A.

Popular interest in Mars, the ‘Red Planet’, is long-established, but has enjoyed two
dramatic flowerings, one in the 1890s and the other a century later.

B. Any speculation about life on Mars, then or now, is part of a long discussion on ‘the
plurality of worlds’. Pluralists believe that there are other worlds apart from ours
which contain life — an idea that had its origins in classical Greece. In the 19th
century, the new science of astrophysics suggested that large numbers of stars in the
sky were similar to the sun in their composition — perhaps they too were circled by
planetary systems. Nearer to home Mars, our neighbour in the solar system, seemed
to offer the evidence the pluralists had lacked until then.

C. The characteristics of Mars’ orbit are such that its distance from Earth varies
considerably — from 34.5 to 234.5 million miles. From an astronomer’s standpoint it
was particularly well-placed for observation in 1877, 1892 and 1909. Observations in
each of these years intensified discussion about possible life on Mars.

D. If life, intelligent or otherwise, were to be found on Mars then life on Earth would not
be unique. The scientific, theological and cultural outcomes of such a discovery could
be stupendous. In 1859, Fr. Angelo Secchi, director of the Vatican observatory and a
confirmed pluralist, observed markings on the surface of Mars which he described
 as canali, ‘channels’. The fateful word had been launched on its career, although
there was little immediate development from Secchi’s work.

E. In 1877 another Italian, Giovanni Schiaparelli, one of Europe’s most distinguished

astronomers, also observed the canali, but he added the refinement that they
appeared to be constituents of a system. Other astronomers observed features that
might he continents or seas; Schiaparelli confirmed these findings and gave them
finely sonorous classical names such as Hellas, Mare Etythraeum, Promethei Sinu

F. Although Schiaparelli was cautious in his public statements, recent research

suggests that he was a pluralist. Certainly his choice of familiar place names for the
planet, and his publicising of the calla network, encouraged pluralist speculation.
Inevitably, cumuli was soon being translated into English as ‘canals’ rather than
‘channels’. In 1882 Schiaparelli further fuelled speculation by discovering twin canals;
a configuration which he named ‘gemination’; he described no fewer than sixty
canals and twenty geminations.

G. Some of Schiaparellrs findings were confirmed by the astronomers Perrotin and

Thollon at Nice Observatory in 1886. In 1888, however, Perrotin confused matters by
announcing that the Martian continent of ‘Libya’ observed by Schiaparelli in 1886 ‘no
longer exists today’. The confusion grew; two prestigious observatories in the US
found in one case no canals, in another a few of them but no geminations, and no
changes to Libya.

H. While the observers exchanged reports and papers, the popularisers got to work.
They were generally restrained at first. The British commentator Richard Proctor
thought that the canals might be rivers; he was among the first to suggest that a
Martian canal would have to be ‘fifteen or twenty miles broad’ to be seen from Earth.
The leading French pluralist, Camille Flammarion, published his definitive La Planete
Mars in 1892: ‘the canals may be due ... to the rectification of old rivers by the
inhabitants for the purpose of the general distribution of water ...’. Other
commentators supposed the ‘canals’ might be an optical illusion, a line first advanced
by the English artist Nathaniel Green, teacher of painting to Queen Victoria and an
amateur astronomer.

I. The canals debate might have levelled off at this point had it not been for the
incursion of its most prominent controversialist — and convinced pluralist — Percival
Lowell. Lowell, an eminent Bostonian, entered the astronomical argument after a
 career in business and diplomacy, mainly in the Orient. He may not have brought an
entirely objective mind to the task. Even before he started observing he had
announced that the canals were probably ‘the work of some sort of intelligent beings’.

J. The newly-arrived popular press was very willing to report Lowell’s findings and
views; canal mania grew apace. By 1910 Lowell had reported over 400 canals
with.an average length of 1,500 miles. He wrote plausibly about the Martian
atmosphere and the means by which the canals distributed water from Mars polar
caps to irrigate the planet before evaporation returned moisture to the poles. This
water cycle appealed to popular evolutionism which perceived Mars as an old, dying
world trying to avert its fate by rational and large-scale engineering — this was, after
all, an age of great canals: Panama, Dortmund-Ems, Manchester, Corinth.

Questions 1-2

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

1. What do pluralists believe?

A. There is life in other parts of the universe.

B. Other stars have planets.
C. There is life on Mars.
D. There are many other stars like the sun.

2. What circumstance helped astronomers to study Mars in the late 19th century?

A. A new science had developed.

B. People believed that there was life on other planets.

C. Mars was close to Earth on several occasions.

D. There was popular interest in Mars at the time.

Questions 3-8

Look at the following lists of astronomers and thinkers (Questions 3-8) and ideas about Mars
(A-I). Match each astronomer with the idea or ideas he expressed.

NB There are more ideas than astronomers and thinkers, so you will not need to use
them all.
A A particular geographical feature of Mars has disappeared.

B People think they can see canals, but they do not really exist.

C Life on Mars has become extinct.

D Some canali are organised in pairs.

E The canali are used to carry water from colder areas to warmer areas.

F The canals must be extremely deep to carry so much water.

G The inhabitants of Mars are still building canals.

H The Martians have adapted natural features to meet their needs.

I The canali might be very wide and not artificial.

3 Schiapareili ..........

4 Perrotin ..........

5 Proctor ..........

6 Flammarion ..........

7 Green ..........

8 Lowell ..........

Reading Tip: TRUE, FALSE, NOT GIVEN

Questions 9-14

Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage?

In boxes 9-14 on your answer sheet, write

YES if the statement agrees with the writer's claims

NO if the statement contradicts the writer's claims
NOT GIVEN if there is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

9 Discussion about whether there is life on Mars forms part of a long tradition. ..........

10 The belief that life existed on Mars was encouraged by a translation error. ..........

11 The limitations of 19th century technology encouraged the idea that there were
canals on Mars. ..........
12 All Lowell's statements about Mars were based on what he was able to see. ..........

13 Lowell's investigations of Mars aroused little interest outside the scientific

community. ..........

14 three prestigious observatories in the US found in one case no canals, in

another a few of them but no geminations, and no changes to Libya. ……..

15 Lowell's theory about how canals on Mars were used may have been inspired by
fashionable ideas of the time. ..........