Environment & Ecology

Unit-3:
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
By: NANDAN
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Natural Ecosystems
Natural ecosystems are an assemblage of plants, animals and
non-living beings which function as a unit and are capable of
maintaining their identity.
These ecosystems are totally dependent on solar radiation.
Natural Ecosystems can be further categorised as below. Soil - Soil quality is quite poor due to high rate of leaching
Terrestrial Ecosystems: Ecosystems found on land. and this makes it unfit for agriculture.
E.g., forests, grasslands, deserts, and tundra. Vegetation
Aquatic Ecosystem: Ecosystems found in water bodies. Broad-leaved evergreen tree species with thick canopy,
E.g., freshwater ecosystems like rivers, lakes and buttress roots and trees attaining a height up to 50 to
ponds; marine ecosystems like coral reefs, sea floor, 60m are found here.
etc. These forests support tropical hardwood (mahogany,
ebony, greenheart), and rubber. palms, rosewoods, etc.
Artificial or Man-made Ecosystems
Epiphytes, like vines, creepers, woody creepers and
These do not possess a self sustaining mechanism and rely on
orchids etc., are found in these forests.
human efforts to regulate themselves.
Net primary productivity of rainforests is highest of all
Examples - agricultural lands or aquaculture which are
the ecosystems on the earth.

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dependent on solar energy and fossil fuel dependent
Fauna
ecosystems like urban settlements, industrial ecosystems.
Small animals including monkeys, birds, snakes, rodents,
frogs. and lizards are common in the tropical rainforest.
Many of these animals and insects are arboreal, i.e., tree
living.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
Distribution
Latitude - These forests are found in tropical and
subtropical regions i.e. regions falling between 10-30°
North and South latitudes.
Countries - It is mainly found in India, Myanmar,
southern coastal China region, eastern Brazil, smaller
areas in South and Central America, south-eastern Africa,
and northern Australia.
Climate
FOREST ECOSYSTEM Rainfall - This belt is characterized by two distinct
These are large areas supporting rich growth of trees and seasons — moist season and dry season where rainfall is
cover about 30% of land on the Earth. less than 200 cm.
Temperature - Average temperature is around 27 to 30°C.
Classification of forests Soil - As the leaves decompose, the nutrients contained in the
Depending on the climate and type of trees they are generally
leaves are absorbed by the soil. For this reason, the soils of
grouped into
this biome tend to be very fertile. Because this biome has
1. Tropical Rainforests
fertile soil and a long, 5 to 6 month, growing season, many
2. Boreal Forests,
deciduous forests have been converted into agricultural
3. Deciduous Forests
regions.
4. Mediterranean Forests
Vegetation
5. Temperate Deciduous Forests, etc.
Deciduous trees like teak, sal, sandalwood, mulberry, etc.
Tropical Rainforests are predominant in most of these forests.
Distribution Leafless periods occur during drought conditions, which
Latitude - It is found in the region falling between 0°–10° help to conserve water.
North and South latitudes. Lianas and epiphytes are also found in tropical deciduous
Countries - Northern part of South America, Congo, forests.
Malaysia, parts of east-Asia, the western coast of India, Fauna
north-eastern India, Andaman & Nicobar islands, etc. Animals are migratory and have large bodies, for example,
Climate elephants, horses, lions, buffalo, and tigers.
Rainfall - These receive above 200 cm of rainfall per year As compared to rainforests, these forests have less
and rainfall is uniform all year round. biodiversity . However, these are home to a wide
Temperature - Uniform temperature is experienced variety of wildlife, including monkeys, deer,
throughout the year i.e. 25-26 °C various rodents, and ground dwelling birds.
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Temperate Deciduous Forests
Distribution
Latitude - These forests are found in areas lying between
45-65° North and South latitudes.
Countries - Occur mostly in northwest, central and
eastern Europe, eastern North America, northern China,
Korea, Japan, Russia and Australia.
Climate
Temperature - It ranges between 10-20° C with a 6-
month long winter.
Rainfall - Annual rainfall of about 75 to 150 cm.
Soil - Nutrient-rich brown soils are found here.
Vegetation
Trees of these forests shed their leaves in autumn and
new foliage grows in the spring.
They utilize their broad and flat leaves to collect sunlight
spreading out as they grow.
They generally have a thick bark to protect them during
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the cold winter months.
Common trees are oak, heath, chestnut, birch, pine, etc.
Fauna
Prominent grazers include deer, bison, etc.
Because of the relatively harsh winters and scarce food
supplies, many animals migrate to warmer climates or
animals, like bears and mice, dig out a den or burrow and
sleep during the cold months.
Boreal or North Coniferous Forests
Distribution
Latitude - Found in region lying between 50-60 ° North
latitude
Countries - These are also known as 'Taiga' and extend as
a continuous belt across North America and North
Eurasia below the Arctic tundra.
Climate
Temperature - The climate is cold with long harsh
winters, with a mean annual temperature below 0° C.
Rainfall -Precipitation is primarily in the form of snow
40-100 cm annually.
Soil - The soils are acidic and poor in nutrients
Vegetation
Coniferous forests are characterized by evergreen
drought resistant and woody conifers, e.g. spruce, fir and
pine trees.
The trees here have distinctive features such as spire
shape to promote shedding of snow, narrow shaped
leaves to protect moisture loss and waxy coating to
protect from dry winds.
Fire is crucial to a healthy boreal forest. Fires open the
forest canopy to sunlight, which stimulates new growth
Fauna: A wide variety of thick bearing animals such as lynx,
wolf, sable, mink, marten and others are found in these
forests
Mediterranean Forests
Distribution
Latitude - Occur in the region lying between 30~40°
North and South latitudes
Environment & Ecology
Unit-3:
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
By: NANDAN
Countries - Found in regions around the Mediterranean
Sea, Central Chile, California (USA), Cape Town (South
Africa), Southern and Southern-Western Australia.
Climate - It is characterized by warm to hot, dry summers
and mild to cool, wet winters.
Temperature -The Mediterranean climate is defined by
annual average air temperature of 16.3°C.
Rainfall - Precipitation totals ranging from 35 to 90 cm
Soil - They contribute to good agricultural land and are
considered among the most productive soils on earth.
Vegetation
The vegetation is hard and drought resistant and includes
evergreens, cacti, olive and fruit trees, among others.
The shrubs have xerophytic structure, plants have
adapted by storing water through the thick bark or waxy
coverings and by growing thorns to prevent animals
from eating them.
Fauna
The Mediterranean biome houses many forms of wildlife
such as wild goats, sheep, cattle, mouflon, and horses.
The land supports lynx, wild boar, rabbits, vultures and
three types of eagles. Many small mammals, reptiles and
insects inhabit this region.
Did you Know? - Mediterranean Vegetation
Around the Mediterranean Sea, this vegetation is called
macchie, maquis, or garigue vegetation
It is known as ‘Chaparral’ in southwestern North America,
It is known as ‘Cape flora’ in southern Africa,
It is known as ‘Mallee’ in southwestern Australia.
Grassland ecosystem
Grasslands are areas dominated by grasses and they occupy
about 20% of the land on the Earth’s surface.
Types of Grasslands - Grasslands occur in both tropical and
temperate regions where rainfall is not enough to support
the growth of trees.
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 Environment & Ecology
Unit-3:
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
By: NANDAN
Hot Deserts
Tropical Temperate
Distribution
Grasslands Grasslands
Latitude - Located on the western coasts of the continent
between 15° and 35° latitudes in both the southern and
These are found in Found in - these are
northern hemispheres. It occupies about one-fifth of the
the tropical found in the
latitudes in the temperate latitudes Earth‘s land surface.
Found in Examples - The major deserts in the world are the Sahara
interior of the in the interior of the
continent in the continent in the belt Desert(Africa) , Namib Desert (Africa), Great Australian
trade wind belt. of Westerlies. desert (Oceania), Kalahari desert(Africa), Thar
desert(Asia), Atacama Desert(South America) etc.
The grass is tall Climate
(3m), coarse and The grass is short, Rainfall - Precipitation is less than 25 cm annually.
spiky which is soft, juicy and Temperature - Mean annual temperatures range from
Characteristics
neither juicy nor nutritive. There are 20-25°C. The extreme maximum ranges from 43.5 –49 ° C
nutritive and these treeless plains as Soil
are scattered rainfall is less. Desert ecology is characterized by dry, alkaline soils, low
deciduous trees. net production and opportunistic feeding patterns by
herbivores and carnivores.

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They are known as Soils are suitable for agriculture as irrigation can convert
the ‘big game The prairies are deserts into productive agricultural land.
country’ because known as the 'bread Vegetation
Known as
there are a variety baskets’ of the
Desert plants are xerophytes which are adapted to hot
of herbivores and world.
and dry conditions.
carnivores.
Mostly shrubs with extensive roots.
Leaves are small with coatings of wax and in some plants
Commercial farming
leaves are absent and instead of leaves, thorns are
People and commercial
Nomadic herding. developed to reduce transpiration.
practice herding are carried
on. Leaves and stems are succulent and water storing.
In some plants even the stem contains chlorophyll for
Soil is not very Soil is very fertile in photosynthesis.
Soil fertility Some of the common desert plants are cacti, acacia,
fertile. this region.
euphorbia and prickly Pears.
They are known as They are known as Fauna
Savannas in Prairies In North The animals are physiologically and behaviourally
Regional Australia and America Steppe in adapted to desert conditions.
Classification Africa and Llanos Asia Pampas in They are fast runners, remain inactive during the hot
and Campos in Argentina and daylight hours, nocturnal and conserve water by
South America. Downs In Australia. excreting concentrated urine.
Shrew, fox, woodrats, rabbits, camels and goats are
Desert ecosystem common mammals in the desert.
Deserts can be either hot such as the Australian Desert or Cold Deserts
cold such as the Gobi Desert. Distribution
Latitude - Located between 30 to 50° latitude (also called
the mid-latitudes), in both the northern and southern
Hemisphere.
Countries - It is Found in the Antarctic region,
Greenland, northern and western China, Iran and in
certain mountainous areas, such as the Great Basin area
of the western United States.
Climate
Temperature - The winter temperature is 2 to 4°C and the
summer temperature is 21-26°C.
Rainfall - The average rainfall is 15-26 cm.
Soil - Soils in cold deserts are sandy, salty and rocky.
Vegetation:
Plants vary in heights from about 15
cm to 122 cm, depending upon the area.
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Most of the plants have spiny shaped leaves and shed
them (deciduous) to sustain cold conditions.
Fauna - Deer, kit fox and coyotes, kangaroo rats, antelope
ground squirrels, badger, lizards, etc.
Tundra ecosystem
There are two types of tundra - Arctic and Alpine.
Arctic Tundra
Distribution
Latitude - Arctic tundra lies between 65 to 90° as a
continuous belt below the polar ice cap and above the
tree line in the northern hemisphere.
Countries - The Antarctic region is actually significantly
colder than the Arctic, so it is not technically considered
tundra. It occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska,
European Russia, Siberia and the island group of the
Arctic Ocean.
Climate
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Temperature
Average winter temperatures of –34 ° C.
Average summer temperatures of 3-12°C.
Precipitation: The arctic tundra receives approximately 15
to 25 cm of precipitation each year, which includes both
rainfall/snowfall.
Soil- The subsoil in the tundra is a permanent layer of frozen
rocks and small material, called permafrost.
Vegetation
Biodiversity here is low, as only 3% of plant species are
found in Tundra regions due to lack of sunlight and
severe cold.
The vegetation is cryophytes i.e., vegetation well adapted
to severe cold conditions.
Vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs and herbs,
sedges and grasses, mosses, and lichens.
No plants in the area have significance so as to remain in
the wet topsoil.
Scattered trees grow in some tundra regions.
Reindeer moss, crowberry, heath, liverwort, grass,
lichen, dwarf trees, including small birch;
Fauna
Mammals have a large body size covered with fur and
small tail and ear to avoid the loss of heat from the
surface.
Animals use behavioural adaptations like migration and
hibernation for sustenance.
Wolves, Lemmings, Squirrels, Arctic hare, Caribou/
reindeer, Musk oxen, mountain goats, polar bears are
some common animals found in the Tundra region.
Alpine Tundra
Distribution
Latitude - Alpine tundra is located around the world on
high altitude mountains above the treeline.
Countries - Austria, France, Germany, Italy,
Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia and Switzerland.
Climate
Rainfall - Alpine tundra typically receives slightly higher
amounts of yearly precipitation, around 30 cm.
Environment & Ecology
Unit-3:
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
By: NANDAN
Temperatures at night are below freezing point, and in
the between –12 and 10° C warmer months.
Soil - It is characterized by an abundance of barren rocks or
thin soils, which are well drained.
Vegetation
Alpine plants occur at high elevation and above the tree
line.
There are many different plant species which include
perennial grasses, sedges, forbes, cushion plants, mosses,
and lichens.
Fauna
There are very few wildlife species found in the Alpine
tundra, which include mammals like pikas and marmots,
birds such as ptarmigan and keas, as well as insects.
They survive the cold conditions either through
hibernation or moving down the mountain for food.
MOUNTAIN ECOSYSTEMS
Mountains have unique characteristics and can be studied as
distinct biomes.
As height increases, soil, climate, flora and fauna change
similar to moving from equator to pole. Climate changes
from tropical to alpine tundra. Whereas forests change from
tropical-subtropical to coniferous to alpine tundra and
snow.
Ecological Services Performed by Mountains
They are home to many endemic species of plants and
animals.
Mountains act as sanctuaries for animals driven from the
plains.
Mountains are sources of streams and rivers, hence provide
water to us and play an important role in the water cycle.
Deforestation disrupts this role of mountains.
Himalayan Ecosystem
Distribution
The Himalaya is a great range of mountains that spreads
over Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and
China.
In India, it extends from the Indus trench below
Nangaparbat in the west to Yarlung Tsangpo-
Brahmaputra gorge below Namcha Barwa peak in the
east.
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The Himalayan region includes climatic systems like
tropical, subtropical, temperate, and alpine.
Vegetation
The forests are very dense with extensive growth of grass
and evergreen tall trees. Oak, chestnut, conifer, ash, pine,
and deodar are abundant in the Himalayas.
The lower levels of the mountain range support many
types of orchids. On the eastern slopes, rhododendrons
grow to tree height. .
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD) in Nepal works for sustainable
development of Hindu Kush Himalayan mountain
system.
Western Ghats
Western Ghats (also known as Sahyadri) is a mountain range
that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian
peninsula from Tapti river to the Nilgiri hills.
The range extends through 6 states–Gujarat, Maharashtra,
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Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight
”hottest hotspots” of biological diversity in the world.
Note: Hot spots are the regions which show maximum
biodiversity, richness of species and endemic forms.
These mountains act as a rain barrier during southeast
monsoon, leading to high rainfall and also major peninsular
rivers.
The Western Ghats are home to four tropical and subtropical
moist broadleaf forest eco-regions
North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests;
North Western Ghats montane rain forests
South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests;
South Western Ghats montane rain forest;
Soil is mainly red or black in most of the regions and rich in
nutrients.
Flora and Fauna: The Western Ghats comprises over 5,000
flowering plants, 139 mammals, 508 birds and 179 amphibian
species.
Threats to Western Ghats Ecosystem
Development activities and an increased population, both of
which have exhausted this fragile resource system.
The recurring drought in the
provinces of Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu clearly indicates
watershed degradation.
Logging, urbanisation,
tourism, encroachment,
livestock, grazing, building
dams and power plants,
mining, construction,
including forest fires caused
by human beings leading to
degradation of forests and
loss of biodiversity are major
threats to Western Ghats.
Environment & Ecology
Unit-3:
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
By: NANDAN
Protection Efforts by the Government
The Government has set up Protected Area Networks (PANs)
such as Biosphere Reserves, National Parks to restrict human
access.
No Go Zone: Around 56,825 sq. km area around Western
Ghats has been declared as a 'no go’ zone for high- polluting
human activities like mining, quarrying, big constructions,
thermal power plants and certain types of industries.
Conservation of Western Ghats
The Western Ghats hotspot extends along a 17000 km2 strip
of forests In Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
It has diverse biodiversity and 40% of the total endemic plant
species.
About 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to
Western Ghats.
It has been reported that 6.8% of the original forests are
existing today while the rest are deforested or degraded. It
means Western Ghats have lost a huge proportion of
biodiversity.
Taking a serious cognizance of the issue, the Government of
India formed the first Madhav Gadgil committee and later,
Kasturirangan Committee (2012) to suggest framework and
policy for conserving Western Ghats.
The committee headed by ecologist Madhav Gadgil
recommended in 2011 that all of the Western Ghats should be
declared as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA).
The committee proposed a provision that only limited
development should be allowed and that too in graded
zones.
Industrial lobby protested against this report.
Consequently, the States have forced the Centre to
consistently delay imposing the ESA restrictions.
Later, K. Kasturirangan committee gave its
comprehensive report on the Western Ghats.
Difference Between the Two Reports
First is the extent of the area that should be awarded
protection as an eco-sensitive zone (ESZ).
The Gadgil panel identified the entire Ghats as ESA, but it
created three categories (ESZ-I, II, III) of protection regimes
and listed activities that would be allowed in each based on
the level of ecological richness and land use.
The Kasturirangan panel removed cash crop plantations like
rubber, agricultural fields and settlements from ESA.
It could do this because it had the advantage of using a finer
remote sensing technology.
The Kasturirangan panel also made the distinction between
what it called cultural landscape and natural landscape
deliberately.
The purpose was to remove already modified areas under
private control from protection as governing these areas
through permit and fiat systems would lead to unnecessary
conflict.
In this way, the Kasturirangan report's area of ESA is 37% of
the Western Ghats - still a massive 60,000 ha but much less
than 137,000 has been proposed bv Gadgil.
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 Environment & Ecology
Unit-3:
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
By: NANDAN
The second difference is over the list of activities permissible
in the protection regime. Kasturirangan
The Gadgil committee's recommendations on this . are Gadgil Committee
Committee
comprehensive, from banning pesticide use and genetically Recommendations
Recommendations
modified crops in agricultural areas to decommissioning of
hydropower projects and the gradual shift from plantations
to natural forests. Constitute the Western Ghats
The Kasturirangan panel imposed restrictions on what it Strengthen the current
Ecological Authority under
called highly interventionist and environmentally damaging legal framework such
the Ministry of Environment
activities in the ESAs. as state pollution
Forest and Climate Change
control boards and
All mining, including quarrying; red-category industry, (MoEFCC) to regulate and
state biodiversity
including thermal power; and buildings over 20,000 sq. m oversee the Conservation of
boards.
would be banned. Western Ghats.
In the case of hydropower projects, the panel set tough
conditions to ensure adequate flow in rivers and distance
Eco Sensitive Zones
between projects.
These are notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest
The third difference concerns the governance framework.
and Climate Change (MoEFCC) under section 3 of the
The Gadgil panel had recommended a national- level
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

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authority, with counterparts at the state and district levels.
ESZ areas act as ”shock absorbers” to the protected areas by
The Kasturirangan panel argued for strengthening the
regulating and managing the activities around such areas.
existing framework of environmental clearances and setting
The width of the E52 could go up to 10 kms around the
up of a state-of—the-art monitoring agency.
protected area.
The central government has disregarded the Gadgil panel’s
Several activities, though not prohibited in ESZs are subject
report and implemented the Kasturirangan Committee report
to regulation.
by declaring 37% of the Western Ghats as Ecologically
Regulation of activities in the E52 maintains the ”carrying
Sensitive Area (ESA).
capacity of the area while ensuring sustainable development
of the region”, taking into consideration ”the needs and
Kasturirangan aspirations of the local people".
Gadgil Committee
Committee Some of the ESZ
Recommendations
Recommendations Dahanu Taluka Ecofragile Area
Bhagirathi Eco-Sensitive Area
Mahabaleshwar-Panchgani Eco-Sensitive area
The Western Ghats Ecology Instead of the total area Matheran EcoSensitive Area
Expert Panel (WGEEP) of the Western Ghats,
Eastern Ghats
designated the entire hill Only 37% (60,00 sq km.)
Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains set
range as an Ecologically of the total area has to be
Sensitive Area (ESA). brought under ESA. along the eastern coast.
It extends from Odisha to Tamil Nadu.
The eastern ghats do not form a continuous range because
the great rivers Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna cut across
Recommended the
recognition of three grades them.
Complete ban on mining: Climate: Semi Arid to semi humid with rainfall from 60 to
of “Ecologically Sensitive
quarrying and 3806 160 cm.
Zone” (ESZ) and the
mining in ESA’s. Flora and Fauna:
complete ban on the
Hydroelectric power
construction of high The Eastern Ghats ranges are home to 2500 flowering
plants permitted only
capacity storage dams and plants, thus protecting 13% of India’s flowering plants.
after a detailed study.
sand mining in ESZ-1 Eastern Ghats also hold the rich
areas. floral system including a large
number of medicinal plants.
Animals such as the Elephant,
Envisaged decision Nilgiri Tahr, Leopards, Gaurs,
Recommended a bottom making as a Sambar, Slender loris, Tigers,
approach to conservation responsibility that lies- etc., abound the landscape
with Gram Sabha playing a primarily with the
Simlipal National Park, Baisipalli
crucial role in the decision government and the
Wildlife Sanctuary, and Satkosia
making. bureaucracy such as
Gorge Sanctuary are some
forest officials.
famous national parks and
sanctuaries of Eastern Ghats..
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