trophy Heads From Nawinpukio, Perú: Physical
and Chemical Analysis of Huarpa-Era
Modified Human Remains
Brian Clifton Finucane*
Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Oxford University, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK
KEY WORDS Andes; Ayacucho; isotopes; Huarpa; Wari; trauma
ABSTRACT Rescue excavations at the site of Nawin-
pukio in Perú’s Ayacucho Valley exposed a cache of frag-
mented skulls dating to the Huarpa-era, about AD 400–
700. Physical analysis of these remains revealed that
they belonged to individuals of both sexes and a range of
ages (MNI 5 8), and that four crania had been modified
through drilling, cutting, and scraping. The occipital and
parietal bones of one cranium had been modified to form
a shallow basin. Carbon stable isotope analysis of these
remains revealed that five individuals had isotopic signa-
tures consistent with maize consumption and one indi-
The collection, modification, and curation of human
body parts are global practices of considerable antiquity.
Anatomical elements have often been collected from
dead enemies as battlefield trophies/victory tokens which
provide physical corroboration of the collector’s prowess
in battle and may enhance the individual’s prestige and
status. To cite examples from the Western canon, the He-
brew hero David brought back the head of Goliath to Je-
rusalem as a trophy and later paid a bride price of 200
Philistine foreskins for the hand of Saul’s daughter
Michal (Samuel 17:54,19:27).
The archaeological record of the Central Andes is
replete with modified human skeletal remains pertaining
to the Moche (Verano et al., 1999), Nasca (Browne et al.,
1993; Verano, 1995) and Wari cultures (Tung, 2003).
Although some examples of modified long bones are
known (Burger, 1995; Tung, 2003), the overwhelming
majority of modified human remains are cranial ele-
ments with those of the Nasca culture being the best
known examples (Browne et al., 1993; Verano, 1995).
These modified remains are generally interpreted as tro-
phy heads, either as victory tokens taken from battle-
field dead in the course of territorial conflict (Proulx,
2001; Verano, 1995), or as ritual objects whose capture
was the prime motive for conflict (Coelho, 1972). How-
ever, some scholars have suggested that the severed
heads of the Nasca culture were not trophies at all, but
rather the remains of venerated ancestors (Guillén as
cited in Brown et al., 1993; Carmichael, 1994). The eth-
nographic literature of western South America provides
examples both of the veneration of ancestral skulls, as in
the case of contemporary highland Quechua populations
(Sallnow, 1987; Allen, 1988), and headhunting, as among
the Jı́varo of the recent past (Harner, 1972).
In this article, a cache of modified human remains
from the site of Nawinpukio in the Ayacucho Valley of
Perú is described. Using multiple lines of evidence this
C 2007
V WILEY-LISS, INC.
vidual exhibited a carbon isotope value indicative of a C3
plant based diet. Such a nonmaize diet distinguishes
this individual from all other prehistoric humans ana-
lyzed from the Ayacucho Valley and is consistent with an
origin a different ecozone of the valley. On the basis of
their physical properties it is argued that these remains
represent trophies obtained during raiding. Drawing on
the formal properties of the specimens as well as ethno-
graphic and archaeological analogies, it is suggested that
the cranial basin served as a vessel for liquid. Am J
Phys Anthropol 135:75–84, 2008. V 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
C
article will assess whether the remains belonged to ven-
erated ancestors or they were trophies taken from enemy
dead. Drawing on ethnographic examples curated ances-
tral remains are expected to 1) represent mature adults,
2) be of local origin, and 3) have been carefully pre-
served. In contrast remains pertaining to military age
males are more consistent with battlefield trophies,
while those of women and children are typical of tro-
phies captured during headhunting raids (Harner, 1972;
Seeman, 1988). Skeletal remains of nonlocal origin or
which have been extensively modified or transformed
into artifacts are also considered more likely to pertain
to trophies than ancestors.
This article’s study area is one of the regions within
the Central Andes where autochthonous states devel-
oped during the first millennium of the Common Era
(Isbell and Schreiber, 1978; Schreiber, 1992; Stanish,
2001; Finucane et al., in press). Nawinpukio (138110 3100 S,
748120 1300 W, 3,007 m) is among the Ayacucho Valley’s
larger and better studied sites and is situated
2 km
southwest of the center of the modern city of Ayacucho
in the maize growing kichwa ecozone (Fig. 1). Nawinpu-
kio covers an area of
11 ha and was occupied during
the Huarpa phase (ca. AD 400–700) and Wari phase
Grant sponsors: Rhodes Trust, Oxford’s Institute of Archaeology,
Merton College (Oxford).
*Correspondence to: Brian Finucane, Research Laboratory for
Archaeology and the History of Art, Oxford University, Oxford OX1
3QY, UK. E-mail: brian.finucane@gmail.com
Received 9 November 2006; accepted 24 July 2007
DOI 10.1002/ajpa.20710
Published online 4 September 2007 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com).
76 B.C. FINUCANE
Fig. 1. Map of the Ayacucho valley showing archaeological
sites, modern settlements, and ecological/agricultural zones.
(ca. AD 700–1050) (Leoni, 2004; Finucane, 2007). Exca-
vations conducted by Leoni (20042005) uncovered evi-
dence for feasting at Nawinpukio involving the consump-
tion of camelids and prodigious quantities of chicha
(maize beer) and the site is thought to have served as
the seat of power of one of Ayacucho’s chiefdoms during
the Huarpa-era (Isbell, 1987). This period, prior to the
emergence of the Wari state (ca. AD 700–1050), was a
time of dramatic population growth in the Ayacucho Val-
ley during which the first firm evidence for irrigation
based agriculture is found in the kichwa ecozone (Lum-
breras, 1974; MacNeish, 1981).
The human remains discussed in this article were
recovered by archaeologist Martha Cabrera of the Uni-
versidad Nacional de San Cristobal de Huamanga during
salvage excavations in 1998. In Unit 1 of the northeast
sector of the site, Cabrera (1998, 2004 personal commu-
nication) uncovered three cavities cut into bedrock con-
taining disarticulated and comingled human remains.
Two of the pits, Fosa Dos and Entierro 3, were inter-
preted by the excavator as secondary and primary buri-
als, respectively. The third cavity, Entierro 4 had been
filled with compact sediment, which contained andesite
hoes, Huarpa ceramics, and several hundred comingled
skull fragments, interpreted by Cabrera as trophies.
The skeletal remains from Entierro 4 consist of frag-
ments of cranial vault, face, and mandible, though not
the basicranium, nor cervical vertebrae. Despite their
fragmentation, the remains from Entierro 4 are well pre-
served and did not exhibit any signs of burning, gnaw-
ing, weathering, and bleaching that might result from
prolonged exposure to the elements. Root etching is evi-
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
dent on several fragments. On the basis of the associated
ceramics, these skeletal remains are thought to date to
the Huarpa era, about AD 400–700.
Additional human remains from the central residential
sector of Nawinpukio were also sampled in order to pro-
vide a site specific isotopic baseline. These remains were
recovered by Leoni (2004) from several subfloor cist buri-
als and an above ground masonry mortuary structure
and were first analyzed by Marc Lichtenfeld (Lichtenfeld
M. 2002. Nawinpukio skeletal remains, unpublished
report). The preservation of these remains was poorer
than that of the remains recovered from Entierro 4.
Although more complete the bones were generally friable
and exhibited deposits of secondary carbonate crystals.
Samples were selected from the best preserved members
of this skeletal assemblage with the goal of recovering
analyzable collagen. On the basis of associated radiocar-
bon dates and a ceramic assemblage containing both
Huarpa and Middle Horizon styles, these remains are
thought to date to the 7th century (See Leoni, 2004).
Determining whether the remains from Nawinpukio’s
Entierro 4 belonged to ancestors may shed light on mor-
tuary ritual and the time depth of ancestor veneration in
the Central Andean highlands. The curation and venera-
tion of ancestral remains has been cited as an important
feature of Wari society (Isbell, 2004), yet osteological evi-
dence for such activities has heretofore been lacking for
the Wari and Huarpa periods. Alternatively if these
remains represent trophy heads they afford us insight
into the occurrence and character of conflict in the
Ayacucho Valley during a period of marked population
growth immediately preceding the emergence of state po-
litical authority. Such conflict is of interest, as it has
been invoked as one of the prime movers in cultural evo-
lution and state formation (Carneiro, 1970; Webster,
1975). Additionally, the identification of trophy heads dat-
ing to the Huarpa era will establish a local antecedent for
headhunting prior to the adoption of the Tiahuacacoid
cult during the subsequent Wari era. During Wari’s he-
gemony, trophy heads feature prominently in the region’s
iconography and appear to have been emblems of author-
ity (Cook, 2001; Ochatoma and Cabrera, 2002).
STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS OF PALEODIET
The study of paleodiet through stable isotope analysis
proceeds from the experimental observation that the iso-
topic composition of animal tissues generally reflects
that of the diet they consume (for a review see Schwarcz
and Schoeninger, 1991). Such analyses utilize the varia-
tion in the ratios of the stable isotopes of carbon and
nitrogen within ecosystems to measure the relative con-
tribution of different resources to the diets of humans
and other animals (DeNiro and Epstein, 1978, 1981). As
some foods, such as maize, have distinctive isotopic sig-
natures, it is often possible to identify the consumers of
these resources.
The stable isotope ratios of carbon (13C and 12C) and
those of nitrogen (15N and 14N) are expressed in per mil
(%) as d values:
d ¼ ½ðR sample=R standardÞ  1 3 1; 000
where R 5 13C/12C for the measurement of carbon and
15
N/14N for the measurement of nitrogen. The standards
to which samples are compared are the limestone Vienna
PeeDee Belemnite (VPDB) and atmospheric nitrogen
 TROPHY HEADS FROM NAWINPUKIO, PERÚ
(AIR) for carbon and nitrogen, respectively. Most materi-
als, including plant and animal tissues have less 13C
than the VPDB, and their d13C values are typically
negative.
Most plants use the Calvin Cycle photosynthetic path-
way (C3) and have tissues with an average d13C value of
226.5% (O’Leary, 1988). The d13C values of plants rely-
ing upon the Hatch-Slack photosynthetic pathway (C4),
mainly tropical grasses including such domesticates as
maize, millet, and sugarcane, are much higher, averag-
ing 212.5% (Hastorf and DeNiro, 1985; O’Leary, 1988).
Plants utilizing a third photosynthetic pathway, Crassu-
lacean acid metabolism (CAM) have d13C values ranging
from 227% to 212%. Most CAM plants are succulents
and do not constitute staple crops. Nonetheless the con-
sumption of CAM plants could potentially mimic the
effects of maize consumption.
Controlled feeding studies of laboratory animals reveal
that the carbon isotope signature of animal proteins,
such as collagen in bone and keratin in hair and nails,
predominantly reflect the protein component of diet, as
essential amino acids (and possibly nonessential amino
acids) are routed from the diet to be incorporated into
body tissue (Ambrose and Norr, 1993; Tieszen and Fagre,
1993; Howland et al., 2003). d13C values of the collagen
of large herbivores is enriched (more positive) by about
5% relative to their dietary average (Lee-Thorp et al.,
1989). The collagen of carnivores in turn, reflects the iso-
topic signature of the animal protein in their diets, ulti-
mately derived from the plants eaten by primary con-
sumers. The isotopic signature of omnivore collagen rep-
resents the contribution of both plant and animal
protein to diet.
The nitrogen in animal protein is derived exclusively
from dietary protein. Apart from nitrogen fixing legumes
and plant grown on soil treated with manure or guano,
terrestrial plants generally have d15N values between 2
and 6% (Mitzutani et al., 1991; Choi et al., 2002, 2003;
Bol et al., 2005; Bogaard et al., 2007). The nitrogen iso-
tope ratios of consumer’s tissues exhibit trophic level
enrichment as the d15N values increase 3–4% with each
step up in the food chain (DeNiro and Epstein, 1981;
Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984; Schoeninger, 1985).
Analysis of nitrogen isotopes provides additional resolu-
tion in the reconstruction of paleodiet by discriminating
between plant and animal protein sources and distin-
guishing marine from terrestrial protein as marine
plants are
4% enriched in d15N relative to terrestrial
plants. This floral enrichment, in conjunction with the
complexity of aquatic food webs, results in the d15N
enrichment of marine fish and mammals (Schoeninger et
al., 1983; Walker and DeNiro, 1986).
To elucidate the nature of the modification and use of
these human remains, physical analysis was carried out
in Ayacucho, Perú, and samples of bone and tooth were
obtained for stable isotope analysis performed at the
Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of
Art, Oxford. Although strontium and oxygen isotopes in
human remains have been used to study residential mo-
bility by characterizing the geology and hydrology of an
individual’s place of origins (See Ericson, 1985; Grupe
et al., 1997; White et al., 1998; Hoogewerff et al., 2001;
Knudson and Price, 2004), the stable isotopes of carbon
and nitrogen can also be used to assess geographic varia-
tion in place of origin (Verano and DeNiro, 1993; McCul-
lagh et al., 2005, Cerling et al., 2006; for a review see
Hobson, 1999). Indeed in regions marked by floral varia-
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
77
TABLE 1. MNI of human remains recovered from
Nawinpukio, EA A1, B1; Entierro 4
Age Sex Sample
3–7 ? NP8H
3–7 ?
12–34 F?
20–35 M NP12H
20–35 M? NP13H
30–40 F NP11H
20–35 F NP7H, NP10H
351 ? NP9H
tion, but little hydrological or geological variation, carbon
isotope signatures may provide a better means of identify-
ing outliers than oxygen and strontium isotope values.
The Ayacucho Valley like many areas of the Central
Andean highlands is divided into ecological/agricultural
zones defined by isotopically distinct resources. The ma-
jority of the valley’s settlements, including those dis-
cussed in this article, are located below 3,400 m in the
yunga and kichwa zones where maize agriculture is pos-
sible and was practiced in prehistory (Finucane et al.,
2006). The wild flora of this zone are dominated by CAM
species such as Opuntia ficus, O. subulata, O. tunicasa,
and Agave americana with d13C values
213% (Mac-
Neish et al., 1981; Deniro and Hastorf, 1985). Above
3,400 m maize cultivation is not generally possible. In
the suni zone (3,400–4,100 m) indigenous C3 crops such
as quinoa (Chenopodium ecquinoa), tarwi (Lupinus
mutabilis), the common potato (Solanum tuberosum),
oca (Oxalis tuberose), ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus), and
mashwa (Tropaeolum tuberosum) are cultivated. The
wild flora of the suni are likewise dominated by C3
plants. The puna zone lies above the suni and is com-
prised of high altitude grasslands, lakes, and mountain
peaks. Agriculture in the kichwa, suni, and to a lesser
extent the yunga zone is dependent on irrigation water
from lakes located in the puna. Once again the plants of
this zone are C3, perennial grasses such as Festuca, Cal-
amogrostis, Stipa, and Poa as well as the bitter potato
(Solanum curtilobaum). Thus in the Ayacucho Valley,
the resources below 3,400 m are generally enriched in
13
C with d values of
213%, whereas those above 3,400
m are depleted with d values of
225% (for the isotopic
values of Andean crops see DeNiro and Hastorf, 1985).
METHODS
Age and sex estimates of the remains from Nawinpu-
kio were made using standard osteological criteria (Ube-
laker, 1989; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Bass, 1995).
The biological profiles of the remains from Entierro 4
were made using such criteria as cranial morphology,
dental eruption and wear, and the closure of cranial
sutures. In addition to these criteria, the condition of the
pubic symphysis and auricular surface, and the degree
of epiphyseal fusion were also considered in determining
the demographic profiles of the remains from Nawinpu-
kio’s primary interments. Those remains originally ana-
lyzed by Lichtenfeld (Lichtenfeld M. 2002. Nawinpukio
skeletal remains, unpublished report) were reanalyzed
for this study. It must be acknowledged that sex and age
estimates based on fragmentary and incomplete individ-
ual elements such as those from Entierro 4 are both less
accurate and precise than estimates based on indicators
from multiple skeletal elements used in concert. The pos-
78 B.C. FINUCANE
sibility of error in age estimation is especially strong for
adults represented only by fragmentary cranial remains.
Therefore broad age categories have been used for the
adult remains in this study. Trauma and modifications
were classified as premortem, perimortem, or postmor-
tem on the basis of fracture characteristics, beveling,
hinging, healing, coloration, and taphnomic condition
(White, 1992; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Walker,
2001; Ortner, 2003).
Stable isotope analysis of collagen was performed at
the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the His-
tory of Art at Oxford University. Collagen was extracted
from bone following procedures described in Richards
and Hedges (1999). Isotopic analysis was conducted
using a Carlo Erba 1108 carbon and nitrogen elemental
analyzer coupled to a Europa Geo 20/20 mass spectrome-
ter in continuous flow mode. The isotopic values of all
samples were measured relative to tertiary laboratory
standards of nylon and alanine whose isotopic values are
calibrated with respect to IAEA and NBS standards,
which have internationally agreed values relative to
VPDB and AIR. All samples were analyzed in triplicates
in separate batches. Analytical errors are of the order of
60.2% for d13C and d15N.
RESULTS
Minimum number of individuals
The cranial and mandibular fragments represent at
least eight individuals of both sexes, ranging in age from
children to mature adults. The demographic characteris-
tics of the remains are summarized in Table 1.
Postmortem modification
The remains of four individuals from Entierro 4 ex-
hibit postmortem modification. Perforations consistent
with punches or drills are apparent on the fragments of
three crania.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
Fig. 2. Specimen F2.003, the fron-
tal bone of a probable female exhibit-
ing a circular defect which may have
served as a conduit for a suspension
cord. Left, anatomical position of cra-
nial fragment. Upper right, photo-
graph of ectocranial aspect with
arrows indicating location of perfora-
tion. Lower right, photograph of endo-
cranial aspect with arrow indicating
burnished margin of aperture.
The anterior frontal bone of an adult (Specimen
F2.003), a probable female, has been pierced approxi-
mately midway between glabella and bregma, to the left
of the sagittal plane (Fig. 2). The hole appears to have
been made with a punch, rather than a drill, applied to
the ectocranial surface. The edges of the perforation
have been burnished smooth, probably as a result of the
friction of a cord running through the hole.
F2.005 is the posterior left parietal of an unsexed indi-
vidual, judged on the basis of the sagittal suture closure
to have been older than 35 at the time of death (Buik-
stra and Ubelaker, 1994). The fragment was punctured
on the parietal eminence from the ectocranial surface
using a punch that left an internally beveled opening 4
mm in diameter (Fig. 3).
F2.028 is a small fragment of occipital bone, with a
drilled perforation, 5.14 mm in diameter which has an
hour glass cross section (Fig. 4). The hour glass cross
section of the perforation is asymmetric indicating that
the fragment was drilled nearly completely from the
ectocranial surface and then turned over and completed
from the endocranial surface. Such perforation is consist-
ent with this fragment’s suspension from a cord. The
patterns of beveling and weathering of the borders of the
fracture fragment reflect both perimortem and postmor-
tem modification. The external beveling of the fracture
fragment’s borders suggests it was removed from the
rest of the skull via a blow directed to the endocranial
surface while the bone was ‘‘green’’, and the patina along
portions of the border of the fragment reveals that this
fragment was handled extensively prior to interment.
Specimen F2.004 is a portion of the calotte, estimated
on the basis of suture closure to have belonged to a juve-
nile or young adult. Because the nuchal portion of the
occipital bone is missing, it is difficult to estimate the
sex of this individual. Cut marks along the borders of
the cranial fragment indicate the basilar portion of occi-
pital bone was removed through repeated grooving prob-
ably with a chert or obsidian blade, forming a bowl
 TROPHY HEADS FROM NAWINPUKIO, PERÚ 79

Fig. 3. F2.005, a left parietal with a hole punched through the boss. Upper left, left lateral aspect of skull indicating position of
fragment. Upper right, superior aspect indicating position of fragment. Lower left, photograph of specimen, ectocranial aspect.
Lower right, photograph of specimen, endocranial aspect. The arrow indicates the hole through the parietal boss.

Fig. 4. Specimen F2.028, a

fragment of occipital perforated
by drilling from both the endo-
cranial and ectocranial surfaces.
Left, ectocranial aspect, right
endocranial aspect, bar 5 1 cm.

(Figs. 5 and 6). Fine incisions elsewhere on the parietals
and occipital are consistent with the cut marks delivered
during defleshing and scalping. The presence of root
etching overlying these cut marks indicates that these
marks were delivered before the remains were interred
and do not represent damage inflicted during excavation.
The ‘‘rim’’ of the vessel is polished and has a patina simi-
lar to the ectocranial and endocranial surfaces. Such pol-
ish is indicative of the handling of this object over an
extended period prior to interment.
In addition to those crania exhibiting perforations, one
specimen, F2.001, exhibited clear premortem trauma.
F2.001 consists of the bones of the face and anterior cra-
nial vault (complete frontal bone, squamous portions of
the temporals, and complete right and anterior left pari-
etal bones) (Fig. 7). The glabella and orbital margins of

American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa

80 B.C. FINUCANE

Fig. 5. Specimen F2.004. Upper left and upper right indicate anatomical position of fragment. Dotted line indicates projected
form of incomplete specimen. Lower left, photograph of endocranial surface, sagittal suture at the top of the photograph. Lower
right, photograph of the ectocranial aspect of the calotte, sagittal suture at the top of the photograph.

this skull were both scored 1 on the scale of sexual mor-
phology developed by Ascadi and Nemeski (1970) (as
reproduced by Buiskstra and Ubelaker, 1994) which are
consistent with female morphology. The degree of wear
on the molars and the failure of the coronal and anterior
sagittal sutures to close suggest this individual was a
young adult, in her late twenties of early thirties at the
time of death. The nasal bones of this skull have been
fractured and displaced by blunt force trauma and were
in the process of healing at the time of death, suggesting
this individual was involved in a violent encounter shortly
before death. This cranium lacks the occipital bone, basi-
sphenoid, and the petrous portions of both temporal
bones. The fracture pattern and discoloration of the frac-
ture margins are consistent with the breakage of ‘‘green’’
bone suggesting the damage occurred perimortem.
Stable isotope values
Six of seven samples from Entierro 4 yielded sufficient
collagen to permit isotopic analysis, whereas two of the
four samples of bone from the residential sector of
Nawinpukio yielded collagen. The stable isotope values
of the osteological remains from Nawinpukio are pre-
sented in Table 2. The six samples from Entierro 4 have
d13C values ranging from 217.7%, the lowest value for
human bone collagen from the Ayacucho Valley, up to
29.7% with a mean of 212.8% 6 3% (Fig. 8). The sam-
ples from Nawinpukio’s burials no. 3 and no. 8 in the
residential sector of the site have d13C of 210.6% and
211.2% respectively. The average d15N value of the five
collagen samples from Entierro 4 is (9.2 6 0.8)%.
DISCUSSION
Ancestor veneration rejected
The possibility that the crania from Nawinpukio repre-
sent the remains of honored ancestors is rejected. The
presence of the remains of children is inconsistent with
the processing and curation of ancestral remains, which
would be expected to represent older age classes
(Seeman, 1988). Furthermore, the degree of postmortem
modification exhibited by these crania is unlike any
described in the ethnographic literature for memento
mori in the Andes. Contemporary Andean highlanders
who keep skulls take pains to preserve them intact, dec-
orate them, and treat them to food, tobacco, and alcohol,
all in attempts to honor and propitiate the soul within
the skull and thus secure its protection (Sallnow, 1987;
Allen, 1988). In contrast, the perforation of the cranial

American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa

 TROPHY HEADS FROM NAWINPUKIO, PERÚ
Fig. 6. Right lateral aspect of Specimen F2.004 with lamb-
doidal suture in view. Note the numerous fine, roughly parallel
cut marks on the right parietal running superior-inferiorly. The
root marks (on the anterior margin of the parietal) are superim-
posed over the cut marks, indicating the incisions were deliv-
ered prior to the interment of the specimen. Bar 5 1 cm.
vaults is consistent with the suspension and display of
these elements. In the extreme example of the ‘‘bowl’’,
the remains of a human being have been transformed
into a vessel.
With respect to determining the geographic origin of
the crania the stable isotope results are mixed and
therefore do not provide strong evidence for either ances-
tor veneration or trophy taking. If the crania from
Entierro 4 all belonged to residents of the kichwa and
yunga zones of the valley, their isotopic values would be
expected to uniformly reflect maize consumption. Five of
the six samples from Entierro 4 do in fact have carbon
isotope signatures consistent with maize consumption.
These five carbon isotope signatures are indistinguish-
able from those of the remains from Nawinpukio’s pri-
mary interment as well as the samples from Conchopata
(Fig. 8, Finucane et al., 2006). However, the d13C value
of sample NP8H (the lowest of any human in the Ayacu-
cho Valley) indicates this individual consumed primarily
C3 plants such as tubers and quinoa that have d13C val-
ues of
225% (Deniro and Hastorf, 1985). In other
words five crania have isotopic values consistent with
residence at Nawinpukio or other areas of the kichwa
and yunga, whereas one individual’s isotopic signature is
atypical for these zones, suggesting the possibility that
this one individual resided in the higher elevation suni
or puna ecozones where C3 crops predominate.
The 15N values of the six samples from Entierro 4 are
consistent with those of terrestrial omnivores and are
indistinguishable from those of the remains from Con-
chopata, reflecting consumption of similar quantities of
animal protein (Fig. 8, Finucane et al., 2006). These
nitrogen isotope values are uninformative as to the geo-
graphic origin of these remains.
As with strontium and oxygen, carbon isotopes provide
only a coarse grained measure of geographic origin. Per-
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
81
Fig. 7. Specimen F2.001, the cranium of a young adult
female exhibiting premortem fracture of the nasal bones.
haps if multiple isotopes were analyzed in conjunction, a
clearer picture of the geographic origin of these remains
would emerge. Unfortunately, due to the unique nature
of these remains more extensive isotopic sampling was
not permitted. Although the isotopic evidence from this
cache of crania does not resolve the question of their ori-
gin, the demographic profile of these remains and their
physical modifications are more consistent with trophies
taken from enemy dead than the remains of venerated
ancestors. Therefore on the basis of the physical charac-
teristics of these crania (though not their isotopic signa-
tures), the remains are judged to be trophies.
Comparison to other Andean trophy heads
The remains from Entierro 4 of Nawinpukio are not
the only trophy heads from the Ayacucho Valley. Tung
(2003) has described two dozen Wari-era trophy heads
from Conchopata. In addition Lumbreras (1974) also
uncovered five severed heads from the Wichqana temple
dating to the Chupas Phase of the Upper Formative (ca.
200 BC–AD 400). However as osteological analysis of the
specimens from Wichqana has not been conducted, the
origin and function of these skulls is difficult to judge. In
contrast to the remains from Conchopata (See Tung,
2003), none of the mandibular fragments recovered from
Nawinpukio had been drilled or cut. The modified skulls
recovered from Entierro 4 at Nawinpukio manifest simi-
larities to the trophy heads pertaining to the Nasca cul-
ture of Perú’s South Coast (as described by Proulx, 2001;
Browne et al., 1993; Verano, 1995, 2001). Like specimen
F2.003, the Nasca trophy heads typically have holes
drilled or punched through the anterior portion of the
frontal bone. Likewise the removal of the basicranium of
82 B.C. FINUCANE
TABLE 2. Carbon and nitrogen isotope values of human remains from Nawinpukio
Burial/ Age Collagen d13C(%) d15N(%)
Sample Ind EA Locus tomb Sex (years) Bone/tooth yield (%) Collagen Collagen C:N
NP2H 2 21 159 3 ? 762 1st MT 16.1 210.6 7.66 3.27
NP6H 5 21 189 8 M 35–50 Humerus 5.6 211.17 9.93 3.2
NP7H 6 A1,B1 Cache 4 F 30–40 Cranium 0 No collagen No Collagen
NP8H 7 A1,B1 Cache 4 ? 3–7 Cranium 7.2 217.7 10.4 3.28
NP9H 8 A1,B1 Cache 4 ? 351 Cranium 6.0 211.1 8.4 3.22
NP10H 6 A1,B1 Cache 4 F 30–40 LC1 10.4 211.8 8.5 3.23
NP11H 9 A1,B1 Cache 4 F 35–50 Mandible 12.1 29.7 9.5 3.23
NP12H 10 A1,B1 Cache 4 M 20–35 Mandible 8.2 212.5 8.7 3.21
NP13H 11 A1,B1 Cache 4 M? 20–35 Cranium 9.5 213.0 9.0 3.43

brother and rival for the throne, as a drinking vessel.

Fig. 8. Bivariate plot of the carbon and nitrogen stable iso-
tope values of the trophy heads from Nawinpukio compared to
those of the remains from Nawinpukio’s formal burials, the
mean value of the human remains from Conchopata, and the
mean of all other human samples from the Ayacucho Valley.
Error bars represent two standard deviations.
F2.001 resembles modifications made to Nasca trophy
heads.
Even though the reasons for the perimortem removal
of the basicranium from F2.001 are unclear, such modifi-
cation would have facilitated the removal of the brain.
Perhaps specimen F2.001 was modified for display on a
pole or standard. Specimens F2.028, F2.005, F2.003, and
F2.004 are clearly artifacts; objects to be displayed and
used. The perforations of F2.003, F2.005, and F2.028 are
consistent with their use as ornaments worn on suspen-
sion cords. The form of F2.004, a basin comprised of the
posterior parietals and the squamous portion of the occi-
pital bone, resembles a shallow bowl or mate implying
this artifact was used as a container or drinking vessel.
Although the shape of F2.004 is unprecedented in the
Andean archaeological record, there are regional
archaeological and historical parallels for the transfor-
mation of crania into drinking vessels. Verano et al.
(1999) describe two crania from Huaca de la Luna at the
site of Moche, which have elliptical defects of the supe-
rior cranial vault surrounding bregma resulting from the
intentional removal of the posterior frontal bone and the
anterior parietal bones bilaterally. Both specimens
belonged to young men and both vessels had been pre-
pared from fleshed crania, leading Verano et al. to argue
these were the remains of sacrificial victims, probably
prisoners of war. These modified skulls strongly resem-
ble Moche ceramic vessels modeled as skulls.
The Inka Emperor Atalhualpa is reputed to have used
the skull of a general in the army of Huascar, his
Atop the mummified head of Atoc, Atahualpa had a
golden bowl affixed and between the skull’s teeth he in-
stalled a silver spout (Rowe, 1946). Inka soldiers took
other body parts as trophies as well, adorning them-
selves with necklaces made of their enemy’s teeth and
fashioning musical instruments from corpses. Long
bones became flutes and enemy hides drumheads (Rowe,
1946).
According to the indigenous chronicler Guaman Poma,
the heads of those who committed treason against the
Inka emperor were fashioned into mates (cups) for drink-
ing maize beer. It is clear from this taunting chant
recorded by Poma that the use of such trophies was an
expression of contempt and dominance over one’s foes.
We will drink with the skull of the enemy,
we will wear necklaces of their teeth,
we will play the flute made with their bones,
the drum made with their skin and thus will we dance.
Guaman Poma (1987: p314 [316]) Translation from
Spanish to English by the author.
Implications
The remains from Entierro 4 of Nawinpukio shed light
on conflict prior to the rise of the Wari state and docu-
ment the transformation of human heads into trophies
in Huarpa era Ayacucho. Although it is impossible to
estimate the prevalence of conflict or trophy taking dur-
ing the Huarpa era based on a single cache, the remains
from Entierro 4 at least document the occurrence of one
form of violent conflict. The demographic profile of this
assemblage is consistent with raiding, as the remains
pertain to both sexes and both adults and children. In
contrast trophies from battlefield dead would be expected
to represent military age males. Given that the Huarpa
era was a time of dramatic demographic expansion in
Ayacucho, the conflict implied by these crania may have
been prompted by competition over resources, perhaps
water for irrigation.
Although supernatural beings wearing trophy heads
are conspicuous elements of the art of several prehistoric
Andean cultures including Paracas, Nasca and Wari, tro-
phy heads do not appear in Huarpa art (which is gener-
ally non-figurative). These specimens from Entierro 4
therefore provide insight regarding the cultural practices
of the era, establishing a local precedent for the taking
of trophy heads prior to the Middle Horizon and suggest-
ing that this prominent feature of Wari’s Tiahuanacoid
cult may had indigenous roots rather than having been

American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa

 TROPHY HEADS FROM NAWINPUKIO, PERÚ
imported from the Lake Titicaca Basin. The modification
of these trophies for display and use implies the head-
hunters of Nawinpukio sought to derive some benefit
(supernatural protection, social status, resource access,
intimidating enemies, preferential mate choice, etc) from
their exhibition. The form of the ‘‘bowl’’, specimen
F2.004, suggests a possible link between headhunting
and feasting at Nawinpukio. As the site’s ceramic assem-
blage provides abundant evidence of the production and
serving of chicha, the liquid consumed with this bowl
may have been maize beer.
CONCLUSIONS
This article has described a cache of trophy heads and
a form of post mortem cranial modification, heretofore
undocumented in the Central Andes. A cranium recov-
ered from the site of Nawinpukio had been fashioned
into a basin, which on the basis of ethnographic and
archaeological analogies is thought to have been used to
serve liquid. Three additional crania exhibited post mod-
ern modification consistent with the use of pendant
cords, suggesting these remains were displayed or worn
as ornaments or trophies. The stable isotope signatures
of the cranial remains recovered from Nawinpukio
revealed that five of the six individuals subjected to tro-
phy taking consumed maize based diets, but that the
remaining individual had a C3 plant based diet. Such a
C3diet distinguishes this individual from the maize con-
suming inhabitants of the yunga and kichwa ecozones of
the Ayacucho Valley. The demographic and taphonomic
characteristics of the skulls from Nawinpukio suggest
these remains were obtained through raiding. The modi-
fication of these remains for display and use as vessels
may reflect their function as status enhancing trophies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Author is grateful to Martha Cabrera, Juan Leoni,
and the Universidad Nacional de San Cristobal de Hua-
manga for the opportunity to analyze and sample these
remains. Osteological samples for stable isotope analysis
were exported from Perú with assistance from Irela Val-
lejo, Marcelina Berrocal, Elsa Tomasto, Melisa Lund,
and Alberto Carbajal with the permission of the Ayacu-
cho and Lima offices of the Instituto Nacional de Cul-
tura. Author also thanks Peter Ditchfield, Tom Higham,
Noah Honch, Colleen Cummings, Angela Lierverse, and
three anonymous reviewers for their comments and sug-
gestions which have improved this article.
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