(From School To College Introductory Math Series Book 6) David Hodgson - Maths For Beginners - Algebra An Introduction-Britannia Training LTD (2018)

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(Go to Contents) Introduction
This introduction to Algebra is written for students, who are in their final year at school,
i.e. senior high school in the US, Canada, Australia, or fifth or sixth form in the UK; and
are considering progressing onto College or University. Alternatively, you may be a
student who has completed your school education and find your math skills are not as
good as you would like. If you need a little extra help with your maths, and you want
lots, and lots of high quality examples, plus explanations, showing all the working out,
this book is for you.
I have written a series of math books, covering most of the topics you will encounter in
your school, or college math subjects which are part of my ‘introductory maths for
beginner series from school to college’ see page 11 for more details.
Many math books on the market today cover the full range of math subjects, and are
often very bulky, heavy, and expensive. If you buy one of these books, you may pay for
a chapter, or chapters you will never use. As a result, I have written an introductory
series of math books, so you the customer can choose what subject you want to study;
and I have kept the price of each book low. I can remember when I was a student,
many years’ ago and finances were always tight, however I hope you will agree the
quality of this book remains very high.
This book will introduce some aspects of further or advanced mathematics, but it is not
intended to thoroughly cover those topics. Further, advanced, or degree level
mathematics, will be the topic of the follow-on book series after this one, the title will be
‘Mathematics – An introduction to Further, Advanced and Degree Level Mathematics’.
I have tried to cover many of the different math problems you may encounter in
Algebra, ranging from low-level introductory simple examples, to higher level more
complex examples.
If a particular example seems more complex than the exercises, your tutor has set for
you, then skip such work, and proceed onto the next set of examples and exercises that
appear to be written at your level. This book is designed to be your maths guide as you
progress and become more competent in your maths, this book will accompany you
through your education.
Learning maths remains one of the hardest challenges for the student to overcome in
their chosen course of study. To compound this, many learners come from a
background where their mathematics skills are not as good as they would like them to
be. You may not have understood your maths when at school, or you may not have
listened. Alternatively, you may be a more senior student returning to education after
many years’ since you were last in a classroom. If this describes your circumstances,
then this book is written for you. You will be a student who is keen to learn and who
wants to learn, but you need a little extra help with your maths.
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This book is written specifically for the Amazon Kindle TM platform, which keeps the price
down for you the reader as there are no printing costs. Just because this book costs a
fraction of some printed math books, does not mean the contents are sub-standard.
I have designed this book to stand up and challenge the big named authors who usually
sell their books for around the £20.00 to £45.00 - $25.00 + range.
One of the BIG advantages of this book is you don’t need to own a Kindle device, using
the free Kindle reader app, you can download it onto your Android, Apple, or Microsoft
phone, tablet, PC or Laptop, and take this book to college with you. Now you don’t need
to carry a 3 kg book around with you anymore.
For best viewing, you really want a display size of at least

150mm x 95mm, which is the size of the Kindle Fire TM
screen. I get fabulous results from my Nexus 10 TM which
has a screen size of 215mm x 135mm, which is
comparable to the Apple iPad TM When on the move my
Samsung Galaxy TM shown opposite with a screen size of
63mm x 111mm, using pinch and zoom gives me superb
results.
All the formula displayed in this book is presented, just as you would expect to see in a
print version textbook. Many textbooks, which contain mathematical formulae, which
have been converted into the Kindle format, display formulae as very small images,
which you need to touch or click on to see expanded to a readable size, even then, the
formulae quality is usually still sub-standard. Not so, with this book, all formulae and
calculations appear just as in a printed textbook. Shown below is an example of the
quadratic equation formula.
x=
I spent a lot of time when I was an engineering student many years’ ago browsing
through numerous maths books seeking the information I needed to solve various
mathematical problems.
Some books were good in some parts but not in all parts, and many books assumed the
student had the mathematical skills to understand all the processes of a calculation.
Often steps were missing from a particular example, and when I sought the solution in
another book, I would find that book also missed the important steps I needed to
understand how an answer had been obtained. It was because of this omission in many
maths books I decided to write this introductory series for the mathematical and
engineering student.
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In this book, I will show you ALL the steps required to complete mathematical
calculations. I will point out items or rules I consider important enough that you should
make these part of your general knowledge. It is a ‘Good Idea’ to know these rules, so I
will place a lamp symbol representing a ‘guide’ as shown below next to all-important
rules.
What is also very important is to get yourself a good scientific calculator.

I recommend the Casio FX-82, FX-83, FX-85, FX-115, or FX-991 series of calculators and
in particular the FX-991 model. Not only are these models’ scientific calculators, but
many of their functions are specifically targeted at mathematic and engineering
applications. If you intend to study engineering believe me the Casio FX range of
calculators will make your maths much easier. Many other makes of scientific calculators
are designed for general mathematics use and not specifically for engineering
applications.
In the UK as the Casio model number increases from the FX-83 to FX-115, to the
FX-991, each model has more functions than the one before it, and costs a little more in
each case. In the US and Canada, the equivalent of the FX-83 range seems to be the
FX-300 range, followed by the FX-115 range, and finally the FX-991 range.
In Australia and New Zealand, the range seems to start with the FX-82AU, which is
equivalent to the FX-83 range in the UK and Europe.
I would recommend you buy the model with the most functions, if you can afford it.
It will have greater usability. You will need to look at the specifications usually on the
rear of the blister pack or box the calculator comes packed in, or by viewing the
specifications on the internet.
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Shown below is the Casio FX-83GT Plus. Shown below is the older range of FX
If you are buying a new calculator this Calculators. The DEL and AC keys are
is what your calculator should look like red in colour. This model has 240
This model has 260 functions functions
On the newer
models, the DEL
and AC keys are
coloured Orange,
on the older
models these
keys are coloured
RED
The older series uses the EXP key but

retailers are still selling this model if
Look out for the x10x key which
they can get away with it. Don’t be
appears on the newer models. The
mislead, make sure you get the newer
older series has an EXP key instead
model
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Shown below is the Casio FX-115ES Plus. Shown below is the Casio FX-991ES Plus.
This is available in the UK, Europe, US, This is available in the UK, Europe, US,
Canada and Australia Canada and Australia
This model has 279 functions This model has 417 functions
If you can afford the extra few pounds,
or dollars, this is the one I recommend
you buy.
At the time of writing this book Casio has also introduced the FX-991DE Plus with 580
functions, but this model is only available in Germany.
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Many students ask; “What is the difference between engineering maths and pure
maths?”
Engineering Mathematics sometimes called Applied Mathematics relates to solving

problems that exist in the real ‘physical’ world that has a practical use. An example
would be calculating the area of a football field, or the rate of change of electric current
in a circuit.
Pure mathematics relates to solving problems and finding answers to calculations that
do not depend on the physical world. Pure mathematics is performed just to prove the
rules of mathematics.
Feel free to tackle this book in any order, which interests you. If you really hate
something, make it your aim to tackle that problem the first thing in the morning.
The most successful business-people, tackle the problems that besets them the most the
first thing on a morning.
By solving something, you fear you are free to work unhindered through the rest of the
day. You will find that once you do tackle the areas you struggle with, then the penny
suddenly drops. Sometimes that area of maths may then become your strongest!
I have designed this book to build up your knowledge, so if you are 100% sure you
know how to do something, then just skim the section. That does not mean you can
skip it. Skim through it, there may be methods there you have not come across before
and may be very useful.
The author David Hodgson is a qualified college lecturer with over 16-years’ teaching
experience, who teaches Engineering and Mathematics. David was awarded a first-class
Bachelor of Engineering honours degree (B.Eng. hons) from Teesside University
Cleveland UK in 2002.
I recommend that you use this book throughout your college course to test your
knowledge as you complete sections. You should find that the number of questions you
can answer correctly increases as your knowledge grows.
Knowledge is when you can recall information a long time after you have learnt it.
Call it memory skills or whatever. Learning starts from day one. In the words of the all-
knowing guru, ‘Yoda’
“There is no try, only do”
Don't try to do learn a little maths each week, make it your aim to ensure you do!
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Throughout this ‘introductory series’ I will show a

warning triangle to indicate math examples where
students often make mistakes.
Text highlighted in Blue are, Hyper-links, Examples, or Informative

Information
Text highlighted in Pink show Exercises
Text highlighted in Green indicate Answers to Exercises

Whenever the student needs to access a second function key on a Casio FX calculator, I
will indicate this by showing the key(s) coloured in orange as shown below.
E.g. to access the pi key on the Casio FX calculator, you first press the shift key
then the pi key
Memory keys are shown in red text on the Casio FX calculators. You do not need to
press the key before accessing a coloured memory key, although this is one
way to access such keys.
Throughout this book, I will refer to the following symbols ( ) as brackets, because this
is what almost everyone and most math books call them. The correct term is
‘Parentheses’ you can find a full explanation of ‘Parentheses’ in this book, we will also
look at the correct name and description for brackets [ ] parentheses ( ) and braces { }
As you are reading this book, I will assume the reader is in the last year of school or has
finished school, I am sure I don’t need to advise you to press the key before trying
to use your calculator
The front cover of my ‘introductory series’ series depicts various mathematical symbols.
The top image begins with the famous equation E = mc2 discovered by Albert Einstein in
1905; this was one of the most important scientific discoveries of the 20th Century.
This equation shows that the energy contained within any object, for example a grain of
sand, is equal to the mass (m) of that object multiplied by the speed of light (c)
squared. Since the speed of light is an enormous number i.e. 299,792,458 metres per
second, the square of that number is gigantic; thus, less than 2 kg of sand contains
enough energy to power a city the size of Greater London for a whole year if we could
only find out how to convert that mass into energy efficiently.
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On page 350, I will show you how to calculate the energy available in 2 kg of sand.
(Go to page 350)
Someday in the future, someone will solve the problem of how to obtain this energy
cheaply and efficiently, but without any doubt that person will have been a maths
student. Perhaps that person will be a Nuclear Engineer, an Electrical Engineer, perhaps
a Chemical Engineer, Astrophysicist, or a Quantum Mechanics engineer. However,
whatever they are you can be sure they will have studied maths when they were a
student. Who knows, maybe that person will be YOU sometime in the future?
The theory connected with E = mc2 was revolutionary at the time, and Einstein
proposed that mass and energy are equivalent to each other and that atoms have
massive amounts of energy stored up in them.
On the front cover Einstein’s theory then links to the images of the two atoms,
infinitesimally small objects that contain such massive amounts of energy. At the
opposite end of the super small scale is the super large, we observe the image of an
astronomically large super massive black hole swallowing a star, (Image used under
license from www.shutterstock.com) black holes are one of the largest and mysterious
objects known in the universe.
The only reason we know objects such as atoms and super massive black holes exist is
because engineers and mathematicians many years’ ago were very good at their maths
and were able to perform mathematical calculations that predicted the existence of such
objects.
In the lower right-hand corner of the top image, we see the Star-Ship Enterprise TM
firing it’s phasers on a Borg cube. OK so we don’t have star-ships yet, but through
mathematics, you may be that person who discovers how to travel at warp speed, think
about how famous you would be? However, the purpose of this image is to remind you
of the infinite possibilities you may find in your future career if you can master
mathematics. In the lower section of the front cover, we can see a number of poly-
shapes, various mathematical aids, such as the calculator, the square, compasses, rule,
and pencil.
Finally, I have chosen a set of meshed gear wheels with the national flag of my
customers incorporated into the centre of the wheel. The connectivity of the meshed
gears conveys the message of international unity, understanding, and cooperation, ‘how
our various countries, are united by our common use of mathematics’
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This book is dedicated to my wife Susan

the love of my life, and to my family.
Thank you for putting up with all the times I have
been working in my office writing this book.
And of course, to you the reader.

Thank you for purchasing this book and
helping me to support my family.
Wishing you all every success in your education.

David Hodgson B.Eng. Honours
Would you like to influence any future revisions of this book? Maybe you would like
some further explanation of some particular subject, or maybe you would like some
other area of mathematics covering? Well if so email Britannia Training, and let us know
your ideas. If we like your suggestion, we will try to include it in any future revision, or
one of the other books the author is in the process of writing.
Should you wish to contact the author David Hodgson with comments or suggestions
please email him at enquiries@britanniatraining.net
Alternatively send him a post to his Facebook page at

https://www.facebook.com/davidhodgson.books
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The range of introductory math books for beginner’s from school to college
cover the following topics. Please check out my Facebook page given below,
or enquire via email to find out when the following books will be published
enquiries@britanniatraining.net
The introductory maths books for beginner’s from school to college
• Book 1: Numbers, Arithmetic, and Fractions an Introduction
• Book 2: Calculator Use an Introduction
• Book 3: Transposition of Formulae an Introduction
• Book 4: Percentages and Ratios an Introduction
• Book 5: Indices, Logarithms and Exponential Functions an Introduction
• Book 6: Algebra, an Introduction
• Book 7: Sequences, Series, and Sets an Introduction
• Book 8: Geometry an Introduction
• Book 9: Area and Volume an Introduction
• Book 10: Trigonometry and Triangles an Introduction
• Book 11: Graphs an Introduction
• Book 12: Complex Numbers an Introduction
• Book 13: Calculus – Differentiation and Integration an Introduction
• Book 14: Statistics and Probability an Introduction
• Book 15: Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal Numbers an Introduction
• Book 16: Matrices an Introduction
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The Legal Bit

Copyright © 2018 Britannia Training Limited
All rights reserved, except as permitted under the existing copyright act of the following sovereign
countries. The United Kingdom, United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland,
Bahamas, and India.
David Hodgson the author and Britannia Training Limited the publisher have asserted their right under
the Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988 to be identified as the author and publisher of this book.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in
a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
This book is Copyright © and protected under UK and international law.
Permission granted to reproduce exercises for personal use only. All work, images, photographs and
artwork are Copyright © 2018 of Britannia Training Ltd unless specified otherwise.
TERMS OF USE
This is a copyrighted work and the publisher Britannia Training Ltd, the author David Hodgson, and the
company’s licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms.
Except as permitted under the current Copyright Act of the previously listed countries and the right to
store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer,
reproduce, modify, create derivatives works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish,
or sublicense the work or any part of it without Britannia Training Ltd.’s prior consent. You may use the
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to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms.
THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” BRITANNIA TRAINING LTD AND IT’S AUTHORS AND LICENSORS
MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF
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Britannia Training Ltd and It’s authors and licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions
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of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause
arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
12
Chapters
Chapter 1 An introduction to algebra ................................................................ 15

Chapter 2 Definition of algebraic terms............................................................. 18
Chapter 3 Collecting algebraic terms ................................................................ 21
Chapter 4 Brackets .......................................................................................... 31
Chapter 5 Factorization of Simple Polynomials .................................................. 39
Chapter 6 Substituting values .......................................................................... 44
Chapter 7 Linear Equations .............................................................................. 59
Chapter 8 Linear Equations containing fractions ................................................ 64
Chapter 9 Linear Equations as Word Problems .................................................. 71
Chapter 10 Algebraic fractions containing powers ............................................. 79
Chapter 11 Inequalities ................................................................................... 83
Chapter 12 Inequality Rules of Addition and Subtraction.................................... 86
Chapter 13 Inequality Rules of Multiplication and Division.................................. 88
Chapter 14 Inequalities with ‘Negative’ numbers ............................................... 89
Chapter 15 Solving Compound Inequalities ....................................................... 91
Chapter 16 Solving Quadratic Inequalities......................................................... 95
Chapter 17 Inequalities involving a Modulus ..................................................... 99
Chapter 18 Polynomial Division ...................................................................... 102
Chapter 19 Polynomial Division Contents Page ................................................ 103
Chapter 20 Polynomial Division Examples ....................................................... 105
Chapter 21 Polynomial Remainder Theorem ................................................... 123
Chapter 22 Polynomial Division using Synthetic Division .................................. 126
Chapter 23 Linear Simultaneous Equations with two unknowns........................ 134
Chapter 24 Linear Simultaneous Equations as Word Problems ......................... 148
Chapter 25 Linear Simultaneous Equations with three unknowns ..................... 149
Chapter 26 Partial Fraction Rules ................................................................... 154
Chapter 27 Partial Fraction Contents Page ...................................................... 156
Chapter 28 Partial Fractions with Linear Factors .............................................. 158
Chapter 29 Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors ............................... 169
Chapter 30 Partial Fractions with Quadratic Factors ......................................... 174
Chapter 31 Functions .................................................................................... 178
Chapter 32 Function Rules ............................................................................. 181
Chapter 33 Range of Functions ...................................................................... 187
Chapter 34 Shifting Functions ........................................................................ 190
Chapter 35 Composite Functions .................................................................... 196
Chapter 36 Inverse Functions ........................................................................ 201
Chapter 37 Graphs of Functions ..................................................................... 203
Chapter 38 Functions as a Sequence .............................................................. 205
Chapter 39 Quadratic Equations an Introduction ............................................. 208
Chapter 40 The Discriminant.......................................................................... 212
Chapter 41 Quadratic Equation Contents Page ................................................ 216
Chapter 42 Factorizing Quadratic Equations .................................................... 221
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Chapter 43
The Factor Theorem .................................................................... 229
Chapter 44
Factorizing Harder Quadratic Equations ......................................... 232
Chapter 45
Completing the Square ................................................................. 238
Chapter Completing the Square in the form (x + p)2 – q ........................... 247
46
Chapter Completing the Square in the form a (x – p)2 – q ......................... 251
47
Chapter What we can find from the form (x + p)2 – q ............................... 254
48
Chapter 49
The Quadratic Formula................................................................. 256
Chapter 50
Solving Quadratic Equations with the Internet ............................... 262
Chapter 51
Solving Quadratic Equations with the Casio FX 991 ........................ 265
Chapter 52
Solving Cubic Equations ............................................................... 268
Chapter 53
Solving Cubic Equations using the Internet .................................... 278
Chapter 54
Solving Cubic Equations using the Casio FX 991 ............................. 279
Chapter 55
Solving Cubic Equations by Graphing ............................................ 280
Chapter 56
Algebra Exercises......................................................................... 281
Solving algebraic terms ................................................................ 285
Substituting values ...................................................................... 289
Factorizing linear expressions ....................................................... 292
Factorizing expressions with powers ............................................. 295
Expanding brackets ..................................................................... 296
Linear equations as word problems .............................................. 299
Simultaneous linear equations ...................................................... 300
Simultaneous equations as word problems .................................... 303
Simultaneous equations with 3 unknowns ..................................... 304
Polynomial Division Exercises ....................................................... 305
Partial Fractions .......................................................................... 306
Function exercises ....................................................................... 307
Composite Functions ................................................................... 312
Inverse Functions ........................................................................ 316
Factoring quadratic equation exercises ......................................... 318
Chapter 57 Answers to Algebra Exercises ....................................................... 320
Chapter 58 Index .......................................................................................... 448
14
An introduction to algebra (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 1 An introduction to algebra
Algebra is a branch of mathematics where we use letters or symbols called ‘variables’

to represent numbers.
For the electrical engineer we can use the letters V, I, and R to represent voltage (V),
electrical current (I), and resistance (R) and write a formula to calculate voltage when
we are given the electric current and resistance e.g.
V=IxR
We can use algebra to find an unknown number e.g. what is the value of x below?
x–5=3
This answer is easy x = 8 because 8 – 5 = 3
Since we didn’t know what x was until we solved the problem we call the letter x a
variable. Variables simply mean we don’t know what the answer is until we solve the
problem
The area of a rectangle can be calculated using the formula:
Area = Length x Width

Length (L)
The formula can be written using variables
as shown below:
Width (W)
Area = L x W
By placing a number in the variable for Length (L) and Width (W) we can calculate the
area of a rectangle.
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Using algebra, we can create ‘number machines’ to work out the input or output to a
given problem.
For example, find the output to the number machine given below.
Input Output
5 x 2
This number machine requires us to multiply 5 by 2 e.g. 5 x 2 = 10

The answer is 10, which we place in the output field as follows:
Input Output
5 x 2 10
Sometimes a letter or ‘variable’ is used to represent a number as shown below:

Find the input to the number machine given below.
Input Output
x –5 9
This number machine requires us to perform subtraction e.g. x – 5 = 9

x is obviously 14, since 14 – 5 = 9
We place 14 in the input field as follows:
Input Output
14 –5 9
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This book is designed to introduce you gently to Algebra; there are lots of examples
throughout the chapters, followed by many exercises at the end of the book.
If any example or exercise seems more advanced than what you are studying in school
or college, remember this book is for the beginner through to the more advanced
student; skip any sections that seem too difficult for you at present, in time you will
come to appreciate they are there for the day you are ready for them.
As previously mentioned, Algebra is the name given to the branch of mathematics where
we use letters or symbols called ‘variables’ to represent some unknown value, and
numbers are called ‘constants’ Any letter or symbol can be used as a variable.
A ‘constant’ however is just a number, and a constant can have any value you can
possibly imagine.
Take for example, the number 5; this could represent 5 volts, 5 apples, 5 pounds, or 5
dollars. However, the big thing about constants is that we are then referring to EXACTLY
5 volts, 5 apples, 5 pounds, or 5 dollars, and not 4.999 volts or 5.111 dollars etc.
Constants do not have to be whole numbers. The value 4.999 and 5.111 above are both
constants, but these constants contain decimal numbers after the decimal point.
When a number has no numbers after the decimal point, we call these ‘whole
numbers’ only zero and positive numbers can be called whole numbers. We can also
refer to a whole number as an ‘integer’. Integers can be a positive number, a negative
number, or even the value zero, but to be a whole number it must be a positive number
or zero, negative integers cannot be called whole numbers.
You may already know about ohm’s law and the power laws. These use P, V, R, and I as
variables to represent power, voltage, resistance, and current respectively.
IMPORTANT NOTE:
When writing algebraic formula such as V = IR what we really mean is V = I times R
we usually do not show the multiplication symbol (x) so whenever you see two or more
variables adjacent (next) to each other, this means they are multiplied together.
Sometimes when x is used as a variable, a period (.) is used to indicate multiplication;

this is to avoid confusion between the variable x and the multiplication sign (x)
For example, x.y would mean ‘x times y’ we can see x x y could be confusing.
17
Definition of algebraic terms (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 2 Definition of algebraic terms
Before we proceed any further in this chapter, it is probably a good idea to clarify some
of the terms you may come across when using Algebra.
A term
A term is an algebraic expression, a term may consist of a single letter or symbol, or a
group of letters, symbols and numbers, which are ‘NOT’ separated by the + or – sign.
Thus, 5x is a term, so is 3zy, so is 5a x 3b, so is, a, b, c, d or pi. Terms may be
formed joined by the multiplication (x) and division (÷) sign.
Expression Equation
3x – 5 3x – 5 = 7
Terms Terms
Simple Expressions
A simple algebraic expression contains ‘one’ term as shown in the examples below.
3yz, or a, or 5a x 2b, or
When an expression contains only one term it is known as a ‘monomial’
Compound Expressions
An algebraic compound expression, contains two or more terms, a compound terms is
also known as a ‘polynomial’
These are all examples of compound expressions or polynomials:
3ab + 5a 7x – y 5x – 3y – 4z 2a – 3b + 4c – 5d
We will look at the definition of polynomials in more detail on the next page.
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Polynomials
Since the term ‘polynomial’ will crop up frequently during your math sessions, we will
now look at what defines a polynomial.
A polynomial is a group of algebraic terms, with a varying number of powers, so for

example:
5x 3 + 4x 2 – 7x + 6 is a polynomial in x of degree 3 because the x3 term makes it

degree 3, and degree 2 because the x2 term makes it degree 2
The degree is the index of the highest powers, in the example above we have a degree
of 3 since the term x3 appears in the expression, and a degree of 2 since the term x2
appears in the expression. The numbers 5, 4, – 7, and 6, are known as the coefficients.
7y 3 + 5y 2 + 9x – 4 is a polynomial in y of degree 3 and 2 respectively.
For an expression to be a polynomial, the index must be a positive integer or whole

number, if the expression contains a fractional power, or a negative power, it is not
considered to be a polynomial.
9x 12 + 4x 5 + 7x 3 – 2x is a polynomial in x of degree 12, 5 and 3 respectively.
The following are NOT polynomials
5x 3 + 4x 2 + – 7x + 6 is NOT a polynomial, this is because is another way

of writing x 1/2
i.e. a fractional power.
5x -3 + 4x2 – 7x + 6 is NOT a polynomial, because the index in x -3 is negative.
5x 3 + – 7x + 6 is NOT a polynomial, because the index in x 2 is negative.
Remember is another way of writing 4x – 2
If you don’t understand why this is so, you need to read my book Indices, Logarithms
and Exponential Functions an Introduction.
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Binomials and Trinomials
When an expression has two terms, it is known as a binomial
Thus 5x + 6y is a binomial
Thus 5x 3 + 6y is also a binomial
When an expression has three terms, it is known as a trinomial
Thus 7a + b – 8c is a trinomial
Thus 7a 5 + b – 8c is also a trinomial
20
Collecting algebraic terms (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 3 Collecting algebraic terms
Before we proceed with this chapter any further, there is an easy way for you to check
the answers to your algebra problems and that is to use the internet, if you have access
to it. Obviously, you cannot use the internet in an exam, but you can use it to check the
answers to your homework problems, revision, and practise exercises.
Just open an internet browser and type into the search field Algebra Calculator there
are a quite a few to choose from. There is no point in recommending any specific
calculator in this book, since by the time you read this, any web page I suggest could
have changed.
My Facebook page at https://www.facebook.com/davidhodgson.books will list all the

best online calculators I have found whilst writing this book, and will be up to date.
Let’s use the internet to find the answer to example (1) which you will find on page 23
Simplify 5a x 3b
One of the internet calculators that I like appears as shown below. You cannot enter ‘x’
as the multiplication symbol, as the calculator will take this to be a variable letter ‘x’
then the answer would appear as 15abx which would be the wrong answer.
Instead, use the ‘Asterisk’ key (*) sometimes referred to as the ‘Star’ key as the
multiplication symbol. Just type into the entry field 5a*3b then click on the ‘Calculate it’
button. Note the algebra calculator will display the asterisk as a period (.) dot symbol.
Algebra Calculator
What do you want to calculate?
5a.3b CALCULATE IT!
Simplify Evaluate
5a(3)b You will find this is the same answer as

= 15ab example (1) on page 23
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Let’s use the internet to find the answer to example (5) which you will find on page 25
Simplify 5x + 3x
Just type into the entry field 5x+3x then click on the ‘Calculate it’ button.
Algebra Calculator
5x + 3 x CALCULATE IT!
Simplify Evaluate
5x + 3 x You will find this is the same answer as

= 8x example (5) on page 25
Use the internet to find the answer to example (13) which you will find on page 26
Simplify 5a2 + 4b2 – 3a2 + 6b2
Use the caret key ‘^’ to raise the variables to a square power, then use the
keyboard right arrow key to position the cursor for the next entry term, enter
the expression as follows: 5a^2→ + 4b^2 – 3a^2 + 6b^2
Algebra Calculator
5a2+4b2–3a2+6b2 CALCULATE IT!
Simplify Evaluate
= 2a2 + 10b2 You will find this is the same answer as

example (13) on page 26
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There are a number of rules you need to know to be able to work with algebraic terms;
fortunately, all the rules that apply in arithmetic also apply in algebra we will look at
these now.
Two numbers with ‘like signs’ multiplied or divided together give a

positive result.
Example (1) Simplify 5a x 3b

Notice that although we have a positive
Answer: 15ab result we do not show the answer as +15ab
In example (1) both 5a and 3b are positive variables, so they are said to be of like
signs, but they are NOT of like terms
Example (2) Simplify 5a x 3a
Answer: 15a2
In example (2) both 5a and 3a are positive variables, so they are said to be of like
signs, and they both contain only terms of ‘a’ so they are said to be of like terms
Two numbers or variables with ‘unlike signs’ multiplied or divided

together give a negative result.
Example (3) Simplify 5a x (– 3b)

Notice that when we have a negative result
Answer: –15ab we always show the answer with a minus sign
e.g. – 15ab
Example (4) Simplify 5x + 3x + 2x
Answer: 10x
In example (4) 5x, 3x and 2x are all like terms
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The following are like terms: 3a – 2a 5xy + 6xy 7a2b – 5a2b 8z + 9z
The following are NOT like terms: 3a – 2b 5xy + 6xz 7a2b – 5ab2
The rules we looked at on the previous page can be summarised as follows:
Addition a + (b + c) = a + b + c
Addition a+b=b+a
Multiplication ab = ba this means a x b = b x a
Multiplication a(b + c) = ab + ac the result means a x b plus a x c
Multiplication (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
Division
When performing maths with algebra it is important to understand the terms we are
working with, let’s look at some terms below.
Convention Meaning
2x 2 multiplied by x or 2 times x
3x2 3 times x squared
–5x3 minus 5 times x cubed
7xy 7 times x times y
or x/y or x ÷ y alternative ways of writing x ÷ y
or x/(5y) or x ÷ (5y) x divided by the product or result of

5 times y
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Example (5) Simplify 5x + 3x

We can write the above expression as: (5 + 3)x Which becomes: 8x
In example (5) the numbers 5 and 3 are called the coefficients of the algebraic
term x, both 5x and 3x are ‘like terms’
We perform the maths using the rules of arithmetic you should be familiar with, the
numbers 5 + 3 add to produce the number 8, since both coefficients are associated
with the same algebraic term x, then the answer is 8x
Note: Algebraic ADDITION and or SUBTRACTION can

ONLY be performed on LIKE TERMS.
We CANNOT perform algebraic ADDITION and or
SUBTRACTION on UNLIKE TERMS.
However, we CAN perform algebraic MULTIPLICATION
and or DIVISION on LIKE and UNLIKE Terms.
Example (6) Simplify 5y x 3y
Which becomes: (5 x 3) + (y x y) = 15y2
In example (6) 5 x 3 multiply to produce 15, the y terms multiply to produce y2
Example (7) Simplify 7x + 2x + 5x
Which becomes: (7 + 2 + 5)x = 14x
In example (7) the terms are ‘all like terms’ i.e. terms of x, the numbers add to
produce the number 14, the x term produces 14x
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Example (8) Simplify 5x – 3x
Which becomes: (5 – 3)x = 2x
In example (8) the terms are ‘all like terms’ i.e. terms of x, the numbers 5 – 3
produce the number 2, the x term produces 2x
We will continue with some examples, which should enable you to understand the above
rules.
Example (9) Simplify 5a2 + 3a2 Note: If we multiplied these terms

rather than add them, we would find
Which becomes: (5 + 3)a2 = 8a2 5a2 x 3a2 = 15a4
Example (10) Simplify 5x – 3x – 2x
Which becomes: (5 – 3 – 2)x = 0x = 0
Example (11) Simplify –7x – 3x – 2x
Which becomes: (–7 – 3 – 2)x = –12x
Example (12) Simplify y – 3y
Which becomes: (1 – 3)y = –2y
Example (13) Simplify 5a2 + 4b2 – 3a2 + 6b2
Which becomes: (5 – 3)a2 + (4 + 6)b2
Answer = 2a2 + 10b2
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Example (14) Simplify 6a + 5b + 3c
Answer: 6a + 5b + 3c
Only ‘like terms’ can be added or subtracted, in example (14) 6a + 5b + 3c is an

expression with three different or ‘unlike terms’, as such the expression cannot be
simplified any further.
Let’s look at another expression, which cannot be simplified any further.

Note: When we see a term such
Example (15) Simplify 3ab2 + 4a2b + 5a2b2 as 3ab2 this means 3 times ‘a’
times ‘b’ squared, it does NOT
Answer: 3ab2 + 4a2b + 5a2b2 mean 3 times (ab) squared.
Each of the three terms in example (15) are ‘unlike terms’, they may seem similar
because they all contain the variables a and b, but ab2 is not the same as a2b, nor are
these two terms the same as a2b2 as a result we cannot simplify this example any
further.
In the previous example, we encountered terms with more than one letter such as 3ab2
We will find that when terms contain more than one letter, we can only add or subtract
terms that are exactly alike, let’s look at some examples below.
Example (16) Simplify 3ab + 4ab + 5mn + 6mn
Let’s underline the like terms, in colour these are the terms that can add together.
3ab + 4ab + 5mn + 6mn = 7ab + 11mn
We can see from the above result the ‘ab’ terms underlined in blue can be added
together, as can the ‘mn’ terms underlined in red, but we cannot mix them. We can mix
or combine terms when we are multiplying or dividing terms, but not when we are
performing addition or subtraction, let’s look at another example.
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Example (17) Simplify 3ab + 4ab + 5mn – 2ab + 6mn + 5ab – 3mn
Let’s underline the like terms, as before in colour.
3ab + 4ab + 5mn – 2ab + 6mn + 5ab – 3mn = 10ab + 8 mn
In many branches of maths, you will use algebra as the underlying principle of whatever
you are doing, I always found it easier to get a highlighter pen and underline all the like
terms in colour, using a different colour for each like term. In this way, I found it easier
to see which like terms were present and then perform the math operations on them.
Example (18) Simplify 4a x 5b
Which becomes 4 x 5 x a x b =20ab
Note: if we had been asked to simplify 4a + 5b, we could ‘not’ have simplified the
expression any further, since 4a and 5b are both ‘unlike terms’, and we cannot add
‘unlike terms’, note however, we CAN multiply ‘unlike terms’ together to get the
result 20ab
Example (19) Simplify axa
Which becomes: a2
Example (20) Simplify axaxa
Which becomes: a3
Example (21) Simplify 2a x 3a x 5a
Which becomes 2 x 3 x 5 x a x a x a =30a3
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Example (22) Simplify 5a2b x 3ab3
5a2b x 3ab3 = 5 x a x a x b x 3 x a x b x b x b =15a3b4
In the example above, 5 multiplied by 3 produces 15. In the expanded expression on

the right-hand side of the equals sign we have 3 letter a’s all multiplied with each other,
which produces a3, and we have 4 letter b’s again all multiplied with each other, which
produces b4
Example (23) Simplify b x (–b)
Which becomes b x (–b) = –b2

Note in example (23) how two unlike signs i.e. a positive sign (+) multiplied by a
negative sign (–) result in a negative value.
If you are ever unsure as to the final polarity of a calculation, use your Casio FX
calculator to help you, try this now, and enter the following keys.
1 1 –1
Example (24) Simplify b2 x (–b)
Which becomes b x b x (–b) = –b3
In the above example bxb results in b2, this is now multiplied by (–b) which results
in –b3
Example (25) Simplify 3ab x (–2b2)
Which becomes 3 x a x b x (–2) x b x b = –6ab3
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When we divide algebraic expressions, we can often cancel between the numerator and
denominator terms, to get a simpler solution as shown below.
Example (26) Simplify which becomes: m
Example (27) Simplify which becomes: =
Example (28) Simplify
Which becomes
Which becomes
Example (30) Simplify 3 x 2ab
Which becomes 3 x 2 x ab = 6ab
Example (31) Simplify 3 x f x 5gh
Which becomes 3 x 5 x f x g x h = 15fgh
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Brackets (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 4 Brackets
Before we go any further, it is important to know why we use brackets and the different
types of brackets that can occur in mathematics.
These symbols ( ) are really called ‘parentheses’, but since just about everyone, and
most math books describe them as brackets, I have decided to adopt this policy; so long
as you know they are really called parentheses, then it does not matter if we call them
brackets.
These symbols are known as square brackets [ ]
These symbols are known as braces { }
Brackets are often used as a convenient way to group algebraic terms together, when
we multiply terms outside brackets with terms inside brackets we are often left with a
group of ‘like’ terms, which we can then simplify; let’s take a look at some examples
using brackets now.
Example (32) Simplify 5(y + z)
When we have to perform multiplication with brackets, we first multiply the term outside
the brackets, in this case the number 5, with the first term inside the brackets, in this
case the letter y as follows:
5(y + z) from this we obtain 5 x y
We now multiply the number 5 with the second letter inside the brackets i.e. z
5(y + z) from this we obtain 5 x z
We now put the two operations together as follows:
5(y + z) = 5 x y + 5 x z = 5y + 5z
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Chapter 4 Brackets
Example (33) Simplify 2(xy) x 3(5y)
Which becomes: 2 x 3 x 5 x xy x y = 30xy2
Example (34) Simplify 3(2y + 5z)
Which becomes: 3 x 2y + 3 x 5z = 6y + 15z
Example (35) Simplify 2(y – 5y)
Which becomes: 2 x y – 2 x 5y = 2y – 10y
Answer: –8y
Example (36) Simplify 2(a – 5b)
Which becomes: 2 x a + 2 x (–5b) = 2a – 10b
The answer to example (36) contains two ‘unlike terms’ so we cannot simplify any
further
Example (37) Simplify – (y + z)
Which becomes: –y – z
In example (37) both terms inside the brackets are positive values. When the negative
sign outside the brackets multiplies with the positive y sign, we now have two ‘unlike
signs’ multiplied together, and unlike signs multiplied together always result in a
negative answer. The same operation occurs when the negative sign outside the
brackets multiples with the positive z sign, again this results in a negative answer.
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Chapter 4 Brackets
Example (38) Simplify – (y – z)
Which becomes: –y + z
In example (38), the y term inside the brackets is a positive value, whilst the z term
inside the brackets is a negative value. When the negative sign outside the brackets
multiplies with the positive y sign, we now have two ‘unlike signs’ multiplied
together, and ‘unlike signs’ multiplied together always result in a negative answer.
However, when the negative sign outside the brackets multiplies with the –z term which
carries a negative sign, we now have two ‘like signs’ multiplying together, resulting in
a positive value i.e. +z
Example (39) Simplify –3(2y – 6z)
Which becomes: (–3) x 2y + (–3) x (–6z) = –6y + 18z
In example (39) the (–3) x 2y terms results in –6y since the negative (–3) sign
multiplied by a positive 2y sign results in a negative answer.
The negative (–3) sign multiplied by a negative – 6z sign results in a positive answer
i.e. 18z since two ‘like signs’ multiplied together always result in a positive answer.
Let’s try some more examples and see if we can consolidate this principle for you.
Example (40) Simplify (3y + 5z) – (4y + 7z)
Which becomes: 3y + 5z – 4y – 7z = – y – 2z
Notice in example (40) how the negative sign between the two brackets causes the
+ 7z term to change to – 7z. Remember two ‘unlike signs’ produce a negative
result.
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Multiplying Brackets (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 4 Multiplying Brackets
Example (41) Simplify 2(5y + 3z) – (y – 4z)
Solution: Remember: You can use the Internet

2 x 5y = 10y Algebra Calculator you were
2 x 3z = 6z introduced to on page 21-22 to check
the answer to any algebra calculation
– x y = –y
involving brackets
– x –4z = 4z
Which becomes: 10y + 6z – y + 4z = 9y + 10z
Notice in example (41) how the negative sign between the two brackets causes the
– 4z term to change to + 4z. Remember two ‘like signs’ produce a positive result.
Example (42) Simplify 3(2y + 5z) – 2(y – (–4z))
Which becomes: 6y + 15z – 2y – 8z = 4y + 7z
In example (42) we can see the result of three negative signs acting on the – 2 term
between the two brackets and the –4z term within the second bracket. The following
explains what has happened to cause this result.
The – 2 term multiplied by the –4z results in + 8z, however the minus sign
immediately before the (–4z) term acts on the + 8z result changing it from a positive
value to a negative value. You have to be careful when a number of signs occur in an
expression or equation; if you miss changing the polarity of a sign, you will end up with
a result of the opposite polarity.
Often in maths, a result is used as part of a multi-step process to obtain some final
answer. If you get the sign wrong in your initial answer or part of the way through your
workings, it can result in the final answer being completely wrong.
In addition, when working with brackets, you often need to multiply out terms contained
within brackets; this often causes confusion with students so we will look at how to
perform this manipulation on the next page.
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Example (43) Simplify (a + 3b) x (2a + 5b)

To multiply out algebraic terms within two brackets requires five operations, the first
four multiplying out the terms; the fifth operation involves summing the terms.
Simplify (a + 3b) x (2a + 5b)
Step 1 We multiply the first term in the left-hand bracket by the first term in the right-
hand bracket as shown by the Red arc giving a x 2a = 2a2
Step 2 We multiply the first term in the left-hand bracket by the second term in the
right-hand bracket as shown by the Green arc giving a x 5b = 5ab
Step 3 We multiply the second term in the left-hand bracket by the first term in the
right-hand bracket as shown by the Blue arc giving 3b x 2a = 6ab
Step 4 We multiply the second term in the left-hand bracket by the second term in the
right-hand bracket as shown by the Pink arc giving 3b x 5b = 15b2
Step 5 We sum the result of the previous four steps as follows:
2a2 + 5ab + 6ab + 15b2 = 2a2 + 11ab + 15b2
We will perform some more exercises in multiplying out algebraic terms contained within
brackets on the next page.
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Example (44) Simplify (a + 3) x (a + 5)

Following on from the process explained on the previous page we will perform this
example using the five steps previously shown.
Simplify (a + 3) x (a + 5)
hand bracket as shown by the Red arc giving a x a = a2
right-hand bracket as shown by the Green arc giving a x 5 = 5a
right-hand bracket as shown by the Blue arc giving 3 x a = 3a
Step 4 We multiply the second term in the left-hand bracket by the second term in the
right-hand bracket as shown by the Pink arc giving 3 x 5 = 15
Step 5 We sum the result of the previous four steps as follows:
a2 + 5a + 3a + 15 = a2 + 8a + 15
This form of equation is known as a ‘quadratic equation’ quadratic equations form a
very important branch of Mathematics; we will look at quadratic equations in more detail
in chapters 39 to 51.
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Chapter 4 Multiplying Three Brackets
When we have three brackets to multiply, we use the same method as previously shown
with two brackets. Therefore, we first multiply two brackets together to obtain a ‘First
Result’ and then multiply the first result by the third bracket as shown below.
Example (45) Simplify (a + 3) x (2a + 7) x (a – 2)

Multiplying out the first two brackets gives the result below.
(a + 3) x (2a + 7) = a x 2a + a x 7 + 3 x 2a + 3 x 7
Which becomes: 2a2 + 7a + 6a + 21
Which becomes: 2a2 + 13a + 21 First Result
We now multiply the first term in the third bracket e.g. (a) with the above First Result
as shown below.
(a) x (2a2 + 13a + 21)
Which becomes: (a x 2a2) + (a x 13a) + (a x 21)
Which becomes: 2a3 + 13a2 + 21a
We now multiply the second term in the third bracket e.g. (–2) with the above First
Result as shown below.
(–2) x (2a2 + 13a + 21)
Which becomes: (–2 x 2a2) + (–2 x 13a) + (–2 x 21)
Which becomes: –4a2 – 26a – 42
We now combine the result of both of the above calculations as follows.
2a3 + 13a2 – 4a2 + 21a – 26a – 42
(a + 3) x (2a + 7) x (a – 2) = 2a3 + 9a2 – 5a – 42
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Multiplying Three Brackets (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 4 Multiplying Three Brackets
Example (46) Simplify (a – 3) x (a + 2) x (2a – 1)

Multiplying out the first two brackets gives the result below.
(a – 3) x (a + 2) = a x a + a x 2 + (–3) x a + (–3) x 2
Which becomes: a2 + 2a + (–3a) + (–6)
Which becomes: a2 – a – 6 First Result
We now multiply the first term in the third bracket e.g. (2a) with the above First
(2a) x (a2 – a – 6)
Which becomes: 2a x a2 + 2a x (– a) + 2a x (– 6)
Which becomes: 2a3 – 2a2 – 12a
We now multiply the second term in the third bracket e.g. (–1) with the above First
(– 1) x (a2 – a – 6)
Which becomes: (– 1 x a2) + (– 1 x – a) + (– 1 x – 6)
Which becomes: –a2 + a + 6
Notice how (– 1 x – a) has produced plus (a) and (– 1 x – 6) produced plus (6)
We now combine the result of both of the above calculations as follows.
2a3 – 2a2 – a2 – 12a + a + 6
(a – 3) x (a + 2) x (2a – 1) = 2a3 – 3a2 – 11a + 6
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Factorization of Simple Polynomials (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 5 Factorization of Simple Polynomials
Note:
For factorization and solving polynomials with cubic (x 3) expressions see chapter 52.
When an algebraic expression contains two or more terms and those terms contain a
common variable or as it is called a ‘common factor’, then that factor can be shown
outside of a bracket, this process is called factorization. This is just the reverse process
of simplifying the previous bracket examples, the following example will show this more
clearly.
Example (47) Factorize ab + ac which becomes: a(b + c)
In the above example, the ‘a’ term is common to both terms. We take the ‘a’ term
outside the brackets, and placed the remaining algebraic terms inside the brackets, this
is just a reversal of the examples we have covered in multiplying out brackets let’s look
at another example.
Example (48) Factorize xy + 2yz which becomes: y(x + 2z)
The letter y is common to both terms, so we take y outside the brackets, and place the
remaining terms inside the brackets.
Example (49) Factorize 3x + 3y which becomes: 3(x + y)
In example (49) the number 3 is the common factor.
Example (50) Factorize 4 x 2x + 4 x 3y which becomes: 4(2x + 3y)
In example (50) the number 4 is the common factor.
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Example (51) Factorize 6a – 9

To factorize example (51) we first need to find some value to write outside the brackets
which when multiplied by ‘some value inside the brackets’ will give the answer 6 and 9,
in this example the number to write outside the brackets will be the number 3.
We will start by placing the number 3 outside the brackets as shown below.
3( )
Now we need a number to place in the first position inside the brackets which when
multiplied by 3 will give the answer 6, this number is obviously 2 as follows.
3(2 )
3 x 2 will give us 6, but we need to produce a result of 6a, so we will make the number
inside the bracket 2a as follows.
3(2a )
3 x 2a will result in 6a, so we have obtained our first term inside the brackets, we now
need a number to go in the second position in the brackets which when multiplied by 3
will give the answer –9; obviously this number must be –3, so we will place –3 inside
the brackets as shown.
3(2a – 3)
Answer 6a – 9 factorizes to 3(2a – 3)
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Sometimes we are required to factorize terms with more than one common factor, we
will look at such an instance in example (52).
Example (52) Factorize 5ab – 5bc
We can see from the above example the common factors are the number 5 and the
letter b, since these appear in both terms, we will therefore take these terms outside
the brackets as follows:
5b( )
Now we need a letter to place in the first position inside the brackets which when
multiplied by 5b will give the answer 5ab, this letter is obviously ‘a’ which we place as
follows.
5b(a )
5b x a will give us 5ab.
We now need a letter to go in the second position inside the brackets which when
multiplied by 5b will give the answer –5bc; this letter is obviously ‘c’, but we need a
negative answer i.e. –5bc so we will place – c inside the brackets as shown.
5b(a – c)
Answer 5ab – 5bc factorizes to 5b(a – c)
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Example (53) Factorize 9ab – 3ac – 6ad
In the example above, we can see the common factor is the letter ‘a’ since ‘a’ appears
in all three terms, but there is no clear common factor number. When you get problems
like this to solve, you have to experiment a little using trial and error; you need to find a
single number termed a ‘factor’ that can be divided exactly into all of the above three
numbers, i.e. 9, 3 and 6. The number 3 will fulfil this requirement.
We then write the number 3 outside the brackets along with the letter ‘a’ we obtain the
following:
3a( )
Now we need to find a number and letter to place in the first position inside the brackets
which when multiplied by 3a will give the answer 9ab, this is obviously 3b as follows.
3a(3b )
3a x 3b will give us 9ab. We now need a letter to go in the second position inside the
brackets which when multiplied by 3a will give the answer –3ac; obviously this letter
must be c, but we need a negative answer i.e. –3ac so we will place – c inside the
brackets as shown.
3a(3b – c )
Finally, we need a number and letter to place in the third position inside the brackets,
which when multiplied by 3a will result in – 6ad. We find this to be – 2d.
Answer 9ab – 3ac – 6ad factorizes to 3a(3b – c – 2d)
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Example (54) Factorize 10ab + 6a2b + 14ab2
In example (54) there is ‘No’ common factor that is immediately apparent to the reader,
to factorize such expressions we need to use a new method which we will look at in
Chapter 42, under the title ‘Factorization of Quadratic Equations’ but before we move on
here is the answer to example (54).
In the example above, we can see the common factor letters are the letters ‘a’ and ‘b’,
since they appear in all three terms; however, there is no clear common factor number.
As in the previous example, when you get problems like this to solve, you have to
experiment a little using trial and error; you need to find a number termed a ‘factor’
which can be divided exactly into all the above three numbers, i.e. 10, 6 and 14. The
number 2 will fulfil this requirement.
We find that if we use the number 2ab outside the brackets along with the number 5 in
the first position inside the brackets we obtain the following:
2ab(5 )
2ab x 5 = 10ab, this equates to the first term in the expression.
We now need a number and letter to place in the second position inside the brackets
which when multiplied with the 2ab term outside the brackets will result in 6a2b
We find the second term inside the brackets must be 3a.
2ab x 3a = 6a2b this now make the brackets 2ab(5 + 3a )
We now need a number and letter to place in the third position inside the brackets
which when multiplied with the 2ab term outside the brackets will result in 14ab2
We find the third term inside the brackets must be 7b giving 2ab(5 + 3a + 7b)
Answer 10ab + 6a2b + 14ab2 factorizes to 2ab(5 + 3a + 7b)
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Substituting values (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 6 Substituting values
Sometimes you will be asked to find the value of an expression, or equation when the
variables for example, a, b, c, x, y, or z etc. are given values, math books generally
ask you to ‘evaluate’ such an expression when the variables are given a value. We will
look at how to solve these type of problems over the following pages. However, first I
will show you how to obtain the answer to these problems using the internet Algebra
Calculator I introduced you to on pages 21-22, then you can always check your math
answers are correct.
Let’s use the internet to find the answer to example (55) which you will find worked out
using the substitution method as example 56 on the next page.
Check out my Facebook page below, where I will list all the best internet solvers I have
found whilst writing this ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’
Example (55) If a + b = c calculate the value of c when a = 5 and b = 6
We need to enter the equation into the internet algebra calculator as follows:
a+b@a=5,b=6 Then press the calculate button

Algebra Calculator
a+b@a=5,b=6 CALCULATE IT!
Simplify Evaluate
a + b @ a = 5; b = 6
5+6
=5+6
You will find this is the same answer as the
= 11 worked example on the next page
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Example (56) If a + b = c calculate the value of c when a = 5 and b = 6
We replace the variables a, and b with the values, a = 5 and b = 6 respectively giving
5+6=c Therefore c = 11
That was easy, let’s look at another example.
Example (57) If ab = c calculate the value of c when a = 5 and b = 6
Again, we replace the variables a, and b with the values, a = 5 and b = 6 respectively.
However, remember what we have previously learnt; when we see variables adjacent to
each other, it means they are multiplied together; so, we have:
5x6=c Therefore c = 30
See the next page; we will check this answer using the internet Algebra Calculator
Example (58) If 2a + b = c calculate the value of c when a = 5 and b = 6
OK this looks a little different, but if we apply the rules we have learnt, things shouldn’t
be too difficult.
2a means 2 x a So let’s put in the numbers as before, and we get:
2x5+6=c Therefore c = 16
That wasn’t too hard was it?
See the next page, we will check this answer using the internet Algebra Calculator
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We will check the answer to examples (57) and (58) shown on the previous page using
the internet Algebra Calculator
Example (57) If ab = c calculate the value of c when a = 5 and b = 6

We need to enter the equation into the internet algebra calculator as follows:
ab@a=5,b=6 Then press the calculate button
Algebra Calculator
ab@a=5,b=6 CALCULATE IT!
Simplify Evaluate
ab @ a = 5; b = 6
(5)(6) You will find this is the same answer as the
= 30 worked example on the previous page
Example (58) If 2a + b = c calculate the value of c when a = 5 and b = 6
Algebra Calculator
2a+b@a=5,b=6 CALCULATE IT!
Simplify Evaluate
2ab @ a = 5; b = 6
(2)(5)+6 You will find this is the same answer as the
= 16 worked example on the previous page
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Example (59) If 2ab + 3bc = d calculate the value of d:

when a = 4, b = 5, c = 6
Answer: Just substitute the numbers as before, not forgetting 2ab means
2 x a x b and 3bc means 3 x b x c
We have:
2ab + 3bc
2x4x5+3x5x6 =d Therefore d = 130
Example (60) Evaluate 3a + 4b + 5c when a = 6, b = 7, c = 8
We replace the variables a, b, and c with the values, 6, 7, and 8 respectively as follows
We replace the letter We replace the letter We replace the letter

‘a’ with the number 6 ‘b’ with the number 7 ‘c’ with the number 8
3a + 4b + 5c = (3 x 6) + (4 x 7) + (5 x 8)
3a + 4b + 5c = 18 + 28 + 40
3a + 4b + 5c = 86
Example (61) Evaluate 2a + 3b – 5c when a = 7, b = 4, c = 3
2a + 3b – 5c = (2 x 7) + (3 x 4) – (5 x 3)
2a + 3b – 5c = 14 + 12 – 15 = 11
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Example (62) Evaluate 3q + 7r – 8s when q = 2, r = 7, s = – 9
3q + 7r – 8s = (3 x 2) + (7 x 7) – (8 x (– 9))
In the line above (8 x (– 9)) results in the answer – 72
3q + 7r – 8s = (6) + (49) – (– 72)
In the line above – (– 72) results in the answer + 72 giving:
3q + 7r – 8s = (6) + (49) + (72)
3q + 7r – 8s = 127
In example (62) above, we have two minus signs – (8 x (– 9)) operating on each
other, and two ‘like signs’ always result in a positive value, which changes – 72, into
+ 72
Let’s look at a few more examples; some the following examples do not represent any
specific formulae, but are included just to give you some understanding of how variables
can be substituted with numerical values.
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In mathematics, we regularly use algebra as a method to shorten formulae so they are

quicker and easier to write.
Imagine writing the ‘Instantaneous Voltage induced in a coil rotating with constant
angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field with a phase shift’
That is a lot of text!
Now, it’s a lot easier to write it as: E = VMAXSin(2πft±Φ)
Or more commonly: E = VMAXSin(ωt±Φ)
Where E = Instantaneous voltage in Volts (V)

VMAX = Peak value of the fundamental waveform in Volts (V)
π = Pi
ω = 2πf
f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
t = time in seconds (s)
Φ = Phase angle in degrees
Using algebra makes rearranging formula a lot easier.
Hang on! What do those symbols mean? E = VMAXSin(ωt±Φ)
Well, the symbol ω (represents the lower-case Greek symbol omega) and Φ (represents
the lower-case Greek symbol phi) these are two examples of Greek letters we often
come across in electrical engineering. We normally use English letters, such as V and I
to represent quantities, V for voltage and I for electrical current.
However, at some point engineers and mathematicians ran out of letters and started to
use the Greek alphabet. You may already know pi (π) and theta (θ). Amongst the other
symbols you will eventually come across are Phi (Φ), Rho (ρ), lower case Omega (ω),
Epsilon (ε), Eta (η), Mu (μ) and capital Omega (Ω)
Just remember, these Greek letters are simply representing variables, into which
numbers will be placed.
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We can use algebra to check we have correctly transposed formulae; in my book

‘Transposition of Formulae an Introduction’ from my ‘introductory maths for
beginner’s series’ we transposed several different formulae, it is important that the
student, knows the transposition they have performed is correct. One way to check the
transposition is correct is to assign numbers to the variables (letters or symbols) and
work out the value of the transposed formula.
When the formula is worked out with the assigned values and the answer comes to the
same value as a known variable, then we know we have correctly transposed the
formula, let’s perform some examples below to make this clearer.
Example (63)
In my book ‘Transposition of Formulae’ we found the formula: S x Ns = Ns – NR
In this formula S is the Slip of an AC
Could be transposed to NR = Ns – (S x Ns) Induction motor, and must always
be less than one
How do we know this transposition was correct? We will assign small values to each of
the variables, in the transposed formulae and work out the result as shown below.
In this example we will start with the transposed formula since we have a single variable
being equal to the other variables e.g. NR = Ns – (S x Ns)
We will let S = 0.4 and NS = 10

Substituting these values into the formulae:
NR = Ns – (S x Ns)
We obtain NR = 10 – (0.4 x 10)
Performing the substitution, we find NR = 6
We will now substitute the found value for NR into the original equation:
S x Ns = Ns – NR
0.4 x 10 = 10 – 6 Since the left-hand side of the equation results in the

same value as the right-hand side of the equation we
We obtain the answer 4 = 4 know our transposition was correct, 4 equals 4
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Example (64)
In my book ‘Transposition of Formulae’ we found the formula:
Could be transposed to we will use algebra to prove this transposition
We will let y = 10 and z = 2 and substitute these values into the formulae below.
Note: we could use any value we want for y and z, but 10 and 2 are easy numbers to
use.
becomes therefore w equals 400
Now we will put the above found value for w into the transposed formula as follows:
We originally decided to let z = 2, the transposed formula agrees that z = 2 this

proves the transposition was performed correctly.
Example (65)
This can be transposed to the form
We will let R1 = 10 and R2 = 100 therefore
We now know the value for Gain = 11
The transposed formulae becomes
We originally let R1 = 10, this transposed formula with the values inserted show
R1 = 10 we therefore know we have correctly transposed this formulae.
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Example (66)
Could be transposed to we will prove this transposition is true.
We will let a = 4, b = , c = 2, and d =
We have used the square root notation 4√2 for b, such notation is called an ‘irrational
number’ since as a decimal number this would be 5.656854249, and d, which is a
‘surd’, approximates to 2.828427125. Even if we used these long decimal place
numbers, we would still introduce errors in our calculations, using irrational numbers
and surds we are using the ‘exact’ value for b and d.
Now placing these values in the original formula, we find:
so, this is our starting point.
Now placing these values in the transposed formula as follows.
This confirms the transposition is true.
Note: the formula can also be shown as
We will prove this on the next page.
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Example (67)
On the previous page, we stated the formula
Can be shown as
Let’s prove this:
First, we will resolve the fraction this can be shown as
And a2 can be shown as
So, inside the square root symbol we have
Inverted
Using the fraction invert and multiply rule we obtain
Replacing the square root symbol, we end up with
The transposition is proved, it is as simple as that.
If you find you are struggling to enter these values, and those examples that follow into
your calculator consider purchasing my book ‘Calculator Use an Introduction’ part of
my introductory math series from school to college. In that book I explain to the student
how to enter such calculations into a calculator step-by-step, similar to the example on
page 56 of this book.
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Example (68)
Could be transposed to the form
To prove this transposition was performed correctly we will let k = 2, L1 = 3 and

L2 = 4 and calculate the value of M based on these values
The value for M approximates to 6.92820323, but to maintain accuracy in this example
we will use the value for M as using this form we are using an ‘exact’ value for M
We will now substitute these values into the transposed formulae
If we have performed our transposition correctly we should find the value for L1 = 3
Therefore
Substituting the values for M, k, and L2 we find
Since we originally decided to let L1 = 3, and the transposition has resulted in the same
value we can be confident our transposition was correct.
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Example (69)
can be transposed to the form
We will prove this transposition; we will assign the following values to the variables.
Let the:
Span of the cable S = 30 metres
Length of the cable L = 30.022222 metres
Substituting these values into the original formula, we obtain:

D = 0.4999975
which approximates
to 0.5
Now we know the Sag (D) is 0.5 m, we will substitute this into the transposed formula:
Since we choose to let the length of the cable L = 30.02222 metres, and by calculating
the value of L in the transposed formulae we have obtained the same value for L, this
confirms the transposition is correct.
Example (70)
simplified to
So, let’s prove it, if we let z = 5 and substitute 5 into the original expression we obtain:
(Continued on the next page)
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Example (70 Continued from the previous page)
Substituting 5 into the simplified expression should give the same answer, let’s try it.
We can see both answers are the same

indicating we have correctly simplified the
expression.
Example (71)
In my book ‘Transposition of Formulae’ we found the formula
Transposes to
We will prove this by assigning small values to each variable as follows, we will let:
T0 = 2
v=3
c=4
Using these values let’s see what T works out to be:
Since this is a complicated formula, we will use our Casio FX calculator in Math IO mode
to calculate and prove this value.
To place your Casio FX in MATH mode, enter the following keys: 11
Enter 2 1 3 4 1 2 3.023715
Let’s use the calculator memory to store this answer, whilst the answer is still on the
display press the display shows Ans A

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Our solution to the transposition was:
We will put the assigned values into this formula, using 3.0237157… for T
See the next page for

As follows: guidance in entering these
values into your calculator
When we work out the formula at the bottom of the previous page, we find
v = 2.999999 (very close to 3) we know our transposition was correct.
Now let me show you how to use your Casio FX calculator to work more accurately.
We will use the calculators built in fifteen-digit precision memory, to calculate the value
of ‘v’ precisely. Note you can only perform the next step if you saved the value from the
previous page into your calculator A memory key.
Enter the following keys: Note when recalling the value stored in A, you don’t need to
press the red coloured ALPHA key first.
1 2 4 3
Note: If we ‘did not’ use the calculators built in fifteen-digit precision accuracy to store
the result of ‘T’ and instead just entered 3.023715 as shown previously we would find
the answer for ‘v’ would be = 2.999999395
This is still very close to 3.0 but this example shows how inaccuracies can creep into a
calculation involving multiple-steps, if we do not use values to a sufficient number of
decimal places.
Generally, if we work to at least five significant figures after the decimal point, then we
maintain a good level of accuracy throughout the calculation.
Note I state ‘five significant figures after the decimal point’

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In our calculation of the variable ‘T’, the answer was 3.023715, the astute student will
have realised this answer is displayed to 6 decimal places. However since the first digit
after the decimal point is a zero, zeros do not count as ‘significant’ figures, the answer
3.023715, is shown to 5 significant figures, as there are five non-zero numbers after the
decimal point; the answer itself is shown to 6-decimal places.
To clarify this point, a number for example 0.0027396 is shown to seven decimal places,
but only to five significant figures. If your tutor asked you to work to five significant
figures, and you used the number 0.00273, you ‘could’ introduce considerable errors in
your final calculation; since you would only be working to three significant figures, this
all depending on the complexity of the calculation involved.
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Linear Equations (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 7 Linear Equations

Linear equations are algebraic equations where the highest power of any variable is not
greater than 1, which is referred to as the ‘first power’
For example, a, b, c, x, y, or z could be written as a1, b1, c1, x1, y1, or z1
Equations are mathematical statements using numbers, letters, and symbols that state
two expressions equal the same value.
Solving equations: A typical simple linear equation is shown in example (72)

Example (72) x + 6 = 9 Solve for x
This example states that the left-hand side (LHS) of the equation x + 6 must equal the
right-hand side (RHS) of the equation i.e. 9
We are then expected to solve the equation to find the value of the unknown term, in
this case x, we can see that there is only one value of x, namely 3 that will satisfy this
equation.
Most of the rules required to solve linear equations were covered in my book
‘Transposition of Formulae an Introduction’ from my ‘introductory maths for
beginner’s series’ but we will solve example (72) as shown below.
The mathematical method, shown in most math books states that when manipulating an
equation, whatever you do to one side of the equation you must do the same to the
other side.
Mathematical Method Spatial Method

x+6=9 x+6=9
To get x by itself we will subtract 6 from We will move the number 6 from the left-
both sides of the equation as shown next hand side (LHS) of the equation to the
right-hand side (RHS) in doing so it’s
x+6–6=9–6 mathematical operator +6 will change to -6
6 and -6 cancel to zero leaving as shown
x=9–6
x=3 x=3
And we have solved x And we have solved x
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To solve Linear Equations using the ‘Spatial Method’ you need to understand the Six
basic rules of transposition
Rule 1 If we move a positive number or variable (+) to the other side of the equals
sign it changes to a negative (–) number or variable
e.g. If 4Ω + R1 = 6Ω Then R1 = 6Ω – 4Ω Note how 4Ω changes from a
positive value to a negative value
Rule 2 If we move a negative (–) number or variable to the other side of the equals
sign it changes to a positive (+) number or variable
e.g. If Z – 6Ω = 8Ω Then Z = 8Ω + 6Ω Note how – 6Ω changes from a
negative value to a positive value
Rule 3 If we move a number, or variable which is being multiplied with another

number, or variable to the other side of the equals sign it changes from
multiplication to division
Note how 10Ω changes from

e.g. If I x 10Ω = 14V Then I = multiplication to division
Rule 4 If we move a number, or variable which is being divided by another number,

or variable to the other side of the equals sign it changes from division to
multiplication
Note how 5Ω changes from

e.g. If = 7A Then V = 7A x 5Ω division to multiplication
Rule 5 If we move a Square Power operator ( 2) to the other side of the equals sign
it changes to a Square Root ( )
Note how the square power operator
e.g. If d2 = 9 Then 2
changes to a square root
Rule 6 If we move a Square Root operator ( ) to the other side of the equals
sign it changes to a Square Power ( 2)
e.g. If Then V = 62
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Example (73) x + 5 = 4 + 7 Solve for x

x+5=4+7 x+5=4+7
x + 5 = 11 x + 5 = 11
To get x by itself we will subtract 5 from We will move the number 5 from the left-
both sides of the equation as shown next hand side (LHS) of the equation to the
right-hand side (RHS) in doing so it’s
x + 5 - 5 = 11 – 5 mathematical operator +5 will change to -5
as shown
5 and -5 cancel to zero leaving
x = 11 – 5
x=6 x=6
Example (74) 5x = 3x + 14 Solve for x

5x = 3x + 14 5x = 3x + 14
To get x by itself we will subtract 3x from 3x moves to the LHS in doing so it’s
both sides of the equation as shown next operator changes from + to – as shown
5x – 3x = 3x + 14 – 3x 5x – 3x = 14
3x and -3x cancel to zero leaving Which becomes
2x = 14 2x = 14
Dividing both sides of the equation by 2 The number 2 moves to the RHS of the
equation in doing so it’s operator changes
from multiplication to division as shown
The number 2’s cancel on the LHS
x=7
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Example (75) 3(2y + 4) = 4y + 36 Solve for y

3(2y + 4) = 4y + 36 3(2y + 4) = 4y + 36
We first multiply out the LHS bracket giving We first multiply out the LHS bracket giving
6y + 12 = 4y + 36 6y + 12 = 4y + 36
We now want to get all the y terms on the We now want to get all the y terms on the
LHS of the equation, so we will subtract 4y LHS of the equation, so we will move the
from both sides as follows 4y term to the LHS of the equation, and
it’s operator will change from + to -
6y + 12 – 4y = 4y + 36 – 4y
6y – 4y results in 2y leaving
6y + 12 – 4y = 36
6y – 4y results in 2y
2y + 12 = 36
2y + 12 = 36
To eliminate the number 12 on the LHS of
the equation, so we only have y terms on We now move the number 12 to the RHS
the LHS we will subtract 12 from both sides of the equation, in doing so it’s operator
of the equation will change from + to -
2y + 12 – 12 = 36 – 12 2y = 36 – 12
Leaving
2y = 24 Which becomes
2y = 24
Dividing both sides of the equation by 2
The number 2 moves to the RHS in doing
so it’s operator changes from multiplication
to division as shown
The number 2’s cancel on the LHS leaving
y = 12
Which becomes
And we have solved y
y = 12
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Example (76) 7(y – 1) – 28 = 4(y – 4) Solve for y

7(y – 1) – 28 = 4(y – 4) 7(y – 1) – 28 = 4(y – 4)
We first multiply out all the brackets We first multiply out all the brackets
7 x y – 7 x 1 – 28 = 4 x y – 4 x 4 7 x y – 7 x 1 – 28 = 4 x y – 4 x 4
7y – 7 – 28 = 4y – 16 7y – 7 – 28 = 4y – 16
We now want to get all the y terms on the We now want to get all the y terms on the
LHS of the equation, so we will subtract 4y LHS of the equation, and the numbers on
from both sides as follows the RHS, so we will move the 4y term to
the LHS of the equation, in doing so it’s
7y – 7 – 28 – 4y = 4y – 16 – 4y operator will change from + to –
7y – 4y results in 3y leaving 7y – 4y – 35 = – 16
3y – 7 – 28 = – 16 7y – 4y results in 3y and -7 and -28 = -35
3y – 35 = – 16 3y – 35 = – 16
To eliminate the -35 term on the LHS of We will move the -35 to the RHS, in doing
the equation, so we only have y terms on so it’s operator will change from negative
the LHS we will add 35 to both sides of the to positive
equation
3y – 35 + 35 = – 16 + 35 3y = – 16 + 35
Leaving 3y = 19
3y = 19
We now move the number 3 to the RHS of
Dividing both sides of the equation by 3 the equation, in doing so it’s operator will
change from multiplication to division as
shown
The number 3’s cancel on the LHS leaving

y = 6.3 recurring
y = 6.3 recurring
And we have solved y And we have solved y
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Linear Equations containing fractions (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 8 Linear Equations containing fractions
On the following pages, you will find worked examples of linear equations containing
fractions, but before we proceed with these examples, I will show you how to obtain the
answers to these examples using the internet Algebra Calculator you were introduced
to on page 21-22.
Let’s use the internet to find the answer to example (77) which you will find worked out
on the next page.
Example (77) Solve the fraction to find the value of y
Enter the equation into the internet Algebra Calculator as follows: Use the right
arrow key ‘→’ part of the ‘up’ ‘down’ ‘left’ ‘right’ arrow keys on your keyboard
when shown
3y/2→+7=y-6 then press the Calculate It! button
Algebra Calculator
CALCULATE IT!
Simplify Evaluate
y = –26 You will find this is the same answer as the

worked example on the next page
You can use the Algebra Calculator to check the answer to many algebraic fractions.
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Which becomes: x2+7x2=yx2–6x2 Multiply all terms by 2 to

eliminate the fraction
Which becomes: 3y + 14 = 2y – 12
Collecting the y terms on the left-hand side: 3y – 2y = – 12 – 14
Which becomes: y = – 26
Using the lowest common
denominator rules I introduced in
Example (78) Solve my ‘introductory math book’
‘Numbers, Arithmetic, and
Fractions an Introduction’ the
Therefore lowest common denominator of ‘a’
and ‘b’ is a x b
So in the numerator the number 1
will go into ab ‘b’ times, and 2 will
If you ever have to perform algebraic fractions, go into ab ‘a’ times
and you have access to the internet, you can
always search for an ‘Algebra Calculator’ this way you can always check your answers.
Example (79) Solve the fraction = 9 to find the value of y
The lowest common denominator of 3 and 4 is 12
Therefore = 9 becomes: = 9 which we can write as
Therefore: which becomes 7y = 12 x 9, therefore 7y = 108
Finally: we obtain our solution y = 15.4285 to 4 decimal places
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We will expand the right-hand side of the equation as follows:
Giving: the 4’s will cancel as follows:
Leaving: 2y = y – The y term on the right-hand side moves to the left.
Giving: 2y – y = – 0.75
Leaving: y = – 0.75
Example (81) Solve the fraction to find the value of ab
The lowest common denominator of 4 and 5 is 20 (see proof below)
Therefore becomes:
Therefore: becomes
Therefore 9ab = 20 x 18 becomes 9ab = 360
Finally:
To find the lowest common denominator of two numbers with a Casio FX calculator
place it in Math IO mode i.e. 11 we take one denominator and divide it by
the second i.e.
4 the Casio shows the answer is 4 now multiply the numerator or
5 5
denominator by the inverse fraction and you obtain the lowest common denominator
e.g. 4 x 5 = 20 The lowest common denominator of 4 and 5 is 20
5 4 = 20
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Example (82) Solve the fraction 6 + to find the value of y
Ignoring the variable term y we have three fractions i.e. , , and
We have to find the lowest common denominator for these three fractions, we learnt
how to find the lowest common denominator, in my ‘introductory maths for beginner’s
series’ ‘Numbers, Arithmetic and Fractions an Introduction’ but the easiest
method if you have access to the internet is to search for a ‘lowest common
denominator calculator’.
Least Common Denominator (LCD)
I used one of the online calculators as
Enter values separated by commas
shown in the image opposite, and entered 3/4,3/2,2/5
the three fractions shown above separated
by a comma, when you click on the
Calculate button the lowest common
denominator which in this example is 20 is Calculate
displayed.
We multiply both sides of the equation by Answer: LCD = 20

the common denominator as shown below:
x 20 = x 20
Removing the brackets, we have: 6 x 20 +
Which reduces to: 120 + 15y = 30 + 8y
Collecting the y terms on the LHS and the numbers on the RHS we obtain:
15y – 8y = 30 – 120
Giving: 7y = – 90
Therefore y = – y = – 12.857 to 3-decimal places
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The lowest common denominator of the three fractions is 20. On page 66, we found
how to find the lowest common denominator of the two numbers 4 and 5, which was
20, the fraction 4y/2 will also divide exactly into 20, so this is the lowest common
denominator of the numbers 2, 4, and 5. We will multiply all terms by 20 as follows.
This becomes
This reduces to 40y – 60 = 8 + 5y
Collecting the y terms on the LHS and the numerical terms on the RHS gives
Note: when the +5y term moves to the LHS of the

40y – 5y = 8 + 60 equation it’s operator changes sign from positive
(addition) to negative (subtraction) similarly, when
the – 60 term moves to the RHS it’s operator changes
from negative (subtraction) to positive (addition)
35y = 68
to 4-decimal places
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As in the previous example, we need a common denominator to solve the fractions, the
common denominator of these two fractions can be found by multiplying together the
two denominators as follows (4y + 6) x (y + 7) and as in the previous examples we
then multiply the common denominator by each fraction term.
Cancelling occurs as follows:
Leaving 2(y + 7) = 3(4y + 6)
Multiplying out the brackets gives:
2y + 14 = 12y + 18
Collecting the y terms on the LHS and the numerical terms on the RHS gives:
2y – 12y = 18 – 14
– 10y = 4
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Before we finish with this section, we will look at the example below; at first, it appears
to be a Geometry question, or maybe a Circle type question, but no; it is an algebra type
question. Let’s see how we solve this type of problem.
Example (85) Find the angle x in the diagram below, the diagram is ‘NOT’ drawn to
scale
Solution
To solve this type of question, you need to know there are 360 degrees in a full circle,
and the small black square in the middle of the circle represents 90 degrees.
If you didn’t know these things, well you do now.
These type of questions always state ‘the diagram is not drawn to scale’ this is so you
cannot find the answer by using a protractor to measure the angle.
x
2x
2x + 30o
What we do is create a small equation, where all the terms equal 360 degrees:
x + (2x + 30o) + 2x + 90o = 360o
Collecting all the x terms on the left-hand side, and the numbers on the right-hand side
x + 2x + 2x = 360o – 30o – 90o

240o
5x = 240 therefore x =
o = 48o the angle x = 48o
5
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Linear Equations as Word Problems (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 9 Linear Equations as Word Problems
With all the following linear equation word type problems, we want to end up with a
linear equation such as shown in the next example, which will be of a similar form to the
previous examples. We let a letter i.e. a variable usually x equal the unknown quantity.
In these linear equation word problems there is always ONE number given, in the
example below it is the number 35. Everything else is a variable of x, e.g. it may be 3
times x, or (3 – x), in the example below the variables are x and 4x
Don’t confuse linear equation word problems with ‘simultaneous equation word
problems, which we present in chapter 24.
Simultaneous equation word problems will always have TWO numbers given.
Word type problems are always difficult for students to understand, since every question
appears different. It is only by practise with a number of examples the student can
become proficient at deciphering how to arrange the variables to obtain the correct
answer. In this book, I will present you with a range of examples and exercises, so you
can learn how to master these problems.
Example (86)
Joe has four times as many apples as Bob, and together they have 35
How many apples do they have each?
Since we are informed, Joe has four
We let x = the number of apples Bob has
times as many apples as Bob, we write
We let 4x = the number of apples Joe has this as 4x
We write: x + 4x = 35
Which becomes: 5x = 35
So, Bob has 7 apples
Since there are 35 apples then 35 – 7 = 28 which is the number of apples Joe has.
We can do a check since we were informed Joe has four times as many apples as Bob.
We now know Bob has 7 apples so multiply this by four i.e. 7 x 4 = 28, which is the
number of apples Joe has, this confirms the answer is correct.
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Example (87)
The sum of two numbers is 19, and four times the larger number exceeds three times
the smaller number by 13. What are the two numbers?
We let x = the larger number
Since 19 is the sum of the two numbers and x is one of the numbers, the other number
must be the sum minus x, so we write:
19 – x = the smaller number
Since x = the larger number, then 4x is four times the larger number
Since 19 – x = the smaller number, then 3(19 – x) is three times the smaller number
Therefore: 4x – 3(19 – x) = the excess
However, 13 = the excess
Therefore: 4x – 3(19 – x) = 13
4x – 57 + 3x = 13
7x = 70
We now know the value of the larger number i.e. x = 10
Since the sum is 19, the smaller number must be 19 – 10 = 9
The two numbers are 9 and 10

We can check if we are correct: i.e. 4 times the larger number is 4 x 10 = 40, does 40
exceed 3 times the smaller number, plus 13 i.e. 3 x 9 = 27 + 13 = 40, yes all conditions
agree, this confirms the answer is correct.
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Example (88)
A tree, which was 90 feet high, is hit by lightning and a part broke off which was 8
times the length of the part still standing. What is the length of each part?
We let x = the part which broke off
Since 90 is the sum of the two lengths and x is one of the lengths, the other length,
the part still standing must be the sum minus x, so we write:
90 – x = the part still standing
Since 90 – x = the part still standing, then 8(90 – x) is 8 times the part still standing
90 – x + 8(90 – x) = 90 the part still standing plus the part which broke off = 90ft
90 – x + 720 – 8x = 90
– 9x = 90 – 90 – 720
– 9x = – 720
The part which broke off = 80 feet
Therefore, the part still standing must be 90 – 80 = 10 feet
The part still standing = 10 feet
Let’s check our answer: We are informed the part, which broke off, was 8 times the
length of the part still standing.
We now know the part still standing is 10 feet, so 8 x 10 = 80 feet, which is 8 times the
length of the part still standing, this confirms the answer is correct.
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Example (89)
A poulterer sold 15 chickens and 28 partridges for £210. He sold the partridges for four
times as much as the chickens. How much did he get for each?
Since we are informed, the partridges are
We let x = the 15 chickens worth four times the chickens we let
We let 4x = the 28 partridges x = the chickens and 4x = the partridges
So, the chickens sold for £42.00
Since the poulterer received £210 for all his birds, then £210 – £42 = £168 which is the
money he received for the partridges. The poulterer received £42 for his chickens and
£168 for his partridges, or £2.80 per chicken and £6.00 per partridge.
Example (90)
Three pipes lead into a 1260-gallon water tank. The first pipe lets in 9 gallons per
minute, the second pipe 12 gallons per minute, and the third pipe 15 gallons per minute.
How long will it take to fill the tank at these flow rates?
We will let x = the number of minutes to fill the tank.
Since we are informed, the tank is a 1260-gallon tank we will write:
9x + 12x + 15x = 1260
Therefore, 36x = 1260 which becomes
It will take 35 minutes to fill the tank.
We can check our answer:

Pipe 1: 9 gals per minute x 35 = 315 gallons
Total gallons into the tank = 1260 gallons (this confirms the answer is correct)
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Example (91)
The sum of two numbers is 36, and one of them exceeds twice the other by 6
What are the two numbers?
We will let one number = x

We will let the other number = 36 – x
Therefore: x – 2(36 – x) = 6 The number 2 appears in this line as the

question states one number exceeds twice the
Therefore: x – 72 + 2x = 6 other. The number 6 appears since we are
informed one exceeds twice the other by 6
Therefore: 3x = 78
So, one number = 26
Since the sum of the two numbers is 36 then 36 – 26 = 10 i.e. the other number.
The two numbers are 10 and 26
We can check our answer, do the conditions agree? Yes, the conditions agree.
One number i.e. 26 exceeds twice the other number, which is 10 by 6.
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Example (92)
A rectangle is constructed and it’s length is three times it’s breadth.

If the perimeter is 96 metres, find the length and breadth of the rectangle.
Let x = the breadth of the rectangle Length 3 x Breadth i.e. 3x
Then the length of the rectangle = 3x

Breadth = x
Therefore 2(x + 3x) = 96
The number 2 appears because in a rectangle

2x + 6x = 96
there are two lengths and breadths
8x = 96
so the breadth = 12 metres
We know, length of the rectangle = 3x
Therefore the length of the rectangle = 3 × 12 = 36 metres
Therefore, length of the rectangle is 36 m and breadth of the rectangle is 12 m.
We can check this answer, since the two lengths and two breadths should add up to the
perimeter value i.e. 36 + 36 + 12 + 12 = 96 metres; this confirms the answer is correct.
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Example (93)
Sarah is five years’ younger than Jane; four years’ later, Jane will be twice as old as
Sarah. Find their present ages.
Let x = Jane’s present age then let x – 5 = Sarah’s present age
Four years’ later Jane’s age = x + 4, so Sarah’s age must be x – 5 + 4
+ 4 represents four years’ later
The number 2 in this line is because we are

Therefore, x + 4 = 2(x – 5 + 4)
informed Jane will be twice as old as Sarah
x + 4 = 2x – 10 + 8
x – 2x = – 10 + 8 – 4
–x = –6
x=6 Jane’s present age is 6 years’
Sarah is 5 years’ younger than Jane therefore, Sarah = 6 – 5 = 1 year old
Check: Do the conditions agree?
At present, Jane is six years’ old, and Sarah is one-year-old. In four years’ time, Jane
must be twice Sarah’s age for the conditions to agree.
In four years’ time, Jane will be 6 + 4 = 10 years’ old
Sarah will be 1 + 4 = 5 years’ old
So, Jane WILL be twice Sarah’s age, the conditions agree, this confirms the answer is
correct.
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Example (94)
A father is four times as old as his son; and in five years’ time, he will be only three
times as old. What are their present ages?
Let x = the sons present age Then let 4x = the father’s age
5 years’ later the sons age is x + 5, so the father’s age must be 4x + 5
In 5 years’ time, the father will be 3 times as old as his son:
4x + 5 = the father’s age in 5 years’ time

Therefore, 4x + 5 = 3(x + 5)
x + 5 = the sons age in 5 years’ time
3(x + 5) = 3 times the sons age in 5 years’ time
4x + 5 = 3x + 15
4x – 3x = 15 – 5
x = 10 the sons present age is 10 years’
Since we are informed the father is four times as old as his son, then the father must be
4 x 10 = 40 years of age.
We can check our answer; the conditions must be that in five years’ time the father is
only 3 times as old as his son.
The father now = 40, in 5 years’ time he will be 45
The son now = 10 in 5 years’ time he will be 15
For the conditions to be met, in 5 years’ time the father must be 3 times as old as his
son, and yes, the conditions are met.
The sons age in five years’ time will be 15 years’ his father’s age will be three times this
i.e. 45 years’ all conditions agree, this confirms the answer is correct.
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Algebraic fractions containing powers (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 10 Algebraic fractions containing powers
Example (95) Reduce the fraction to it’s lowest terms
When you get a problem like this to solve, you can see immediately that the variables
i.e. the a, b and c terms will cancel, thus reduce the fraction to a lower term, but what
about the 38 and 57 terms? These won’t divide into each other so something else must
be required. Your math tutor or examiner is testing you on your knowledge of ‘prime
factors’
Using a Casio FX 83, 85, or 115 model, or an internet online calculator, we find the
number 38 can be reduced to the prime factors of 2 x 19, and the number 57 can be
reduced to the prime factors of 3 x 19 (see below) Note: The Casio FX 991 does not
appear to have a prime factor key.
To obtain the prime factors for the number 38 using your Casio FX calculator enter the
following keys:
38 the calculator displays 38 now press the then key
The calculator displays 2 x 19
To obtain the prime factors for the number 57 using your Casio FX calculator enter the
following keys:
The calculator displays 3 x 19 2 x 19 = 38
We can now write the fraction as shown opposite

3 x 19 = 57
The fraction expands as follows
The following cancelling occurs
Leaving
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We will solve this example in single steps so you can see the process:
The fraction can be expanded as follows
1
3 ÷ 6 reduces to you can check this on your Casio FX calculator
2
One of the ‘a’ terms in the numerator cancels

with one in the denominator leaving a2 in the numerator
Two of the ‘b’ terms in the numerator cancel with

two in the denominator leaving 1 ÷ b
The ‘c’ term in the numerator cancels with one

in the denominator leaving 1 ÷ c
We put these individual steps together and we find:
Reduces to
We normally don’t show the number 1, which is the result from cancelling a fraction so
the simplified fraction is shown below.
reduces to
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Algebraic fractions containing powers (Pre-Calculus))
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We have to be careful here, the operator in the numerator

is ‘addition’ NOT ‘multiplication’ the initial step by some
students is to cancel the ‘ab’ term in the denominator with
the ab2 term in the numerator
THIS WOULD BE WRONG
Therefore, we will split the expression into two parts
We will now expand
We can now safely cancel terms as follows
Which reduces to
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In this example, the highest common factor of the three terms is ab, so we will divide
each term in the fraction by ab.
We will now expand this fraction into it’s individual variables
We can now cancel the individual variables
Which simplifies to
Be careful here if you ever get a similar fraction to solve. One of my students once was
simplifying a similar problem and cancelled the term to zero, and got the answer
wrong.
Remember when similar terms cancel, they don’t cancel out to zero but cancel to 1.
e.g. 10 ÷ 10 = 1, 5 ÷ 5 = 1, a ÷ a = 1, b ÷ b = 1 get the idea?
82
Inequalities (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 11 Inequalities
Most math syllabuses for final year school pupils, and math and engineering courses
include inequalities, fortunately the rules of algebra we have learnt in the previous
sections work for inequalities too, we simply replace the equals sign ‘=’ we have used in
algebra with one of the inequality operators shown below:
< means ‘less than’
> means ‘greater than’
≤ means ‘less than or equal to’
≥ means ‘greater than or equal to’

A tip to use in remembering which way round the inequality operators are
shown is to remember the small end always points to the smaller number
or value.
BIG small
Greater than symbol – Big > small
Example (99) Emma plays in the under 16s hockey team. How old is Emma.
Answer: We don’t know how old Emma is because the question does not state her age,
but we do know she must be under 16 years to play in the team, so we can write:
Emma’s age < 16

This reads Emma’s age is less than 16
The small end points to Emma’s age, because her age is the smallest value.
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Example (100) David has joined the British army, how old is David.
Once again, we don’t know how old David is because it does not state his age in the
question, however you must be at least 16 years of age to join the British army, so we
can write:
David’s age ≥ 16
This inequality informs us that David’s age must be greater than or equal to 16 years’.
Just to help you get the idea of inequalities we will write some obvious inequalities next.
3<7 This reads 3 is less than 7
9>5 This reads 9 is greater than 5
Did you notice how the inequality symbol always points to the smaller value?
Example (101) Nathan is asked to think of a number between 1 and 6; write this
statement as an inequality
The number Nathan thinks of must be greater than zero, so it could be any number
between 1 and 6.
Nathan’s number must be greater than zero we write this as > 0
Nathan’s number must be less than or equal to 6 we write this as ≤ 6
We will combine these inequality statements into one line:
Answer: 0 < Nathan’s number ≤ 6
When we write ‘0 < Nathan’s number’ this means 0 is less than Nathan’s number (in
other words Nathan’s number is greater than 0, but less than or equal to 6) Notice how
> 0 changed to 0 < when put before Nathan’s number. Try to remember the tip on the
previous page, always make sure the small end of the inequality symbol points to the
smallest value.
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Example (102) Susan is going shopping and has £50 in her purse, write what she
can spend as an inequality
There are a few options; Susan may not find anything she wants and so spends nothing,
we would write this as:
Susan spends ≥ £0 this reads Susan spends greater than or equal to £0
Susan could spend up to £50, we write this as Susan spends ≤ £50
This reads Susan spends less than or equal to £50
We will combine these inequality statements into one line:
Answer: £0 ≤ Susan spends ≤ £50
This states Susan spends greater than or equal to zero but less than or equal to £50
As in the previous example notice how Susan spends ≥ £0 changed to £0 ≤ when put
before Susan’s name. Try to remember the tip given previously; always make sure the
small end of the inequality symbol points to the smallest value.
Inequalities can be shown as follows:
–1<r<1 this means r is greater than – 1 but less than 1
We can also read the first part as – 1 is less than r (which is another way of saying r is
greater than – 1) followed by the second part, r is less than 1.
6≤n≤9 this means n is greater than or equal to 6 but less than or equal to 9
We can also read the first part as 6 is less than or equal to n (which is another way of
saying n is greater than or equal to 6) followed by the second part, but n is less than or
equal to 9
In inequality problems, we want to try to get the unknown variable i.e. ‘x’ on it’s own on
the left-hand side of the inequality, as shown in the following examples.
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Inequality Rules of Addition and Subtraction (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 12 Inequality Rules of Addition and Subtraction

We can often solve an inequality by addition or subtraction to both sides of the
inequality, but addition or subtraction ‘does not change the direction’ of the
inequality, e.g. a greater than operator ‘>’ remains a greater than operator ‘>’ it does
not change to a less than ‘<’ operator. Observe in the example below, the application of
‘subtraction’ to the inequality ‘does not change’ the direction of the operator e.g. the
greater than sign ‘>’ remained a greater than sign.
Example (103) solve the following inequality: 4 + x > 9
To get ‘x’ on it’s own we will subtract 4 from both sides of the inequality:
4+x–4>9–4
4+x–4>5 The 4’s cancel as shown
x>5 We can show this answer on what is known as a number line as follows:
This number line shows x is some value greater than 5
Number lines use specific symbols to represent the <, >, ≤, ≥ operators, in the image
above the answer to the previous example was x > 5
Since no ‘specific’ value is mentioned other than x will be ‘some’ value greater than 5
the start of the line is shown as an empty circle.
‘If’ the result had been x ≥ 5 then because a ‘specific’ value is mentioned, i.e. x could
‘be’ 5 or greater than 5, the start of the number line would be shown as a solid circle.
This number line shows x is greater than or equal to 5
Different math books use different conventions, but we will use this convention in this
book.
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Inequality Rules of Addition and Subtraction (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 12 Inequality Rules of Addition and Subtraction
Example (104) solve the following inequality: x – 6 > 10
To get ‘x’ on it’s own we will add 6 to both sides of the inequality:
x – 6 + 6 > 10 + 6
x – 6 + 6 > 16 The 6’s cancel as shown
x > 16 We can show this answer on a number line as follows:
Remember the convention shown on the previous page; since no ‘specific’ value is
mentioned other than x will be ‘some’ value greater than 16 the start of the line is
shown as an empty circle.
This number line shows x is some value greater than 16
Example (105) solve the following inequality: x + 3 < 9
To get ‘x’ on it’s own we will subtract 3 from both sides of the inequality operator:
x+3–3<9–3
x+3–3<6 The 3’s cancel as shown
x<6
We can show this answer on a number line as follows:
This number line shows x is some value less than 6
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Inequality Rules of Multiplication and Division (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 13 Inequality Rules of Multiplication and Division
When we multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a ‘Positive’ value e.g. 3, or 5,

or 100, or ‘any positive value’ etc. this ‘does not change the direction’ of the
inequality. As with addition or subtraction a less than sign ‘<’ remains a less than sign
‘<’, a greater than or equal sign ‘≥’ remains a greater than or equal sign ‘≥’ the
direction of the inequality operator does not change.
Example (106) solve the following inequality: 1 + 2x < 17
We will move the number 1 to the right-hand side of the operator, in doing so the
number 1’s sign will change from positive (addition) to negative (subtraction)
2x < 17 – 1 which becomes 2x < 16 giving x<
Answer: x < 8
We can show this on a number line as follows:
Example (107) solve the following inequality: ≤4
X 3≤4 X 3 Multiplying both sides of the inequality by 3 allows the 3’s

on the left-hand side to cancel
2x ≤ 12
x≤ Answer x ≤ 6
This number line shows x less than or equal to 6
Notice, the number line uses a solid circle when we have a ≤ or ≥ symbol.
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Inequality Rules of Multiplication and Division (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 13 Inequality Rules of Multiplication and Division
Example (108) solve the following inequality: 1 + 2x ≤ 4x – 5
To get ‘x’ on it’s own we will collect like terms on each side of the ≤ operator.
1 + 5 ≤ 4x – 2x which becomes 6 ≤ 2x therefore ≤x
3≤x This now reads 3 is less than or equal to x but it is usual to show x on the
left-hand side of the inequality, so we flip the answer over to obtain:
x≥3 This now reads x is greater than or equal to 3, however this still means
(3 is less than or equal to x)
We can show this answer on a number line as follows:
This number line shows x is greater than or equal to 3
Chapter 14 Inequalities with ‘Negative’ numbers
When we multiply or divide an inequality by a ‘negative’ number

we must ‘reverse’ the inequality
Example (109) solve the following inequality: – 2x > – 16

To get x on it’s own we divide both sides of the inequality by – 2
< because we divided both sides by – 2 we must ‘reverse’ the inequality
i.e. ‘greater than’ >’ becomes ‘less than <’
x<8 We can show this on a number line as follows:
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Inequalities Multiplication and Division by a Variable (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 14 Inequalities Multiplication and Division by a Variable
Example (110) solve the following inequality: ax > 16a
This inequality looks easy enough to solve, we could divide both

sides of the inequality by the variable ‘a’ which gives:
x > 16
Only one problem! We don’t know if the variable ‘a’ contains a

positive or negative value, if it’s a negative value we would need
to reverse the inequality operator which gives:
x < 16
However, since we don’t know if ‘a’ contains a positive or negative

Value, we cannot solve this inequality.
Inequalities Multiplication and Division by a Variable
In algebra, we can divide by a variable to help solve a

problem ‘DO NOT’ divide by a variable to solve an
inequality
(unless you know the polarity (sign) of the variable)
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Solving Compound Inequalities (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 15 Solving Compound Inequalities
Compound inequalities contain more than one inequality operator, to solve these type of
problems we have to combine the multiple inequalities into one.
The easiest way to perform these type of inequality problems is to split the inequality
into two-parts. One part to the left of the ‘right-most operator’, the other part
to the right of the ‘left-most operator’. I know this sounds a bit gobbledygook, the
following example should make this clearer.
Example (111) solve the following inequality: – 6 < 5x + 4 < 24
The inequality is split one part The inequality is split one part
to the left of < 24 to the right of – 6 <
– 6 < 5x + 4 5x + 4 < 24
– 6 – 4 < 5x 5x < 24 – 4
– 10 < 5x 5x < 20
To get x by itself divide To get x by itself divide

both sides by 5 both sides by 5
< <
–2 < x x<4
Combining the inequalities into one we obtain: – 2 < x < 4
We can create this result on a number line x is some value greater than – 2
but less than 4
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Example (112) solve the following inequality: – 9 < < 17
We need to eliminate the fraction but first we must separate the fraction terms.
–9< < 17 becomes 3 becomes – 2x
The inequality becomes as shown below:
– 9 < 3 – 2x < 17
The inequality is split, one part to the left of < 17 and one part to the right of – 9 <
– 9 < 3 – 2x 3 – 2x < 17
– 9 – 3 < – 2x – 2x < 17 – 3
– 12 < – 2x – 2x < 14
To get x by itself we divide both sides >

by – 2, when we multiply or divide by
a negative number we ‘reverse’ the
inequality x>–7
>
6>x We have our solutions 6 > x and x > – 7
However, it is usual to place the smallest value on the left-hand side, with the largest
value on the right-hand side, so we write the following:
–7<x<6 This can be shown on a number line as follows:
This shows x is some value greater than – 7 but less than 6

If you find this solution confusing, then check out the next page.
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To expand on the explanation of negative and positive numbers, we will look at number
lines, which include negative numbers. You can find a full explanation of number lines in
my math book titled ‘Numbers, Arithmetic and Fractions, an Introduction’ part of
my ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’
If we consider the number line shown below, which ranges from minus 8 to plus 8 we
can see that the negative numbers to the left of the zero marker are getting smaller,
whilst the positive numbers to the right of the zero marker are getting larger.
Numbers getting smaller Numbers getting larger
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
We can refer to the above number line in many ways e.g.
We can say – 8 is Less Than – 7 e.g. – 8 < – 7 because – 8 lies to the left of – 7 on
the number line.
We can say – 6 is Greater Than – 7 e.g. – 6 > – 7 because – 6 lies to the right of – 7
on the number line.
We can say – 6 is Less Than 1 e.g. – 6 < 1 because – 6 lies to the left of 1 on the
number line.
We can say – 1 is Greater Than – 4 e.g. – 1 > – 4 because – 1 lies to the right of – 4
on the number line.
Any number to the Left of a stated number on the number line will be Less Than the
stated number.
Any number to the Right of a stated number on the number line will be Greater Than
the stated number.
In the solution to example (112) on the previous page we found ‘x’ to cover the range
shown by the Red line, therefore ‘x’ is some value greater than – 7 but less than 6
This shows x is some value greater than – 7 but less than 6

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Example (113) solve the following inequality: x ≤ 3x + 1 < 2x + 8
When you get an inequality like this, split the inequality into two-parts as follows:
The inequality is split one part The inequality is split one part
to the left of < 2x + 8 to the right of x ≤
x ≤ 3x + 1 3x + 1 < 2x + 8
Subtract 3x from each side Subtract 2x from each side

x – 3x ≤ 3x + 1 – 3x 3x + 1 – 2x < 2x + 8 – 2x
The 3x’s on the RHS will cancel The 2x’s on the RHS will cancel
x – 3x ≤ 3x + 1 – 3x 3x + 1 – 2x < 2x + 8 – 2x
Leaving x – 3x ≤ 1 x+1<8
– 2x ≤ 1 x<8–1
To get x by itself we divide both sides x<7

by – 2, when we multiply or divide by
a negative number we ‘reverse’ the
inequality
≥ which becomes x≥
The answer x ≥ < 7 (x will be greater than or equal to -1/2 but less than 7)
But it is better to show the smaller number on the left, the larger on the right, so we will
swap ‘≥’ to ‘≤’ as follows
≤x<7
This number line shows x is some value between -1/2 but less than 7
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Solving Quadratic Inequalities (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 16 Solving Quadratic Inequalities
To solve quadratic inequalities you need to know how to solve quadratic equations
which are explained in chapters 39-51.
Example (114) solve the following inequality: x2 > 4
We need to rearrange the inequality to obtain a quadratic expression on the left-hand

side, of the inequality operator ‘>’ and zero ‘0’ on the right-hand side as follows:
x2 – 4 > 0 We now factorize the quadratic expression x2 – 4 > 0 to obtain:
(x + 2)(x – 2) > 0 if you don’t know how to factorize this quadratic

(see Exercise (228) page 426 for guidance)
This factorization informs you that the graph of y = x2 – 4 crosses the x-axis when:
x = –2 and x = 2
We can graph this quadratic and obtain the x2 – 4 > 0 is

graph shown opposite we can see the greater than zero
‘roots’ of the graph i.e. the points where the when the graph is
graph curve crosses the x-axis at -2 and 2 ‘above’ the x-axis
We can also see the quadratic expression

x2 – 4 > 0 is greater than zero when the
graph is ‘above’ the x-axis at any point
where x is less than – 2 or greater than x = 2
Note: when x is greater than

The answer to this example is: – 2 > x > 2
–2, or x is less than 2 the
This can be shown on a number line as follows: graph is below the x-axis
This number line shows – 2 > x > 2
This answer shows the graph of x2 – 4 > 0 is greater than (>) 0 when x is less than
– 2 or greater than 2.
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Example (115) solve the following inequality: x2 ≤ 9

side, of the inequality operator ‘≤’ and zero ‘0’ on the right-hand side as follows:
x2 – 9 ≤ 0 We now factorize the quadratic expression x2 – 9 ≤ 0 to obtain:
(x + 3)(x – 3) ≤ 0 If you don’t know how to factorize this quadratic

(see exercise (232) page 430 for guidance)
x = –3 and x = 3
We can graph this quadratic and obtain the

graph shown opposite we can see the
‘roots’ of the graph i.e. the points where the
graph curve crosses the x-axis at -3 and 3
x2 – 9 ≤ 0 is less
We can also see the quadratic expression than or equal to
x2 – 9 ≤ 0 is less than or equal to zero when zero when the
graph is ‘on’ or
the graph is ‘on’ or ‘below’ the x-axis at any
‘below’ the x-axis
point where x is greater than or equal to – 3
but less than or equal to 3
e.g. x ≥ – 3, but ≤ 3
The answer to this example is: – 3 ≤ x ≤ 3 Note: when x is less than –3,
or x is greater than 3 the graph
We can show this on a number line as follows: is above the x-axis
This number line shows – 3 ≤ x ≤ 3

e.g. x is greater than or equal to – 3 but less than or equal to 3
96
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Example (116) solve the following inequality: x2 < 1

side, of the inequality operator ‘<’ and zero ‘0’ on the right-hand side as follows:
x2 – 1 < 0 We now factorize the quadratic expression x2 – 1 < 0 to obtain:
(x + 1)(x – 1) < 0 If you don’t know how to factorize this quadratic

x = –1 and x = 1

graph shown opposite we can clearly see the
graph curve crosses the x-axis at -1 and 1
We can also see the quadratic expression

x2 – 1 < 0 is less than zero when x2 – 1 < 0 is less
the graph is ‘below’ the x-axis at any than zero when
point where x is greater than –1 but less the graph is
than 1 ‘below’ the x-axis
e.g. x > –1 but < 1
Note: when x is less than –1,
The answer to this example is: – 1 < x < 1
or x is greater than 1 the graph
is above the x-axis
This number line shows – 1 < x < 1 e.g. x is greater than – 1 but less than 1
97
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Example (117) solve the following inequality: x2 ≥ 36

side, of the inequality operator ‘≥’ and zero ‘0’ on the right-hand side as follows:
x2 – 36 ≥ 0 We now factorize the quadratic expression x2 – 36 ≥ 0 to obtain:
(x + 6)(x – 6) ≥ 0 If you don’t know how to factorize this quadratic

x = – 6 and x = 6

graph shown opposite we can see the
graph curve crosses the x-axis at - 6 and 6 x2 – 36 ≥ 0 is
greater than or
We can also see the quadratic expression equal to zero
x2 – 36 ≥ 0 is greater than or equal to zero when the graph is
when the graph is ‘on’ or ‘above the x-axis ‘on’ or ‘above the
at any point where x is less than or equal x-axis
to – 6 or x is greater than or equal to 6
e.g. x ≤ – 6 or x ≥ 6
Note: when x is greater than
The answer to this example is: – 6 ≥ x ≥ 6 – 6, or x is less than 6 the
graph is below the x-axis
This number line shows – 6 ≥ x ≥ 6

e.g. x is less than or equal to – 6 or greater than or equal to 6
98
Inequalities involving a Modulus (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 17 Inequalities involving a Modulus
The ‘modulus’ of a number is the value of the number with no regards to it’s polarity
sign. Vertical lines are placed each side of a number or mathematical term to show a
modulus, for example I5I = 5 and I – 5I = 5, the modulus of a number is never
negative.
When we apply a modulus to an inequality we obtain something like this IxI < 1, this
means – 1 < x < 1, this indicates the inequality IxI < 1 would be satisfied for any
value of x greater than – 1 but less than 1, let’s see how this applies to an example:
Example (118) solve the following inequality: Ix – 1I < 4
Since we have learnt above that IxI < 1 results in – 1 < x < 1, we can deduce that
Ix – 1I < 4 will result in – 4 < (x – 1) < 4
We now have a ‘compound inequality’ and we solve it as shown in chapter 15.
We will split the inequality as follows:
– 4 < x – 1< 4
–4<x–1 x –1<4
This becomes –3<x x<5
Answer: –3<x<5
The inequality Ix – 1I < 4 will be satisfied for any value of x greater than – 3 but less
than 5
99
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Example (119) solve the following inequality: I3x + 1I < 11
Since we have previously learnt that IxI < 1 results in – 1 < x < 1, we can deduce
that
I3x + 1I < 11 will result in – 11 < (3x + 1) < 11
– 11 < 3x + 1 < 11
– 11 < 3x + 1 3x + 1 < 11
This becomes – 12 < 3x 3x < 10
This becomes <x x<
–4<x
Answer: –4<x<
The inequality I3x + 1I < 11 will be satisfied for any value of x greater than – 4 but
less than 10/3
100
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Example (120) solve the following inequality: I6x + 4I > 2
Since we have previously learnt that IxI < 1 results in – 1 < x < 1, we can deduce
that
I6x + 4I > 2 will result in – 2 > (6x + 4) > 2
– 2 > 6x + 4 > 2
– 2 > 6x + 4 6x + 4 > 2
This becomes – 2 – 4 > 6x 6x > 2 – 4
This becomes – 6 > 6x 6x > – 2
This becomes >x x>
This becomes –1>x x>
Answer: –1>x>
The inequality I6x + 4I > 2 will be satisfied for any value of x greater than but
less than – 1
Note: – 1 > x (– 1 greater than x) can be said as x < – 1 (x less than – 1)
101
Polynomial Division (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 18 Polynomial Division
A student once asked me why the class needed to understand polynomial division; the
answer is because, it is used throughout many branches of engineering; such as
electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, aerospace engineering, chemical
engineering etc. The computer software engineer will use the answer to polynomial
division as the check-sum in cyclic redundancy checks, used in transmitting data over
computer networks. The Instrument engineer will use polynomial division in the study of
‘Transfer Functions’ and ‘Signal Processing’ Polynomial division can be used to factor
quadratic and cubic equations. As you graduate through your maths, exam boards will
want you to be able to demonstrate you can perform polynomial division, so that’s it,
you want to be good at maths, you need to be able to perform polynomial division.
Fortunately, you will not encounter polynomial division until you are quite advanced in
your maths. The example below is a typical polynomial division problem, in this branch
of maths, we call the numerator the ‘dividend’ and the denominator the ‘divisor’ sorry
to have to give you some new terms, but that’s just the way it is.
The ‘dividend’ in normal fractions we call

the upper part of a fraction the numerator
The ‘divisor’ in normal fractions we call the
lower part of a fraction the denominator
If you have access to the internet, you can search

for ‘Long Division of Polynomials calculator’ there
are a number of links to online ‘polynomial
division calculators’ and whilst you cannot use
them in an exam, you can use them to check the
result of any maths you have to do for your tutor.
Opposite is an image from one of the online
calculators, which has been used to calculate the
result of the above expression. With most of these
calculators you have to use the ‘caret’ (^) key
positioned on most UK/US keyboards above
number 6 key to enter a power.
On the following pages, we will see how to
perform polynomial division on the above expression.
102
Polynomial Division Contents Page (Pre-Calculus)
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Due to the large number of examples in this section, I have created a

contents page for the polynomial division examples
Chapter 19 Polynomial Division Contents Page
Example (121) Simplify Page 105
Exercise (178) Simplify Page 384
103
Polynomial Division Contents Page (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 19 Polynomial Division Contents Page
Polynomial Remainder Theorem
Example (125) Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder to

Page 123

Page 124

Page 125
Polynomial Division using Synthetic Division
Example (128) Simplify using synthetic division

Page 126

Page 128

Page 130

Page 132
104
Polynomial Division Examples (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 20 Polynomial Division Examples
We will look at how to perform polynomial division in the following examples, as you will
find there are many steps required to obtain a solution. There is another way to solve
polynomial division, which is called ‘Synthetic Division’ we will look at this method in
chapter 22, and then you can decide which method you prefer to use.
Dividend
Divisor
We write the fraction as shown below
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 3
Step 1: We divide the first term in the dividend 2x2 by the highest power of x in the
divisor e.g. 2x2 ÷ x = 2x (we ignore the –1 term in x – 1)
This is our solution for step 1, which we place above the ‘bar’ in the solution
line as shown next.
2x This is the solution line. By the time we have

x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 3 worked our way through the problem it will
finally show the solution to the division.
Step 2: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 1 (which was 2x)
(x – 1) x 2x = 2x2 – 2x
We now write this result 2x2 – 2x below the dividend as shown next:
2x
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 3
2x2 – 2x Result from step 2
Step 3: We now perform subtraction on the dividend minus the result from step 2; we
then bring down the –3 term into the result from step 3 line.
2x
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 3 Note: (x) – (–2x) = +3x
– 2x2 – 2x
0 + 3x – 3 Result from step 3
Note the result after step 3 is 3x – 3 (Continued on the next page)
105
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We now repeat the process of step 1 to 3 this time 3x – 3 becomes our new dividend.
Step 4: We now divide the highest power of x from step 3, which was 3x by the
highest power of x in the divisor as shown below:
2x
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 3
– 2x2 – 2x
3x – 3
We now write the result of this division i.e. 3 above the bar in the solutions line as
shown below
2x + 3
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 3
– 2x2 – 2x
3x – 3 Result from step 3
Step 5: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 4 (which was 3)
(x – 1) x 3 = 3x – 3
We now write this result 3x – 3 below the result from step 3 as shown next:
2x + 3
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 3
– 2x2 – 2x
106
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Step 6: We now perform subtraction on the result from step 3 minus the result from
step 5
2x + 3 Solution line
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 3
– 2x2 – 2x
– 3x – 3 Result from step 5
0+0
The result of the last subtraction is zero, the polynomials have been divided exactly,
leaving no remainder value; there is no value of x left to multiply by the divisor, which
‘would’ be the next step if a value of x still remained. In the next example we will find
after step 6 we still have a value of x so we will continue the division process beyond
step 6. The overall result of the division is shown in the solution line above the bar i.e.
the solution is 2x + 3
Note, if the result of the last subtraction does not cancel exactly to zero but leaves a
number, this number is called the ‘remainder’.
You should have come across the term ‘remainder’, when you first learnt about fractions
in primary school, if after dividing one number by another the result does not divide
exactly it leaves a remainder, in the next example we will end up with a remainder.
Now the following is important
When a polynomial fraction divides out exactly as in example (121) it means
the divisor is a factor of the dividend
What we have just done in example (121) if you didn’t realise it, is to find the factors of
the quadratic equation in the dividend. We will look at this in more detail in chapter 44,
but for now the quadratic equation:
2x2 + x – 3 factors to (2x + 3)(x – 1) (See page 433 for worked example)
107
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Dividend
Divisor
In this example, we have no x term with a power of 1, and we ‘must’ have such a
term, so we rewrite the dividend as follows: x 3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
We write the fraction as shown opposite: x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
Step 1: We divide the first term in the dividend x3 by the highest power of x in the
divisor e.g. x3 ÷ x = x2 (we ignore the –3 term in x – 3)
line as shown next.
x2 This is the solution line. By the time we have

x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4 worked our way through the problem it will
finally show the solution to the division.
Step 2: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 1 (which was x2)
(x – 3) x x2 = x3 – 3x2
We now write this result x3 – 3x2 below the dividend as shown next:
x2
x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
x3 – 3x2 Result from step 2
Step 3: We now perform subtraction on the dividend minus the result from step 2, we
then bring down the 0x – 4 term and place it in the result from step 3 line.
x2
x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
– x3 – 3x2
0 + x2 + 0x – 4 Result from step 3
108
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We now repeat the process of step 1 to 3 this time x2 + 0x – 4 becomes our new
dividend.
Step 4: We now divide the highest power of x from step 3, which was x2 by the
x2
x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
x3 – 3x2
+ x2 + 0x – 4
We now write the result of this division i.e. x above the bar in the solutions line as
shown below.
x2 + x
x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
x3 – 3x2
+ x2 + 0x – 4 Result from step 3
Step 5: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 4 (which was x)
(x – 3) x x = x2 – 3x
We now write this result x2 – 3x below the result from step 3 as shown next:
x2 + x
x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
x3 – 3x2
x2 – 3x Result from step 5

109
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step 5; we then bring down the – 4 term into the results from step 6 line.
x2 + x Solution line
x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
x3 – 3x2
– x2 – 3x Result from step 5
x2 + x
x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
x3 – 3x2
+ x2 + 0x – 4
– x2 – 3x
0 + 3x – 4
shown below.
x2 + x + 3
x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
x3 – 3x2
+ x2 + 0x – 4
– x2 – 3x
0 + 3x – 4 (Continued on the next page)
110
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(x – 3) x 3 = 3x – 9
x2 + x + 3
x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
x3 – 3x2
+ x2 + 0x – 4
– x2 – 3x
+ 3x – 4 Result from step 6
step 8.
x2 + x + 3
x – 3 ) x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4
x3 – 3x2
+ x2 + 0x – 4
– x2 – 3x
0 +5
We have divided out all the x terms, there are none left to multiply by the dividend to
continue the division process, so we have finished our polynomial division. We are left
with the number 5, this is termed the remainder, we show the solution to this example
as follows:
= x2 + x + 3 + 5 we can also show as x2 + x + 3 +

Quotient Remainder Quotient Remainder
The second form of the answer is useful when performing partial fractions and
rearranging the fraction so that the denominator is of a degree greater than the
numerator (see page 398 for an example).
111
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Dividend
Divisor
We write the fraction as shown opposite: x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
Step 1: We divide the first term in the dividend 2x 4 by the highest power of x in the
divisor e.g. 2x 4 ÷ x = 2x 3 (we ignore the –2 term in x – 2)
line as shown next.
This is the solution line. By the time we
2x 3 have worked our way through the problem
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8 it will finally show the solution to the
division
Step 2: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 1 (which was 2x 3)
(x – 2) x 2x 3 = 2x 4 – 4x 3
We now write this result 2x 4 – 4x 3 below the dividend as shown next:

2x 3
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
2x 4 – 4x 3 Result from step 2
Step 3: We now perform subtraction on the dividend minus the result from step 2. We
then bring down the + 6x 2 – 4x – 8 terms into the result from step 3 line.
2x 3
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8 Result from step 3
112
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We now repeat the process of step 1 to 3 this time –x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8 becomes our

new dividend.
Step 4: We now divide the highest power of x from step 3, which was –x 3 by the
2x 3
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
- 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
We now write the result of this division i.e. -x2 above the bar in the solutions line as
shown below.
2x 3 – x2
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
- 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
Step 5: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 4 (which was –x2)
Watch out for the result of the signs i.e.

(x – 2) x –x2 = –x3 + 2x2
–2 x –x2 = + 2x2
We now write this result –x3 + 2x2 below the result from step 3 as shown next:
2x 3 – x2
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– 2x 4 – 4x 3
–x 3 + 2x2 Result from step 5
113
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step 5; we then bring down the – 4x – 8 terms into the result from step 6
line.
2x 3 – x2 Solution line
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– 2x 4 – 4x 3
– –x 3 + 2x2 Result from step 5
0 + 4x 2 – 4x – 8 Result from step 6
Step 7: We now divide the highest power of x from step 6, which was 4x 2 by the
2x 3 – x2
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– –x3 + 2x2
0 + 4x 2 – 4x – 8
We now write the result of this division i.e. 4x above the bar in the solutions line as
shown below.
2x 3 – x2 + 4x
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– –x 3 + 2x2
0 + 4x 2 – 4x – 8
114
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(x – 2) x 4x = 4x2 – 8x
We now write this result 4x2 – 8x below the result from step 6 as shown next:
2x 3 – x2 + 4x
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– –x 3 + 2x2
4x 2 – 4x – 8 Result from step 6
step 8; then bring down the – 8 term into the result from step 9 line
2x 3 – x2 + 4x
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– –x 3 + 2x2
– 4x2 – 8x Result from step 8
In the previous two examples we had finished by now, but as you can see, we still have
a power of x left i.e. 4x – 8, so we will have to perform division of 4x by the highest
power of x in the divisor once again
115
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2x 3 – x2 + 4x
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
- 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– –x3 + 2x2
4x 2 – 4x – 8
– 4x2 – 8x
0 + 4x – 8
shown below
2x 3 – x2 + 4x + 4
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– –x 3 + 2x2
116
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(x – 2) x 4 = 4x – 8
2x 3 – x2 + 4x + 4
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– –x 3 + 2x2
step 11
2x 3 – x2 + 4x + 4 Solution line
x – 2 ) 2x 4 – 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– 2x 4 – 4x 3
0 – x 3 + 6x 2 – 4x – 8
– –x 3 + 2x2
0 +0
There is nothing left to divide out the answer is shown in the solution line i.e.
Answer = 2x 3 – x2 + 4x + 4
117
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Dividend
Divisor
This is a more advanced version of polynomial division, and most internet online
polynomial division calculators, cannot handle two variables i.e. x and y, so you have
to search for ‘Long division polynomial calculator with two variables’ when we
have finished this example we will use such an internet calculator to check the solution
to this example (see page 122).
We write the expression as follows:

Since we have no terms of x2 or x in
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3 the dividend we create them as
shown opposite, we did something
similar in example 122 on page 108
Step 1: We divide the first term in the dividend x 3 by the highest power of x in the
divisor e.g. x 3 ÷ x = x 2 (we ignore the y term in x + y)
This is our solution for step 1, which we place above the ‘bar’ in the solution line as
shown next.
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3 worked our way through the problem it will
finally show the solution to the division
Step 2: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 1 (which was x 2)
(x + y) (x 2) = x 3 + x 2y
We now write this result x3 + x2y below the dividend as shown next:
x2
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3
x3 + x2y Result from step 2
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Step 3: We now perform subtraction on the dividend minus the result from step 2. We
then bring down the 0x and y3 term from the dividend as shown.
x2
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3
– x3 + x2y Result from step 2
0 – x2y + 0x + y3 Result from step 3
If in the subtraction above, you are wondering how 0x2 – x2y results in – x2y then
remember 0 x x2 = 0 (anything times zero equals zero) therefore, you have:
0 – x2y = – x2y
Step 4: We now divide the highest power of x from step 3, which was – x2y by the
x2
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3
– x3 + x2y
– x2y + 0x + y3
We now write the result of this division i.e. –xy above the bar in the solutions line as
shown below.
x2 – xy
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3
– x3 + x2y
– x2y + 0x + y3 Result from step 3
119
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Step 5: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 4 (which was –xy)
(x + y) x (–xy) = –x2y –xy2
We now write this result –x2y –xy2 below the result from step 3 as shown next:
x2 – xy
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3
– x3 + x2y
–x2y + 0x + y3 Result from step 3
–x2y – xy2 Result from step 5
step 5. We then bring down the y3 term into the step 6 results line.
x2 – xy
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3
– x3 + x2y
Notice how 0x
–x2y + 0x + y3 Result from step 3 – – xy2
– –x2y – xy2 Result from step 5 Results in + xy2
0 + xy2 + y3 Result from step 6 Remember two
minus signs result
in a plus sign
Step 7: We now divide the highest power of x from step 6, which was xy2 by the
x2 – xy
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3
– x3 + x2y
–x2y + 0x + y3
– –x2y – xy2
0 + xy2 + y3
120
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Step 7: (Continued) we now write the result of this division i.e. y2 above the bar in the
solutions line as shown below
x2 – xy + y2
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3
– x3 + x2y
– –x2y – xy2 Result from step 5
0 + xy2 + y3 Result from step 6
Step 8: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 7 (which was y2)
(x + y) x (y2) = xy2 + y3
We now write this result xy2 + y3 below the result from step 6 as shown next:
x2 – xy + y2
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3
– x3 + x2y
xy2 + y3 Result from step 6
121
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step 8.
x2 – xy + y2 Solution line
x + y ) x3 + 0x2 + 0x + y3
– x3 + x2y
– xy2 + y3 Result from step 8
0 +0
We have no power of x left to perform any further calculations so we are finished, the
answer to this polynomial division is shown in the solutions line i.e.
Below is an image from an internet ‘Long Division Polynomial Calculator with two
variables’ as you can see the online calculator agrees with our result
Divide (dividend): x^3+y^3
By (Divisor): x+y
Calculate
Answer = x2 – xy + y2
122
Polynomial Division Remainder Theorem (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 21 Polynomial Remainder Theorem
The polynomial remainder theorem is useful when we only want to know if the division
of one polynomial by another will result in zero or a numeric value, without having to
perform the long division we have seen in the previous examples, see the next page for
more detail. We can perform the remainder theorem on quadratic equations as follows:
If (ax2 + bx + c) is divided by (x – z) where z can be any number other than 0
The quadratic remainder theorem will be given by az2 + bz + c

We can perform the remainder theorem on cubic equations as follows:
If (ax3 + bx2 + cx + d) is divided by (x – z) where z can be any number other

than 0
The cubic remainder will be given by az3 + bz2 + cz + d

We discovered the solution to this polynomial was 2x + 3 – 2 in exercise (179) on

page 387-389, let’s use the remainder theorem to prove the remainder is – 2
We will write it out example (125) like this: 2x2 + x – 5 ÷ x – 1
The quadratic remainder theorem is given by az2 + bz + c

We let a = 2, b = 1, c = – 5, z = 1 (Note we let z = 1 not –1)
(If the divisor was x + 1 then z = –1)
We will enter the substituted values into the quadratic remainder theorem
az2 + bz + c
(2)(1)2 + (1)(1) + (– 5)
We work this out 2+1–5=–2
The quadratic remainder theorem confirms the remainder is –2

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The polynomial remainder theorem is not all that useful on it’s own, however when
there is ‘no’ remainder, the divisor of the polynomial fraction is a factor of the dividend;
this is useful when factorizing polynomials. In example (121) on page 105 which is
reproduced below, we found that the expression divided out exactly, this means we
could factor the divisor and result to obtain the dividend as shown next.
results in 2x + 3
Factoring the divisor and the result gives the dividend as shown below:
(x – 1)(2x + 3) = 2x2 + 3x – 2x – 3 which becomes 2x2 + x – 3
Divisor Result Divisor x Result Dividend
We have performed enough examples of polynomial division, so for this example I have
used one of the internet long division polynomial calculators to obtain the solution as
shown opposite i.e. the answer is 3x + 2 remainder 7
We can see that the result of

Quotient Remainder
We will use the quadratic remainder theorem to see if this answer is correct.
We will write it out example (126) like this: 3x2 + 5x + 9 ÷ x + 1
The quadratic remainder is given by az2 + bz + c

We let a = 3, b = 5, c = 9, z = –1 (Note we let z = –1 not +1)
(If the divisor was x – 1 then z = +1)
We will enter the substituted values into the quadratic remainder theorem
az2 + bz + c If you check this answer
(3)(–1)2 + (5)(–1) + (9) remember to place the (3)(-1)2
terms in brackets before you
square it, otherwise you will
We work this out 3–5+9=7
end up with – 3
The quadratic remainder theorem confirms the remainder is 7
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In example (122) on page 108-111 we found that = x2 + x + 3 + 5

Quotient Remainder
i.e. this example had a remainder of 5.
Let’s see how this would work out using the cubic remainder theorem.
Example (127)
Using the cubic remainder theorem find the remainder to
We will write it out like this: x3 – 2x2 + 0x – 4 ÷ x – 3
The cubic remainder theorem for the form (ax3 + bx2 + cx + d) ÷ (x – z)
This is given by: az3 + bz2 + cz + d

We let a = 1, b = – 2, c = 0, d = – 4, z = 3 (Note we let z = 3 not – 3)
We will enter the substituted values into the cubic remainder theorem
az3 + bz2 + cz + d
(1)(3)3 + (– 2)(3)2 + (0)(3) + (– 4)
We work this out 27 – 18 + 0 – 4 = 5
The cubic remainder theorem confirms the remainder is 5
125
Polynomial Division using Synthetic Division (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 22 Polynomial Division using Synthetic Division
If you found polynomial division using the long division method shown in examples
(121) to (124) too difficult, then there is another method called ‘synthetic division’
some students find synthetic division easier, so we will demonstrate this method over
the next few examples, then you can decide which method you prefer.
In example (121) on page 105, we found the expression resulted in a

solution of 2x + 3 and took three pages to solve
We will repeat example (121) below using synthetic division as shown in example
(128)
Dividend
Divisor
Step 1: We write the problem out as follows:

x2 x1 x0
Observe how the dividends coefficients of x are written in
1 2 1 –3
the first line to the right of the vertical divider line i.e. 2x2
becomes 2, x becomes 1. The divisor has been written as
1, since (x – 1) is a factor of the expression so if
(x – 1) = 0 then x = 1
Step 2:
We now bring down the first coefficient i.e. the number 2,
1 2 1 –3 and write it below the line. We then multiply it by the
divisor i.e. 1 e.g. 2 x 1 = 2 and place the product (2) below
2 the next coefficient but above the line.
2x 1
Step 3:
We now add the product from step 2 i.e. (2) to the
1 2 1 –3 coefficient above it (1) and write the result below the line
e.g. 2 + 1 = 3. We then multiply the result (3) by the
2 3 divisor (1) e.g. 3 x 1 = 3, and write this result below the
next coefficient but above the line.
2 3x1
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Example (128 Continued)
Step 4:
1 2 1 –3 coefficient above it (– 3) and write the result below the
line e.g. 3 + (–3) = 0. We can’t multiply this result by the
divisor then place it under the next coefficient since there
2 3
are no more coefficients, so we have finished the synthetic
2 3 0 division.
The answer is 2x + 3
The first two numbers below the line are the coefficients of the answer. The last number
i.e. 0 is the remainder; as we can see below this example divided out exactly so there is
no remainder.
The solution is:
Quotient
In example (121) we needed three pages to solve this problem, using synthetic division
we could have solved this problem on one page, if it had not been for the introductory
text at the top of the previous page.
What we have just done, if you didn’t realise it, is to find the factors of the quadratic
equation in the dividend. We will look at this in more detail in chapter 44, but for now
the quadratic equation:
2x2 + x – 3 factors to (2x + 3)(x – 1) (See page 433 for worked example)
Let’s look at another example on the next page.
127
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Dividend
Divisor

x2 x1 x0
–1 1 –9 –10
the first line to the right of the vertical divider line. The
divisor has been written as –1, since (x + 1) is a factor of
the expression so if (x + 1) = 0 then x = –1
Step 2:
–1 1 –9 –10 and write it below the line. We then multiply it by the
divisor (–1) e.g. 1 x (–1) = –1 and place the product (–1)
–1 below the next coefficient but above the line.
1x –1
Step 3:
We now add the product from step 2 i.e. (–1) to the
–1 1 –9 –10 coefficient above it (–9) and write the result below the line
e.g. –1 + –9 = –10. We then multiply the result (–10) by
–1 10 the divisor (–1) e.g. –10 x –1 = 10, and write this result
1 –10x –1 below the next coefficient but above the line.
Step 4:
coefficient above it (–10) and write the result below the
–1 1 –9 –10 line e.g. 10 + (–10) = 0. We can’t multiply this result by
the divisor then place it under the next coefficient since
–1 10 there are no more coefficients, so we have finished the
1 –10 0 synthetic division.
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Step 4:
–1 1 –9 –10
–1 10
1 – 10 becomes the answer x – 10
1 –10 0
Shown above is the result from step 4 on the previous page.
The first two numbers below the line are the coefficients of the answer. The last number
i.e. 0 is the remainder; as we can see below this example divided out exactly so there is
no remainder.
The solution is:
Quotient
What we have just done, is to find the factors of the quadratic equation in the dividend.
We will look at this in more detail in chapter 42, but for now the quadratic equation:
x2 – 9x – 10 factors to (x + 1)(x – 10) (See page 428 for worked exercise)
129
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Example (130) Simplify Dividend

Divisor
We first need to rewrite the dividend to include the x2 value even though this will be
0x2 as we must have all coefficients of x in the dividend as follows:
Step 1: We now write the problem out as follows:

x3 x2 x1 x0
–2 3 0 –4 5 the first line to the right of the vertical divider line. The
divisor has been written as – 2, since (x + 2) is a factor of
the expression so if (x + 2) = 0 then x = – 2
Step 2:
–2 3 0 –4 5 and write it below the line. We then multiply it by the
divisor (– 2) e.g. 3 x (–2) = –6 and place the product (–6)
–6 below the next coefficient but above the line.
3 x–2
Step 3:
We now add the product from step 2 i.e. (–6) to the
coefficient above it (0) and write the result below the line
–2 3 0 –4 5 e.g. (–6) + 0 = –6. We then multiply the result (–6) by
the divisor (–2) e.g. –6 x –2 = 12, and write this result
– 6 12 below the next coefficient but above the line.
3 – 6 x–2
Step 4: We now add the product from step 3 i.e. (12) to the
coefficient above it (–4) and write the result below the line
–2 3 0 –4 5 e.g. 12 + (–4) = 8. We then multiply the result (8) by the
divisor (–2) e.g. 8 x –2 = –16, and write this result below
–6 12 –16 the next coefficient but above the line.
3 –6 8 x–2

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Step 5: We now add the product from step 4 i.e. (–16) to the
–2 3 0 –4 5 e.g. (–16) + 5 = –11. We can’t multiply this result by the
divisor then place it under the next coefficient since there
–6 12 –16 are no more coefficients, so we have finished the synthetic
division.
3 –6 8 –11
The answer is 3x2 – 6x + 8 – 11
The first three numbers below the line are the coefficients of the answer. The last
number i.e. – 11 is the remainder; we show the answer as follows:
Quotient Remainder
What we have just done, if you didn’t realise it, is to find one of the factors of the cubic
equation in the dividend. We will look at this in more detail in chapter 52, but for now
the cubic equation factors as follows:
3x 3 – 4x + 5 = (x + 2)(3x2 – 6x + 8) – 11 (See page 440-441)
131
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In example (123) on page 112, we found the expression
resulted in a solution of 2x3 – x2 + 4x + 4 and took six pages to solve.
We will repeat example (123) below using synthetic division in example (131)
Example (131) Simplify Dividend

Divisor
x4 x3 x2 x1 x0
2 2 –5 6 –4 –8 the first line to the right of the vertical divider line. The
divisor has been written as 2, since (x – 2) is a factor of
the expression so we would have (x – 2) = 0 therefore
x=2
Step 2:
2 2 –5 6 –4 –8 and write it below the line. We then multiply it by the
divisor (2) e.g. 2 x 2 = 4 and place the product (4) below
4 the next coefficient but above the line.
2x 2
Step 3: We now add the product from step 2 i.e. (4) to the
2 2 –5 6 –4 –8 e.g. 4 + (–5) = –1. We then multiply the result (–1) by
the divisor (2) e.g. –1 x 2 = –2, and write this result below
4 –2 the next coefficient but above the line.
2 –1 x 2
Step 4: We now add the product from step 3 i.e. (–2) to the
2 2 –5 6 –4 –8 e.g. –2 + 6 = 4. We then multiply the result (4) by the
divisor (2) e.g. 4 x 2 = 8, and write this result below the
next coefficient but above the line.
4 –2 8
2 –1 4 x 2
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Step 4: Reproduced from the previous page
2 2 –5 6 –4 –8
4 –2 8
2 –1 4 x 2
Step 5:
2 2 –5 6 –4 –8
e.g. 8 + –4 = 4. We then multiply the result (4) by the
divisor (2) e.g. 4 x 2 = 8, and write this result below the
4 –2 8 8 next coefficient but above the line.
2 –1 4 4 x 2
Step 6:
2 2 –5 6 –4 –8 coefficient above it (–8) and write the result below the line
e.g. 8 + –8 = 0. There are no more coefficients to work
with and the remainder is zero, we have finished.
4 –2 8 8
2 –1 4 4 0
The answer is 2x3 – x2 + 4x + 4 remainder 0
The first four numbers below the line are the coefficients of the answer. The last
number i.e. 0 indicates there is no remainder; we show the answer as follows:
We have solved this polynomial fraction in two pages using synthetic division; compared
to the six pages it took using polynomial long division.
133
Linear Simultaneous Equations with two unknowns (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 23 Linear Simultaneous Equations with two unknowns
We found how to find the value of an unknown variable in chapter 7 Linear Equations,
but all the examples in that section contained single equations with only one unknown
variable, e.g. in example (76) on page 63 we found how to find the value of y when
asked to solve 7(y – 1) – 28 = 4(y – 4)
When a single equation contains two unknown variables, it has an infinite number of
solutions and is impossible to solve, for example if we had an equation such as:
x + 2y = – 1
We could ‘not’ solve the above equation to find the value of x and y, however if we had
a second equation also containing terms of x and y, then we would have two equations
with two unknowns, then it is possible we could solve for x and y.
Not every simultaneous equation can be solved; simultaneous equations can be

graphed, and if a solution is possible then the two graphs will intersect at some point as
shown in the graph below on the left. The point of intersection of the two graphs is at
x = 3 and y = 1. The graph below on the right is from a simultaneous equation that
has no solution, since the graphs consist of two parallel lines that never intersect.
The graph above is from The graph above has no

example (133) page 139, the solution, the simultaneous
simultaneous equation is: equation is:
x+y =4 x – y = –3
4x – 2y = 10 x–y=–6
134
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To summarise this, we can:

Solve two unknowns with two simultaneous equations.
Solve three unknowns with three simultaneous equations.
Solve four unknowns with four simultaneous equations.
At the level this book is written for, we will mainly look at examples for solving
simultaneous equations with two unknown quantities. You would be working at higher
or advanced maths level, before you would work to solve simultaneous equations with
three or more unknowns; however, I have included a couple of examples of solving
simultaneous equations with three unknowns in chapter 25. This will be a topic I will go
into in more detail in the next series of ‘advanced math books from college to university’
I will write; see my Facebook page for more details.
Just so, you know, the easiest way to solve simultaneous equations is to use the
internet, just type into a browser simultaneous equation solver there is a number to
choose from, or alternatively if you have a Casio FX 991 calculator, you can use this to
solve simultaneous equations. Unfortunately, the Casio FX 83/85 and 115 do not have
the facility to solve simultaneous equations.
We will use both methods next to solve example (132) then I will show you how to solve
simultaneous equations by substitution and by elimination.
You can also solve simultaneous equations by a graphing method; we will look at this in
more detail in example (133) on page 143.
Examples of simultaneous equations will be presented over the following pages;

typically, a simultaneous equation looks something like that shown below.
Solve for x and y when:
3x + 7y = 26 Equation 1
However simultaneous equations can also be presented in word form as a problem, we

will look at some examples on page 148.
135
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Example (132) Solve the following simultaneous equation for x and y by (a) using
the internet (b) using a Casio FX 991 calculator (c) by substitution (d) by elimination
3x + 7y = 26 Equation 1 Simultaneous Equation Solver

(a) Using the internet, open a browser and

search for simultaneous equation solver
using one of the internet solvers you enter the
equations into the Equation 1 and Equation 2
field, an example is shown opposite, then click
on the Submit button.
The equations are presented in the solve field 3x + 7y = 26

opposite, so you can check you have entered Solve
the correct values. 4x + 5y = 13
The answer appears in the Results field shown

opposite i.e. the answer is: Results x = – 3 and y = 5
x = – 3 and y = 5
(b) Using a Casio FX 991: Turn on the calculator

1: COMP 2: CMPLX
Step 1: Press the Mode key, the display appears as
3: STAT 4: BASE-N
shown opposite. Press the number 5 key, this is
5: EQN 6: MATRIX
for equations (EQN) the display appears as
7: TABLE 8: VECTOR
shown next.
Step 2: Press the number 1 key; this is for simultaneous 1: anX+bnY=cn

equations with two unknowns. 2: anX+bnY=cnZ=dn
3: aX2+bX+c=0
Step 3: Enter the following keys: 4: aX3+bX2+cX+d=0
3 7 26 4 5 13
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the x answer i.e. – 3
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the y answer i.e. 5
The above sequence represents the simultaneous equation shown below.
3x + 7y = 26
Using the Casio FX 991 we find x = – 3, y = 5
4x + 5y = 13
To return the Casio to normal mode press Mode and 1
136
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Example (132 Continued) Solve the following simultaneous equation for x and y by:
(c) by substitution (d) by elimination
c) Solving by substitution we solve equation 1 or 2 in terms of x, we can use either

equation, however we usually select the one, which is the simplest to solve, since there
is not much difference between the equations is this example we will use equation 1.
3x + 7y = 26
Note: We used
Rewriting as: 3x = 26 – 7y, therefore equation 1 to obtain
terms of x, we
We will substitute this value for x into equation 2 as follows: ‘MUST’ substitute the
terms of x into
4x + 5y = 13 becomes 4 + 5y = 13 equation 2 to obtain
y, we cannot
Multiplying out becomes 34.6666 – 9.3333y + 5y = 13 substitute them back
into equation 1
Which becomes – 4.3333y = 13 – 34.6666 otherwise the y terms
cancel to zero
Which becomes – 4.3333y = – 21.6666
Giving
We now substitute y = 5 back into equation 1 to obtain the value for x
Equation 1: 3x + 7y = 26
Substituting y = 5 into equation 1 gives: 3x + 7(5) = 26
Which becomes 3x + 35 = 26, this gives 3x = 26 – 35, leaving 3x = – 9
Therefore
We therefore have our solution by the substitution method as x = – 3, y = 5

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(d) by elimination
d) Solving by elimination we have to multiply the equations 1 and 2 by some value

that will cause both values of x in the new equations to be the same number so they
will cancel after subtraction. If we multiply equation 1 by 4, since we have 4x in
equation 2, and we multiply equation 2 by 3 since we have 3x in equation 1 we obtain
equations 3 and 4 as follows:
(3x + 7y = 26) x 4 becomes 12x + 28y = 104 equation 3

(4x + 5y = 13) x 3 becomes 12x + 15y = 39 equation 4
12x + 28y = 104 becomes equation 3

We subtract equation 4 from equation 3 as follows: 12x + 28y = 104 equation 3

– 12x + 15y = 39 equation 4
The x terms cancel leaving: 13y = 65
Therefore y=5
We now substitute y = 5 into equation 1 or 2 which will give x = – 3, just as in the

previous substitution method.
We have our solution by the elimination method as x = – 3, y = 5
See how to solve simultaneous equation using graphs on page 143 and page 147
my introductory math series from school to college titled Graphs an Introduction will
explain the process in greater detail.
138
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Example (133) Solve the following simultaneous equation for x and y by (a) using
the internet (b) using a Casio FX 991 calculator (c) by substitution (d) by elimination (e)
by graphing
Simultaneous Equation Solver
x+y=4
4x – 2y = 10
(a) Using the internet, open a browser and search
for simultaneous equation solver using one of
the internet solvers you enter the equations into
the Equation 1 and Equation 2 field, an example is
shown opposite, then mouse click on the Submit
button.
The equations are presented in the solve field x+y=4
opposite, so you can check you have entered the Solve
correct values. 4x – 2y = 10
The answer appears in the Results field shown

opposite i.e. the answer is: Results x = 3 and y = 1
x = 3, y = 1
(b) Using a Casio FX 991: Turn on the calculator

Step 1: Press the Mode key, the display appears as 1: COMP 2: CMPLX
shown opposite. Press the number 5 key, this is 3: STAT 4: BASE-N
for equations (EQN) the display appears as 5: EQN 6: MATRIX
shown next. 7: TABLE 8: VECTOR
Step 2: Press the number 1 key; this is for simultaneous 1: anX+bnY=cn

equations with two unknowns. 2: anX+bnY=cnZ=dn
3: aX2+bX+c=0
Step 3: Enter the following keys: 4: aX3+bX2+cX+d=0
1 1 4 4 -2 10
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the x answer i.e. 3
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the y answer i.e. 1
The above sequence represents the simultaneous equation shown below.
x+y=4
4x – 2y = 10 Using the Casio FX 991 we find x = 3, y = 1
139
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(c) by substitution (d) by elimination (e) graphing
x+y=4 Equation 1
4x – 2y = 10 Equation 2
c) Solving by substitution we solve equation 1 or 2 in terms of x, we will use

equation 1 as it is simpler than equation 2.
x+y=4
Note: We used
Rewriting as: x = 4 – y equation 1 to obtain
terms of x, we
We will substitute this value for x into equation 2 as follows: ‘MUST’ substitute the
terms of x into
4(4 – y) – 2y = 10 which becomes 16 – 4y – 2y = 10 equation 2 to obtain
y, we cannot
Which becomes 16 – 6y = 10 substitute them back
into equation 1
otherwise the y terms
Which becomes 16 – 10 = 6y
cancel to zero
Which becomes 6 = 6y
Giving
Equation 1: x + y = 4
Substituting y = 1 into equation 1 gives: x + 1 = 4
Which becomes x = 4 – 1 this gives x = 3
We have our solution by the substitution method which is x = 3, y = 1
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(d) by elimination (e) graphing
x+y=4 Equation 1
d) Solving by elimination we will multiply equation 1 by 4 this will create a new

equation, i.e. equation 3, this will cause the value of x in the new equation 3 to be the
same value of x as equation 2 so they will cancel after subtraction.
(x + y = 4) x 4 becomes 4x + 4y = 16
We will now subtract equation 3 from equation 2, and the x terms will cancel to zero
– 4x + 4y = 16 Equation 3
The x terms cancel leaving: – 6y = – 6
Therefore
We now substitute y = 1 into equation 1 or 2 which will give x = 3, just as in the

previous substitution method.
We have our solution by the elimination method which is x = 3, y = 1
On the next page, we will see how to solve this simultaneous equation using graphs.
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(e) Graphing
We first rearrange equation 1 and 2 so
x+y=4 Equation 1 they are in the format for a straight-line
4x – 2y = 10 Equation 2 graph i.e. y = mx + c
We find equation 1 i.e. x + y = 4 transposes to y = – x + 4
We find equation 2 i.e. 4x – 2y = 10 transposes to – 2y = – 4x + 10
Therefore, for equation 2:
On the next page we will graph the transposed version of equation 1 i.e. y = – x + 4
as the Red line-graph and the transposed version of equation 2 i.e. y = 2x – 5 as the
Blue line-graph.
I don’t list web links to internet solvers, in books which are part of my ‘introductory
maths for beginner’s series’ since by the time you purchase the book the web link may
no longer exist. However, if you check out my Facebook page given below, you will find
a list of all the best internet-based solvers I have found whilst writing this series.
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(e) Graphing using an internet graph solver
We enter the formula for a straight-line graph based on the transposed versions of
equation 1 and 2, from the previous page reproduced below, into the graph equations
fields shown in the left image, we then click on the Plot button and we are presented
with the two straight-line graphs shown on the right.
Equation 1 transposed to y = – x + 4
Equation 2 transposed to y = 2x – 5
1. f(x) = 2x – 5
2. f(x) = –x + 4
Images above from an internet graph solver
Observe how the two straight-line graphs intersect at the points where x = 3 on the
x axis, and y = 1 on the y axis.
This result by graphing i.e. x = 3, y = 1 is the same answer as the internet method,
the Casio FX 991 method, the substitution and elimination methods.
For full details on how to produce this graph, check out my ‘introductory maths for
beginner’s series’ titled Graphs an Introduction.
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Example (134) Solve the following simultaneous equation for x and y by:
a) substitution, b) elimination, c) graphing
Equation 1 These equations look nothing like the

previous examples, so we have to
rearrange them into the standard form
Equation 2 for simultaneous equations.
We will multiply equation 1 by 7 giving
Multiplying out as follows
Cancelling becomes y – 2x = 1
We now rearrange into the form for a simultaneous equation i.e. – 2x + y = 1
– 2x + y = 1 becomes our new equation 1
We now have to rearrange equation 2 we will multiply equation 2 by 9 giving:
Multiplying out as follows
Cancelling becomes 2y – 3x = 5
We now rearrange into the form for a simultaneous equation i.e. – 3x + 2y = 5
– 3x + 2y = 5 becomes our new equation 2 (Continued on the next page)

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Example (134 Continued) Solve the following simultaneous equation for x and y by
a) Substitution, b) Elimination, c) Graphing
– 2x + y = 1 new equation 1
– 3x + 2y = 5 new equation 2
a) Solving by substitution we solve equation 1 or 2 in terms of x, we will use

the new equation 1
Rewriting as: – 2x = 1 – y
Therefore
We will substitute this value for x into new equation 2 as follows:
– 3(–0.5 + 0.5y) + 2y = 5 which becomes 1.5 – 1.5y + 2y = 5

Which becomes 1.5 + 0.5y = 5 Remember: We used equation 1 to
obtain terms of x, we ‘MUST’
Which becomes 0.5y = 5 – 1.5 substitute them into equation 2 to
obtain y, we cannot substitute them
Which becomes 0.5y = 3.5
back into equation 1 otherwise the y
terms cancel to zero
Giving
New equation 1: – 2x + y = 1 which becomes – 2x + 7 = 1
Which becomes – 2x = 1 – 7 which becomes – 2x = – 6
Giving
We have our solution by the substitution method which is x = 3, y = 7
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Example (134 Continued) Solve the following simultaneous equation for x and y
by elimination
b) Solving by elimination By multiplying new equation

1 by 3 and new equation 2
(– 2x + y = 1) x 3 = – 6x + 3y = 3 Equation 3 by 2, we obtain terms of
(– 3x + 2y = 5) x 2 = – 6x + 4y = 10 Equation 4 6x, in equation 3 and 4
which will cancel after
subtraction.
We now subtract equation 3 from equation 4 as follows
We can subtract equation 3
– 6x + 4y = 10 Equation 4 from 4 as shown, or 4 from
– – 6x + 3y = 3 Equation 3 3, both options will still work
but we choose the option
y=7 which will be the easiest to
simplify.
Therefore, y = 7
We now substitute y = 7 into equation 1 or 2 which will give x = 3, just as in the

substitution method on the previous page.
We have our solution by the elimination method which is x = 3, y = 7
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Example (134 Continued) Solve the following simultaneous equation for x and y
by graphing
– 2x + y = 1 new equation 1 We first rearrange new equation 1 and 2

so they are in the format for a straight-
line graph i.e. y = mx + c
c) Solving using internet graphing solver
We find new equation 1 i.e. – 2x + y = 1 transposes to y = 2x + 1
We find new equation 2 i.e. – 3x + 2y = 5 transposes to 2y = 3x + 5
Therefore, which becomes y = 1.5x + 2.5
We will graph the transposed version of new equation 1 i.e. y = 2x + 1 as the Blue
line-graph and the transposed version of new equation 2 i.e. y = 1.5x + 2.5 as the
Red line-graph. See my Facebook page for links to the best internet solvers, I have
found whilst writing this book https://www.facebook.com/davidhodgson.books
1. f(x) = 2x + 1
2. f(x) = 1.5x + 2.5
As we can see the point at which the two line-graphs intersect is the solution to this
simultaneous equation i.e. x = 3, y = 7
147
Simultaneous equations as a word problem (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 24 Linear Simultaneous Equations as Word Problems
Below you will find exercises of simultaneous equations presented as word problems.
We have previously learnt how to solve simultaneous equations using:
(1) The internet, (2) The Casio FX 991 calculator, (3) Substitution, (4) Elimination, and
(5) Graphing. If you go to the pages indicated, we will learn how to solve these word-
type simultaneous equation problems in the exercise section.
Exercise (168) page 373

At an amateur football game, 2000 tickets were sold, child tickets cost £2.50 and adult
tickets cost £4.50, a total of £7500 was collected. How many tickets of each kind were
sold?
Tom has 105 coins comprising of 5 and 10 pence pieces, which total to £9.50 how many
of each coin does he have?
A chemist is mixing two acid solutions, one at 25% strength, and one at 75%. How
many gallons of 75% acid must be used to produce 16 gallons of 50% solution?
A man is now 35 years’ older than his son. 17 years’ ago, he was twice as old. What are
the present ages of the man and his son?
Two numbers have a sum of 36 and a difference of 8, what are the two numbers?
Charlie and Tom have a combined age of 50. 5 years’ ago, Charlie was double the age
Tom is now. How old are Charlie and Tom today?
I am thinking of two numbers. When I double the first number and ‘add-on’ the second
I get 21. When I treble the first number and subtract the second, I get 19. What are the
two numbers I am thinking of?
Billy has more money than David; if David gave Billy £35, then Billy would have twice as
much as David. If Billy gave David £30, they would have the same amount. How much
money does each have?
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Linear Simultaneous Equations with three unknowns (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 25 Linear Simultaneous Equations with three unknowns
Example (135) Solve the following simultaneous equation for A, B and C
15 = 3A + 1B + 0C Equation 1 In partial fraction example (145) on

page 175 we end up with this
– 1 = 4A – 5B + 1C Equation 2
simultaneous equation, we will solve this
2 = – 2A + 0B – 5 C Equation 3
equation in example (135)
The easiest way to
solve simultaneous
equations with
three unknowns is
to use the internet,
open a browser and
search for 3 x 3
equation solver
I have used the one shown above. There are many links so choose whichever solver you
like best. In the one above, you can see I have entered the constant values, which
match up with the simultaneous equation values. You then click on the solve button and
the answers are presented in the x, y and z column. x = A, y = B and z = C
The next easiest method to solve simultaneous equations is to use the Casio FX 991
calculator. Using a Casio FX 991: Turn on the calculator
1: COMP 2: CMPLX
Step 1: Press the Mode key, the display appears as
3: STAT 4: BASE-N
5: EQN 6: MATRIX
7: TABLE 8: VECTOR
shown next.
1: anX+bnY=cn
Step 2: Press the number 2 key; this is for simultaneous 2: anX+bnY=cnZ=dn
equations with three unknowns. 3: aX2+bX+c=0
4: aX3+bX2+cX+d=0
Step 3: Enter the following keys:
3 1 0 15 4 -5 1 -1 -2 0 -5 2
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the x answer i.e. A = 4
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the y answer i.e. B = 3
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the z answer i.e. C = –2
(Continued on the next page) Note: To return you Casio to normal press mode 1
149
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We will now work out this simultaneous equation using simple arithmetic and algebra
15 = 3A + 1B + 0C Equation 1
– 1 = 4A – 5B + 1C Equation 2
2 = – 2A + 0B – 5 C Equation 3
We will rewrite equation 1 as B = 15 – 3A
We will rewrite equation 3 as 5C = – 2A – 2 Therefore
Substitute for B and C into equation 2
4A – 5B + 1C = – 1 Equation 2
4A – 5(15 – 3A) + 1 =–1 Substitute for B and C
4A – 75 + 15A + =–1 expand the terms
20A – 375 + 75A – 2A – 2 = – 5 multiply by 5 to eliminate the fraction
20A + 75A – 2A = – 5 + 375 + 2 Collect the like terms
93A = 372
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We will now substitute A = 4 into equation 1
3A + 1B + 0C = 15 Equation 1
3(4) + B = 15 Substituting A = 4
12 + B = 15
B = 15 – 12
B=3
We now know A = 4, B = 3 so we will substitute these values into equation 2
4A – 5B + 1C = – 1 Equation 2
4(4) – 5(3) + C = – 1 Substituting A = 4 and B = 3
16 – 15 + C = – 1
C = – 1 – 16 + 15
C=–2
We have solved this simultaneous equation using arithmetic and algebra, obviously we
obtain the same result as using the internet solver and the Casio FX 991 calculator
previously shown.
A=4
B=3
C=–2
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Example (136) solve the simultaneous equation shown below for A, B and C
A – B + 2C = 5 Equation 1
A + 2B – C = 2 Equation 2
2A + 2B + 2C = 12 Equation 3
Multiplying equation 2 by 2 gives: (A + 2B – C = 2) x 2 = 2A + 4B – 2C = 4
2A + 4B – 2C = 4 becomes equation 4
2A + 2B + 2C = 12 Equation 3 If we now subtract

equation 4 from equation
– 2A + 4B – 2C = 4 Equation 4
3, the A terms will cancel
– 2B + 4C = 8 Equation 5
Multiplying equation 1 by 2 gives: (A – B + 2C = 5) x 2 = 2A – 2B + 4C = 10
2A – 2B + 4C = 10 becomes equation 6
2A + 2B + 2C = 12 Equation 3 If we now subtract

equation 6 from equation
– 2A – 2B + 4C = 10 Equation 6
3, the A terms will cancel
4B – 2C = 2 Equation 7
We now have two equations (5 and 7) with only terms of B and C, as shown below, but
in their present state neither B or C term will cancel if we add or subtract one from the
other, however, if we multiply equation 7 x 2 we find the C term will cancel as follows:
– 2B + 4C = 8 Equation 5 – 2B + 4C = 8 Equation 5
4B – 2C = 2 Equation 7 x 2 + 8B – 4C = 4 Equation 8
6B = 12
6B = 12 therefore
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We will substitute B = 2 into equation 5 as follows:
–2B + 4C = 8 Equation 5
–2(2) + 4C = 8 Substituting B = 2 into equation 5
–4 + 4C = 8
4C = 8 + 4
We will substitute B = 2 and C = 3 into equation 2 as follows:
A + 2B – C = 2 Equation 2
A + 2(2) – 3 = 2 Substituting B = 2 and C = 3 into equation 2
A+4–3=2
A=2–4+3
A=1
We have now solved this simultaneous equation and found:
A=1
B=2
C=3
Why don’t you use an internet solver or a Casio FX 991 if you own one, to check and
prove the above answers are correct?
153
Partial Fraction Rules (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 26 Partial Fraction Rules
A student once asked me why the group needed to learn about partial fractions.
The answer is that partial fractions are often used by students when solving various
integration problems. In more advanced maths, the student may come across Laplace
transforms and partial fractions are used in this branch of mathematics too.
Awarding bodies around the world consider partial fractions an important part of the
higher mathematics syllabus, so if your maths course has partial fractions in it, then you
just have to know how to perform partial fraction maths.
Using algebraic addition, we can show that
The reversal of this process i.e. moving from
to
is called resolving into ‘partial fractions’

To resolve an algebraic expression into partial fractions three requirements must be met
these are:
1) It must be possible to factorize the denominator e.g. in the above example the
denominator x2 + 3x + 2 factorizes to (x + 2)(x + 1)
2) The denominator must be one degree greater than the numerator, e.g. in the
above example the denominators highest power is of 2 i.e. x2, whilst the
numerators highest power is that of 1 i.e. 4x1 which we write as 4x
3) If the numerator is of a degree, equal to or higher, than the denominator, then

the numerator must be divided by the denominator, to obtain an expression where
the denominator is of a degree higher than the numerator.
Partial fractions are summarised into three different forms as shown on the next page:
154
Partial Fraction Rules (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 26 Partial Fraction Rules
We will learn how to apply these rules over the following pages:
Linear factors with two brackets in the denominator
Linear factors with three brackets in the denominator
Repeated linear factors with two repeated roots
Repeated linear factors with three repeated roots
Quadratic factors
155
Partial Fraction Contents Page (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 27 Partial Fraction Contents Page
Partial Fractions with Linear Factors
Example (137) Resolve into partial fractions Page 159
Exercise (183) Resolve into partial fractions Page 399
156
Partial Fraction Contents Page (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 27 Partial Fraction Contents Page
Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors
Partial Fractions with Quadratic Factors
157
Partial Fractions with Linear Factors (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 28 Partial Fractions with Linear Factors
Just so you know, the easiest way to resolve partial fractions is the use the internet, and
whilst you cannot use the internet in an exam, you can use it if available to check the
answers to any partial fraction assignment or homework questions.
Open a browser and enter in the search field partial fraction solver there are a
number of solvers to choose from, some will only give you the answer, some will show
you all the workings out.
On the next page, we will resolve example (137) into partial fractions.
We will use this as an example of using an internet solver. I have used one of the
internet solvers I like. You enter the above fraction into the input fields as shown in the
image below, and then click on the Calculate button.
Enter the numerator: 5x+10

Calculate
Enter the denominator: x^2+7x+6
We are presented with the answer and the factorized version of the quadratic
denominator as shown below:
We will learn more about factorizing quadratic equations in chapter 42, but for now, you
know you can easily obtain the answer to many partial fraction problems using the
internet.
x2 + 7x + 6 is a quadratic equation (x + 1)(x + 6) are it’s factors.
158
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Example (137) Resolve into partial fractions
We must first factor the denominator, we will learn how to factor this quadratic in
exercise (231) on page 429 but for now the factors are (x + 1)(x + 6) as we
observed on the previous page.
We write example (137) as follows
This example comprises of linear factors and is of the form given on page 155.
We therefore write the expression in this form e.g.
Where A and B are the values to be found

We multiply B’s denominator by A
and A’s denominator by B
This equation is an ‘Identity’ because the left-hand side is just another way of writing
the right-hand side, and since the denominators are the same on both sides of the
equation, we can write:
The triple bar opposite is the symbol used
5x + 10 ≡ A(x + 6) + B(x + 1) for an identity
The above expression is an identity. An identity is true for every value of x. This
means we can substitute any value of x into both sides of the expression to help us find
A and B. When trying to work out these variables, we try to choose values of x, which
will make the arithmetic easier. In this example, if we substitute x = – 6 into the
identity, the A(x + 6) term will cancel, then if we substitute x = – 1 the B(x + 1)
term will cancel making it much easier to solve. (Continued on the next page)
159
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So, let us substitute x = – 6 into the expression:
5x + 10 ≡ A(x + 6) + B(x + 1)
5(–6) + 10 ≡ A(–6 + 6) + B(–6 + 1)
–30 + 10 ≡ A(0) + B(–5)
–20 = –5B
Therefore
Now let us substitute x = – 1 into the expression:
5x + 10 ≡ A(x + 6) + B(x + 1)
5(–1) + 10 ≡ A(–1 + 6) + B(–1 + 1)
–5 + 10 ≡ A(5) + B(0)
5 ≡ 5A
Therefore
Since
The solution becomes:
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We first need to factorize the denominator, we will learn how to factor this quadratic in
example (189) on page 232-233 but for now the factors are (2x + 3)(x + 1)

As in the previous example, this equation is an ‘Identity’ because the left-hand side is
just another way of writing the right-hand side, and since the denominators are the
same on both sides of the equation we can write:
7x + 10 ≡ A(x + 1) + B(2x + 3)
Let’s substitute x = – 1 into the expression the A term will cancel.
7(–1) + 10 ≡ A(–1 + 1) + B(2(–1) + 3)
–7 + 10 ≡ A(0) + B(–2 + 3)
3 ≡ B(1)
Therefore
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We now need to make the B(2x + 3) term equal zero so we can find A, but we have a
problem, if we had B(x + 3) we could make x = –3 and the term would cancel to
zero, but the 2 in the 2x will prevent this from happening. Therefore, we apply a little
transposition as follows:
We have 7x + 10 ≡ A(x + 1) + B(2x + 3) we need to find A
We will rearrange the right-hand side of the equation as follows:
Multiplying out the RHS gives: Ax + A + 2Bx + 3B
Factorizing the x terms gives: (A + 2B)x + (A + 3B)
Therefore 7x + 10 ≡ (A + 2B)x + (A + 3B)
Comparing the coefficients of x on both sides of the equation, we can see that:
7x ≡ (A + 2B)x
If you have never seen the process of comparing
coefficients before, then you have just learnt
Therefore 7 = A + 2B something new.
We previously found that B = 3, so we will substitute B = 3 into the above expression:
7 = A + 2B becomes 7 = A + 2(3)
7=A+6
Therefore A = 7 – 6
Therefore A = 1
The solution becomes
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Where A, B and C are the values to be found.

To obtain the numerator shown below on the right-hand side we have to multiply A by B
and C’s denominator. Then we have to multiply B by A and C’s denominator; finally, we
have to multiply C by A and B’s denominator. This sounds a mouth-full, but it becomes
obvious when we see below.
Just as in the previous examples, this equation is an ‘Identity’ so we can write:
2x2 – 7x – 30 ≡ A(x – 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x + 3) + C(x + 1)(x – 2)
We now want to cancel the B and C terms to obtain the answer to A, so we will let:
x = – 1, and substitute x = – 1 into the above expression:
Substituting x = – 1
2(–1)2 – 7(–1) – 30 ≡ A(-1 – 2)(-1 + 3) + B(-1 + 1)(-1 + 3) + C(-1 + 1)(-1 – 2)
2 + 7 – 30 ≡ A(–3)(2) + B(0)(2) + C(0)(– 3) the B and C terms cancel
– 21 = – 6A
Therefore, we will leave A in this fraction form.

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We now want to cancel the A and C terms to obtain the answer to B, so we will let:
x = 2, and substitute x = 2 into the expression below:
2x2 – 7x – 30 = A(x – 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x + 3) + C(x + 1)(x – 2)
Substituting x = 2
2(2)2 – 7(2) – 30 = A(2 – 2)(2 + 3) + B(2 + 1)(2 + 3) + C(2 + 1)(2 – 2)
8 – 14 – 30 = A(0)(5) + B(3)(5) + C(3)(0) the A and C terms cancel
– 36 = 15B
Therefore, we will leave B in this fraction form.
We now want to cancel the A and B terms to obtain the answer to C, so we will let:
x = – 3, and substitute x = – 3 into the expression below:
2x2 – 7x – 30 ≡ A(x – 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x + 3) + C(x + 1)(x – 2)

Substituting x = – 3
2(-3)2 – 7(-3) – 30 ≡ A(-3 – 2)(-3 + 3) + B(-3 + 1)(-3 + 3) + C(-3 + 1)(-3 – 2)
18 + 21 – 30 ≡ A(-5)(0) + B(-2)(0) + C(-2)(-5) the A and B terms cancel
9 = 10C
Therefore, we will leave C in this fraction form.
We have calculated A = ,B= ,C=
Note how the A term which equals 7/2 appears in the numerator and denominator of
the solution, as does the B term of – 12/5, and C of 9/10
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At present, this example has the numerator of the same degree i.e. x2 as the
denominator, therefore as advised on page 154, the numerator must be divided by the
denominator, so that the denominator ends up of a greater degree.
This involves polynomial division, which we learnt about in chapter 18-20, we will find
the solution to this division is given in exercise (181) on page 394 – 395 as shown
below.
we now factor the denominator as shown next.
See page 225 to factor x2 – 5x + 4

We can now write this in the form below:
Note: we will replace the number 1 later
As we now have an identity, we can write:
5x – 1 ≡ A(x – 4) + B(x – 1)
We will let x = 1 which will cancel the B term.
Substituting x = 1 into 5x – 1 ≡ A(x – 4) + B(x – 1) we obtain:
5(1) – 1 ≡ A(1 – 4) + B(1 – 1)

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5(1) – 1 ≡ A(1 – 4) + B(1 – 1)
5 – 1 ≡ A(– 3) + B(0)
4 = – 3A therefore, we will leave A in this fraction form.
We will let x = 4 which will cancel the A term
Substituting x = 4 into 5x – 1 ≡ A(x – 4) + B(x – 1) we obtain:
5(4) – 1 ≡ A(4 – 4) + B(4 – 1)
20 – 1 ≡ A(0) + B(3)
19 = 3B
Therefore, we will leave B in this fraction form.
We calculated A = and B = we now replace the number 1 term we dropped

earlier.
The form for this example is given by:
Note how the A term which equals – 4/3 appears in the numerator and denominator of
the solution, as does the B term of 19/3
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At present, this example has the numerator of a greater degree i.e. x3 than the
denominator, i.e. x2, therefore as advised on page 154 the numerator must be divided
by the denominator, so that only the denominator ends up of a greater degree.
This involves polynomial division, which we learnt about in chapter 18-20, we will find
the solution to this division is given in exercise (182) on page 396-398 as shown below:
can be written as
We now factor the denominator as shown below:

See page 226 to factor
becomes
x2 + x – 2
We now write this in the form below:
Note we will replace the x – 3 later.
As we now have an identity, we can write:
x – 10 ≡ A(x + 2) + B(x – 1)
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x – 10 ≡ A(x + 2) + B(x – 1)
We will let x = – 2 which will cancel the A term.
Substituting x = – 2 into x – 10 ≡ A(x + 2) + B(x – 1) we obtain:
(– 2) – 10 ≡ A(– 2 + 2) + B(– 2 – 1)
– 2 – 10 = A(0) + B(– 3)
– 12 = – 3B
Therefore
We will now let x = 1 which will cancel the B term.
Substituting x = 1 into x – 10 ≡ A(x + 2) + B(x – 1) we obtain:
1 – 10 ≡ A(1 + 2)+ B(1 – 1)
– 9 ≡ A(3) + B(0)
– 9 = 3A
Therefore
We calculated A = –3 and B = 4 we now replace the number x – 3 term we dropped

earlier.
We could also show this answer as:
168
Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 29 Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors
Just as in the previous examples, we first factor the denominator, just to remind you we
will look at factoring quadratic equations in chapter 42, or you can use an internet
quadratic factor solver; however, on page 228 we will find the denominator factors to:
(x – 2)(x – 2), which is equal to (x – 2)2
So, becomes which equals
Because the factor (x – 2) occurs twice in the denominator, we call this a ‘repeated
linear factor’
In general, repeated linear factors are shown as

you have previously seen this form on page 155
We will let
Since we have an identity, we can write:
2x + 3 ≡ A(x – 2) + B
To cancel the A term, we will let x = 2 and substitute this into the identity e.g.
2(2) + 3 = A(2 – 2) + B
4 + 3 = A(0) + B
7=B
Therefore B = 7
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We don’t have any x term associated with the variable B, so we cannot use the
substitution method to find the value of A; instead we will find the value of A by
comparing coefficients of x as shown below.
Our identity is as follows: 2x + 3 ≡ A(x – 2) + B
We will expand the terms on the right-hand side of the equation as follows:
2x + 3 ≡ Ax – 2A + B
2x ≡ Ax therefore 2 = A
So, we have found A = 2 and B = 7
We previously used the form
We present the solution as follows:
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Just as in the previous examples, we first factor the denominator; on page 236 will find
this factors to:
(2x + 3)(2x + 3), which is equal to (2x + 3)2 i.e. a repeated linear factor.
Once again, we have a repeated linear fraction the form below is given on page 155.
giving
10x + 18 ≡ A(2x + 3) + B
We can’t substitute this time to cancel the A term to obtain B, because the 2x in
(2x + 3) will prevent this term cancelling to zero. Instead, we will expand the identity
and compare coefficients.
10x + 18 ≡ 2Ax + 3A + B
Comparing the coefficients of x: Since 10x ≡ 2Ax
Then 10 ≡ 2A therefore A = 10/2 giving A = 5
Comparing the constant terms: Since 18 ≡ 3A + B and we now know A = 5
Substituting A = 5 we obtain: 18 ≡ 3(5) + B
Which gives 18 ≡ 15 + B
Therefore B = 18 – 15 giving B = 3
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Our first step as always is to factorize the denominator, I will show you how to factor
this cubic expression on page 438 where you will find this expression factors to:
(x + 3)3
Once again, we have a repeated linear factor, this time with three fractions; from the
partial fraction rules on page 155, we find the following:
In general, repeated linear factors as shown as
2x2 + 8x + 6 ≡ A(x + 3)2 + B(x + 3) + C
We will let x = – 3 which will cancel the A and B terms leaving the answer to C
Substituting x = – 3 into the identity we obtain:
2(–3)2 + 8(–3) + 6 ≡ A(–3 + 3)2 + B(–3 + 3) + C
18 – 24 + 6 ≡ A(0)2 + B(0) + C
0=C
Therefore C = 0
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We can’t substitute any value for x in this example to obtain A and B, since there is no
value of x which would cause A or B to cancel to zero; so, we will expand the identity
and compare coefficients.
2x2 + 8x + 6 ≡ A(x + 3)2 + B(x + 3) + C Squaring (x + 3)2 gives
2x2 + 8x + 6 ≡ A(x2 + 6x + 9) + B(x + 3) + C Expanding the terms gives
2x2 + 8x + 6 ≡ Ax2 + 6Ax + 9A + Bx + 3B + C
Equating the coefficients of x2 terms: Since 2x2 ≡ Ax2 Then A = 2
Equating the coefficients of x terms: Since 8x ≡ 6Ax + Bx
Then 8 = 6A + B we know A = 2 so we will substitute A = 2 into 8 = 6A + B
Giving 8 = 6(2) + B
8 = 12 + B
Therefore B = 8 – 12 B=–4
We now know A = 2, B = – 4, C = 0
We prepare the solution as follows:
Since anything with zero in the numerator cancels to zero our solution becomes:
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Partial Fractions with Quadratic Factors (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 30 Partial Fractions with Quadratic Factors
As usual, our first task is to factor the denominator, I have shown you how to factor this
denominator in exercise (240) on page 439, we will find the denominator factors to:
(x – 5)(3x2 + 4x – 2) this is a quadratic factor that will not factorize into two simple
factors.
We can show the above expression as:
As we learnt on page 155 a quadratic factor in the denominator of our original

expression of the form (ax2 + bx +c) gives rise to a partial fraction in the form:
So, we will write
Combining the fractions on the right-hand side of the identity symbol gives:
We now have an identity since the denominators on both sides of the identity are equal,
then the numerators must also be equal.
Simplifying gives:
15x2 – x + 2 ≡ A(3x2 + 4x – 2) + (Bx + C)(x – 5) we expand as follows :
15x2 – x + 2 ≡ 3Ax2 + 4Ax – 2A + Bx2 – 5Bx + Cx – 5C
15x2 – x + 2 ≡ (3A + B)x2 + (4A – 5B + C)x – 2A – 5C Factoring the RHS

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Chapter 30 Partial Fractions with Quadratic Factors
15x2 – x + 2 ≡ (3A + B)x2 + (4A – 5B + C)x – 2A – 5C
Since we have an identity, we can equate like terms as follows:
Equating the coefficients of x2 terms: Since 15x2 ≡ (3A + B)x2 Then 15 = 3A + B
Equating the coefficients of x terms: Since – x ≡ (4A – 5B + C)x
Then – 1 = 4A – 5B + C
Equating the coefficients of constant terms: 2 ≡ – 2A – 5C
We now have three simultaneous equations e.g.
15 = 3A + 1B + 0C Equation 1
– 1 = 4A – 5B + 1C Equation 2
2 = – 2A + 0B – 5 C Equation 3
We can solve this in three ways:
1) If you have access to the internet you can use a 3x3 simultaneous equation solver
2) If you have a Casio FX 991 calculator, this can solve 3-term equations
3) You can work it out long-hand
We solved this simultaneous equation in example (135) on page 149.
We will find A = 4, B = 3, C = – 2
We previously had the form:
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Chapter 30 Partial Fractions with quadratic factors
As usual, our first task is to factor the denominator, I have shown you how to factor this
denominator in exercise (242) on page 443-444, we will find the denominator factors to:
(x + 2)(x2 – 2x + 4) this is a quadratic factor that has complex roots i.e. it will not
factorize into two simple factors.

expression of the form (ax2 + bx + c) gives rise to a partial fraction in the form:
So, we will write
Combining the fractions on the right-hand side gives:
then the numerators must also be equal.
Simplifying gives:
x2 + 8 ≡ A(x2 – 2x + 4) + (Bx + C)(x + 2)
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Chapter 30 Partial Fractions with quadratic factors
From the previous page, we had simplified the fraction to obtain:
x2 + 8 ≡ A(x2 – 2x + 4) + (Bx + C)(x + 2)
Expanding the right-hand side of the equation gives:
x2 + 8 ≡ Ax2 – 2Ax + 4A + Bx2 + 2Bx + Cx + 2C
We will factor the like terms on the right-hand side giving:
x2 + 8 ≡ (A + B)x2 – (2A – 2B – C)x + 4A + 2C
Since this is an identity, we can equate like terms as follows:
Equating the coefficients of x2 terms: Since 1x2 ≡ (A + B)x2 Then 1 ≡ A + B
Equating the coefficients of x terms: Since 0x ≡ – (2A – 2B – C)x
Then 0 ≡ – 2A + 2B + C
Equating the coefficients of constant terms: 8 ≡ 4A + 2C
This gives us a system of three simultaneous equations as follows:
1 = 1A + 1B + 0C We will work out this simultaneous equation in

0 = – 2A + 2B + 1C exercise (177) on page 383
The answer we will find is A = 1, B = 0, C = 2
8 = 4 A + 0B + 2C
From the form
We present the solution as:
The Bx term cancelled to zero since B = 0
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Functions (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 31 Functions
A function is a rule usually represented by f(x) by which an ‘input’ is converted to a
unique ‘output’. Most math books indicate that a function has a function name, an
input, some math books refer to this input as the ‘argument’ or ‘independent
variable’ and an output. Since the output depends on the input the output is
sometimes called the ‘dependent variable’ we can show this in the function below.
If you have access to the internet, you can check your answers to many function
problems using an internet ‘Function Calculator’ (Go to page 307 for more details).
f(x) = x2
The output or the
The function name dependent variable
The input, argument, or independent variable
For the above function, we would say "f of x equals x squared" in other words “the
function of x equals x squared”
f(x) = x2 shows us the function is called ‘f’ where ‘x’ goes in and x2 comes out.
Example (147) If a function of x is given by f(x) = x 2 and x = 3 what is the

output
Answer: We replace x by 3 as follows: f(3) = 32

The output = 9, we can write f(3) = 9
Functions don’t have to be presented as shown above, although they usually are, we
can show a function as shown below:
g(h) = 1 + h + h2
The function name
The output
The input
For the above we would say: g of h equals 1 + h + h2

See the next page for an example of this function.
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Example (148) If a function of h is given by g(h) = 1 + h + h2 and h = 2 what

is the output
Answer: We simply replace h with 2 to obtain the answer shown below:
The output = 7, we can write f(2) = 1 + (2) + (2)2 = 7
In the function f(x) = x2 or g(h) = 1 + h + h2

x and h are simply the location a number will be inserted, it is there to show where the
input goes and what happens to it.
We can use functions in many ways for example the function
can be used for converting temperatures degrees Centigrade to degrees Fahrenheit.
Example (149) Given the function what is the temperature in
degrees Fahrenheit when the temperature is 20 degrees Centigrade
Answer: The output = 68oF, we can write
i.e. we have found f(x) when x = 20
As we have seen on the previous page, we don’t have to use f(x) all the time, for the
temperature conversion function it may be better to use the function shown below.
Then we would say the function Temperature (T) in Centigrade (c) is given by:
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Sometimes a function is presented as y = f(x) or even f:x → y

This is no different to what we have learnt on the previous pages, if we take for instance
the example below, the function simply means we can find the value of y depending on
some rule, and in example (150) the rule is 2x + 5
Example (150) Given the function y = f(x) where f(x) = 2x + 5
Find the value of y when x = 2 and when x = – 3
Answer: when x = 2 then y = 9 since f(2) = 2(2) + 5
f(2) = 4 + 5 = 9
when x = (– 3) then y = – 1 since f(– 3) = 2(– 3) + 5
f(– 3) = – 6 + 5 = – 1
Did you see how easy it was to solve the above function? We simply substituted the
given values of x into the function.
Sometimes a function is shown as f:x → y this simply means that the function ‘f’
sends it’s values from the set x into the values of the set y this is no different to what
we have been doing, it is simply said in a different way.
Example (151) Given the function f:x → y when f:x = x 2 – 2x – 3
Find the value of y when x = 0
Answer: when x = 0 then y = – 3 since f(0) = (0) 2 – 2(0) – 3
We will find we use such function theory when we come to factorizing quadratic
equations in chapter 43.
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Function Rules (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 32 Function Rules
The set of
The set of all corresponding
possible inputs outputs is called
is called the f(x) = x2 the range
domain
The function name The output or the

dependent variable
The input, or argument, or independent variable
The set of all permitted inputs to a function is called the domain of the function, while
the set of actual outputs is called the range; and the variable which contains range is
called the codomain.
Let’s look at an example: In the domain below we have a set of numbers 1, 2, 3, 4

which are the inputs to the function f(x) = x + 1 we can see diagrammatically, the
set of inputs, in the domain, and the range of outputs in the codomain.
We will work this out f(x) = x + 1

step-by-step on the next page
1
2
2 3
4
Range
3 5
Domain Codomain
Domain: {1, 2, 3, 4}
Range: {2, 3, 4, 5}
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Example (152)
A set of numbers {1, 2, 3, 4} are the inputs to the function f(x) = x + 1 find the
range of f(x)
Answer: To find f(x) = x + 1 for the domain {1, 2, 3, 4} we simply substitute:

x = 1, then x = 2, then x = 3, then x = 4 into the function as follows:
f(1) = 1 + 1 = 2
f(2) = 2 + 1 = 3
f(3) = 3 + 1 = 4
f(4) = 4 + 1 = 5 f(x) = x + 1
1
2
2 3
4
Range
3 5
Domain Codomain
Domain: {1, 2, 3, 4}
Range: {2, 3, 4, 5}
Don’t let functions get you down, they are nothing new to you, if you are familiar with
producing graphs, you will have seen something like this:
y = x2 or y = x2 + 6x + 7 or y = 2x + 6
We have an input ‘x ’ a relationship (squaring) or (a quadratic) or (a straight
line) and we have an output ‘y ’ the values we can place into x would be the
domain, the output y is the codomain, and the values of y are the range.
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Now for a function to be a function each input must produce a unique output, a single
input ‘MUST NOT’ produce two different outputs; we can represent this by the images
below.
1 1
1 1
2 2
2 3 2 3
4 4
3 5 3 5
6 6
4 7 4 7
Domain Codomain Domain Codomain
The above image represents a The above image ‘DOES NOT’

function, since each input produces a represents a function because the
unique output. number 2 produced two different
This is called a one-to one function outputs i.e. 4 and 5
This is not permitted
1
1
2
2 3
4
3 5
6
4 7
Domain Codomain
The above image represents a many

to one function
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You must remember a function has special rules:

The function must work for every possible input value i.e. the values in the domain
The function must only have one relationship to each input value
1
1
2
2 3
4
3 5
6
4 7
Domain Codomain
The above image represents a valid function, each input produces a
unique output, or possibly two inputs produce the same output
1
1
2
2 3
4
3 5
6
4 7
Domain Codomain
Not permitted, an input must ‘not’ produce

two or more outputs
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The vertical line test
Sometimes you may be shown a graph and asked to decide if

the graph represents a function or not. What is known as the
vertical line test indicates whether an equation is a function or
not.
If we take the function f(x) = x2 and plot it on a graph we

would find we obtain a u-shape parabola as shown opposite.
If we were to draw vertical lines on this graph, then no matter how many vertical lines
we were to draw, they only cross the parabola once, as shown below.
So long as a vertical line only crosses a graph response

‘once’ then the expression which created the graph will
be a function, the graph shown opposite is also created
by a function. As we can see there are two vertical
lines drawn where x = – 2 and x = 3, the vertical
lines cross the graph response at one point only.
The graph opposite was created from a function that is

considered to be a one to one function, since for each
value of y, there is only one corresponding value of x
The u-shaped graphs above are said to be from
functions which are considered to be many to one, since
one value of y will produce two values of x.
On the next page, we will see examples of graphs, which are NOT formed by functions.
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In the graph shown opposite, we can see the vertical line

crosses the graph response at two points, this indicates this
graph was NOT created from a function.
If we consider the circular graph to the left, we can see the

vertical line crosses the graph response at two points, this
indicates this graph was NOT created from a function.
Both graphs below ‘would’ pass the vertical line test so both are created from
functions. We can see that if we were to draw a horizontal line through the graph
responses, we would find instances where we have more than one value of x for a
corresponding value of y.
In the graph opposite we have three values of x for

the one value of y, and in the graph below, we have
two values of x for one value of y.
These graphs were created from functions, which are
said to be many-to-one.
One problem with a many-to-one function is that it can’t have

an inverse function. If it could, that inverse would be one-to-
many and this would violate the definition of a function.
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Range of Functions (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 33 Range of Functions
Sometimes you may be asked to find the range of a function, I have seen many math
books and web pages, which make finding the range of a function look difficult, it is not,
it is just a simple continuation of what we have learnt on the previous pages.
Example (153) Given the function f(x) = x 2 find the range of the function when:
x = 1, 2, and 3
Answer: When x = 1 then f(1) = (1) 2 = 1
When x = 2 then f(2) = (2) 2 = 4
When x = 3 then f(3) = (3) 2 = 9
So, the range of the function f(x) = x 2 when x = 1, 2, 3, is 1, 4, 9
Range questions can be presented as shown below:
Example (154) The domain of the function f(x) = x 2 + 1 is {–1, 0, 1, 2}

Find the range of f(x)
Answer: When x = –1 then f(–1) = (–1) 2 + 1 = 2
When x = 0 then f(0) = (0) 2 + 1 = 1
When x = 1 then f(1) = (1) 2 + 1 = 2
When x = 2 then f(2) = (2) 2 + 1 = 5
So, the range is {1, 2, 5} note we don’t write {2, 1, 2, 5}
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Range questions can be presented as shown below:
Example (155) The domain of the function f:x → y = 2x + 3 is {0, 1, 2, 3}

Find the range of f:x
Answer: When x = 0 then f:0 = 2(0) + 3 = 3
When x = 1 then f:1 = 2(1) + 3 = 5
When x = 2 then f:2 = 2(2) + 3 = 7
When x = 3 then f:3 = 2(3) + 3 = 9
So, the range is {3, 5, 7, 9}
Sometimes you may be asked a question as shown below:
Example (156)
What value must be excluded from the domain of the function
Answer: You should know it is not possible to divide by zero; if you try to divide
any number by zero on a calculator you will get a calculator error message, so we
must avoid function parameters which would make a function divide by zero.
In the above example x must not be 2, otherwise the denominator would equal zero
and the function would be invalid.
We would write our answer as: The domain must exclude x = 2
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Example (157)
Square roots of negative numbers are not allowed; so, any value of x that would result
in a negative value within the square root symbol must be excluded.
We could allow x = 1, then we would have which becomes
However, any value less than 1 would result in a negative number within the square
root symbol. For example, if we made x = 0.99, then we would have:
this would give
and we are NOT allowed to have negative square roots.
Answer: We would write the domain of f(x) must exclude x < 1
This means domain of f(x) must exclude all values where x is less than 1
Example (158)
Answer: When you see a question like this start thinking of division by zero, which is not
allowed. What value of x would you need to include in the function to make the
denominator equal to zero?
We find this value would be +/– 6 since (– 6)2 = 36 and 62 = 36
If x were to be either +/– 6 the function would appear as
We would write our answer as: The domain must exclude x = +/– 6
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Shifting Functions (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 34 Shifting Functions
Adding a fixed amount to a function
Sometimes you need to solve the result of shifting a function, if we take the two graphs
below, and add some constant for this example we will let the constant number be 1,
but it could be anything.
We can see the effect on the straight-line graph of f(x) = 2x + 1, and the parabola of
f(x) = x2 both graph responses are raised by 1, and the result is shown by the graphs
and accompanying shifted function coloured in Red.
f(x)+1 = 2x + 2
f(x)+1 = x2 + 1
f(x) = 2x+1 f(x) = x2
The above shifted functions are shown in the examples below:
Example (159) Given the function f(x) = 2x + 1 find the result of f(x)+1
Answer: f(x)+1 = 2x + 2
Example (160) Given the function f(x) = x2 find the result of f(x)+1
Answer: f(x)+1 = x2 + 1
It’s as simple as that.
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Chapter 34 Shifting Functions - Adding a fixed amount to each x value

We can also add a fixed amount to each x value, so we change from f(x) to f(x + a)
in the following examples I will use the constant number 3 as shown below, but as
previously advised the constant could be any valid number.
Example (161) Given the function f(x) = 2x + 1 find the result of adding 3 to
the x value
Answer: f(x + 3) = 2(x + 3) + 1 which becomes 2x + 6 + 1 giving 2x + 7
We can see from the graph lower left, the effect of adding 3 to the x value of
f(x) = 2x + 1 is to shift the line graph, 3 units to the left.
Example (162) Given the function f(x) = x2 find the result of adding 3 to the
x value
Answer: f(x + 3) = (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9
We can see from the graph lower right, the effect of adding 3 to the x value of
f(x) = x2 is to shift the parabola graph, 3 units to the left
f(x) = 2x + 7 f(x) = (x+3)2 f(x) = x2

f(x) = 2x + 1
Left shift 3
Left shift 3 units
units
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Chapter 34 Shifting Functions - Multiplying the ‘whole function’ by a

positive constant
Example (163) Given the function f(x) = 2x + 1 find the result of multiplying
the whole function by 3
Answer: We place the constant in this example 3 in front of the function as follows:
3f(x) = 3(2x + 1) which becomes 6x + 3
We can see from the graph lower left, the effect of multiplying 3 by the whole function
of f(x) = 2x + 1 is to create a steeper gradient, but the lines will intersect at the
original function point on the x axis.
Example (164) Given the function f(x) = x2 find the result of multiplying
the whole function by 3
Answer: We place the constant in this example 3 in front of the function as follows:
Answer: 3f(x) = 3x2
We can see from the graph lower right, the effect of multiplying 3 by the whole function
of f(x) = x2 is to compress the graph.
f(x) = 6x + 3 3f(x) = 3x2
f(x) = 2x + 1
f(x) = x2
The whole function of The whole function of f(x) = x2

f(x) = 2x + 1 multiplied by 3 multiplied by 3, compresses the
graph
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Chapter 34 Shifting Functions - Multiplying ‘x’ by a constant
x by 3
Answer: We place the constant in this example 3 in front of x as follows:
f(3x) = 2(3x) + 1 which becomes 6x + 1
We can see from the graph lower left, the effect of multiplying x by 3 for the function
of f(x) = 2x + 1 is to create a steeper gradient, but the lines will cross at the original
function point on the y axis.
Example (166) Given the function f(x) = x2 find the result of multiplying
x by 3
Answer: We place the constant in this example 3 in front of x as follows:
f(3x) = (3x)2 which becomes 9x2
We can see from the graph lower right, the effect of multiplying x by 3 for the function
of f(x) = x2 is to compress the graph.
f(3x) = 9x2
f(x) = 6x + 1
f(x) = 2x + 1
f(x) = x2
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Chapter 34 Shifting Functions - Multiplying the whole function by – 1
If we multiply the whole function by – 1, we invert it i.e. we flip it upside down.
the whole function by – 1
Answer: We place the constant in this example – 1 in front of the function as follows:
Answer: – 1f(x) = – 1(2x + 1) which becomes – 2x – 1
We can see from the graph lower left, the effect of multiplying – 1, by the whole
function of f(x) = 2x + 1 is to flip it upside down, the lines will intersect at the
original function point on the x axis. We can’t really see line graphs upside down very
well, but we can see the effect on the parabola graph in the next example.
Example (168) Given the function f(x) = x2 find the result of multiplying the
whole function by – 1
Answer: We place the constant in this example – 1 in front of the function as follows:
Answer: – 1f(x) = – 1x2 = –x2

We can see from the graph lower right, the effect of multiplying – 1 by the whole
function of f(x) = x2 is to flip the graph upside down.
– 1f(x) = –2x – 1
f(x) = x2
f(x) = 2x + 1
– 1f(x) = –x2
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Chapter 34 Shifting Functions - Summary
On the previous pages, we have seen the effect on a function of performing various
transformations; the following is a summary of these transformations:
• Adding a fixed amount to a function moves the graph up by the

amount
• Subtracting a fixed amount from a function moves the graph

down by the amount
• Adding a fixed amount to each x value moves the graph left by

the amount
• Subtracting a fixed amount from each x value moves the graph

right by the amount
• Multiplying the whole function by a positive constant stretches

or compresses the graph
• Multiplying x by a constant stretches or compresses the graph
• Multiplying the whole function by – 1 flips the graph upside

down
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Composite Functions (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 35 Composite Functions
This chapter is for students who are progressing onto A-Level or Higher-Level maths.
Many of the functions we will come across in Mathematics are a combination of other
functions; ‘composite functions’ are sometimes known as ‘function of a function’
For example, f(g(x)) is one way to show a composite function of x another way to
show the same function is (f o g)(x) Some math books make this topic appear very
difficult to understand, but it’s really easy, you just follow some simple rules. Note the
symbol for a composite function is a small circle e.g. (o) it is not a dot (.) since a dot (.)
means to multiply, and we are NOT multiplying these functions.
Composite functions mean we apply one function to the result of another function, we
can show f(g(x)) as follows: This is ‘NOT’ multiplication.
If you have access to the internet, you can check your answers to many Composite
Function problems using an internet ‘Composite Function Calculator’
(Go to page 312 for more details).
f(g(x))
g(x) applied first f(x) applied second
x input g(x) input f(x) output
The result of g(x) is sent through f(x)

Remember we always apply the second function first in this example g(x)
which is then passed through the first function f(x)
f(g(x)) seems to be the usual way composite functions outputs are shown, but you can
be asked to find the output for g(f(x)) or even f(f(x)), g(g(h)) or any combination of
inputs. On the following pages, I will colour the first function in Blue, and the second
function Red, in this way you can see where each function is being applied.
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Example (169) Given that g(x) = x2 and f(x) = 2x + 3 find f(g(x))
We always apply the second function first e.g. g(x) to the function so x2 comes out
first:
x (input)2 x2
x2 is now applied as the input to the first function f(x) = 2x + 3
x2
x (input)2 2(input) + 3 2x2 + 3
Answer: f(g(x)) = 2x2 + 3 using circle notation (f o g)(x) = 2x2 + 3
Let’s look at what would happen if we reversed the function to find g(f(x)), we will
examine this reversal in the next example. Note this is NOT an ‘inverse function’
Example (170) Given that f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x2 find g(f(x))
We always apply the second function first e.g. f(x) so 2x + 3 comes out first.
x 2 (input) + 3 2x + 3
2x + 3 is now applied as the input to the first function g(x) = x2
2x + 3
x 2 (input) + 3 (input)2 (2x + 3)2
Answer: g(f(x)) = (2x + 3)2 using circle notation (g o f)(x) = (2x + 3)2
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Functions can be composed within themselves, let’s look at the next two
examples
Example (171) Given that f(x) = 3x + 2 find f(f(x))
We apply f(x) to the second function so 3x + 2 comes out first
x 3(input) + 2 3x + 2
3x + 2 is now applied as the input to the first function f(x) = 3x + 2
x 3(input) + 2 3(3x + 2) + 2 9x + 6 + 2
Answer: f(f(x)) = 9x + 8 using circle notation (f o f)(x) = 9x + 8
Example (172) Given that g(h) = h – 3 find g(g(h))
We apply g(h) to the second function so h – 3 comes out first
h (input) - 3 h–3
h – 3 is now applied as the input to the first function g(h) = h – 3
h (input) – 3 (h – 3) – 3 h–3–3
Answer: g(g(h)) = h – 6 using circle notation (g o g)(h) = h – 6

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Example (173) Given that f(x) = x2 and g(h) = h + 5 find:
a) g(f(x)), b) f(g(h)), c, g(g(h)) and d) f(f(x))
a) Find g(f(x)) remember we apply the second function f(x) followed by the first g(h)
Applying the second function f(x) first e.g. x2 is substituted for h in h + 5
Answer: g(f(x)) = (x2) + 5 = x2 + 5
b) Find f(g(h))
We apply the second function g(h) first e.g. h + 5 is substituted for x in f(x) = x2
h + 5 is now applied as the input to the first function f(x) = x2
Answer: f(g(h)) = (h + 5)2 = (h + 5)2
c) Find g(g(h))
We apply the second function g(h) first e.g. h + 5
h + 5 is now applied as the input to the first function g(h) = h + 5
Answer: g(g(h)) = (h + 5) + 5 which becomes h + 10
d) Find f(f(x))
We apply the second function f(x) first e.g. x2 is substituted for x in x2
Answer: f(f(x)) = (x2)2 which becomes x 4
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Chapter 35 Functions given the output value
Example (174) Given that f(2x – 1) = x what is f(2)
These functions give many students a headache, the typical response from my students
the first time they see a function problem like this is “How on earth do I solve this one?”
However, all function problems are simple if you remember a function contains an input
and an output.
On page 178 we have previously seen the notation shown below:
f(x) = x2
The output or the
The function name dependent variable
The input, argument, or independent variable, i.e. in this

instance a single variable ‘x’ in the function bracket
So, what is different between the notation above and example (174)?
We have an input and we have an output, the only difference is that we have a single
variable in the notation above, i.e. x and we have 2x – 1 in the function bracket below
e.g. f(2x – 1) = x
Now ‘if’ the required output was f(3) we would have to make x = 2
We would then have f(2(2) – 1) = f(4 – 1) = f(3)
So what value of x do we need to input into the function f(2x – 1) to obtain f(2)?
We let 2x – 1 = f(2) therefore 2x = 2 + 1 giving x =
Therefore f(2 – 1) = f(2) Therefore f(2) = or 1.5
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Inverse Functions (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 36 Inverse Functions
Inverse functions reverse the function process, so if we have a function described as

f(x) then f -1(x) would be the reverse or the ‘inverse’ of f(x)
Let’s perform some examples which will make things clearer, the process we will use
works for every function that can have an inverse; keep in mind not every function can
be reversed. Only functions that can be described as one-to one functions can be
reversed.
If you have access to the internet, you can check your answers to many Inverse
Function problems using an internet ‘Inverse Function Calculator’
(See page 316 for more details)
Note f -1(x) does NOT mean 1/f(x) i.e. 1/f(x) can be written as (f(x))-1 so beware
the terms look similar but they are NOT.
Example (175) Given f(x) = 2x + 3 find the inverse of this function i.e. f -1(x)
When performing inverse functions, we always start off by saying let y = f(x)
Step 1: Let y = f(x)
Step 2: y = 2x + 3
We always want the x terms on the left-hand side so we will rearrange the function:
Step 3: 2x + 3 = y
Step 4: 2x = y – 3
Step 5:
Lastly, we replace x in step 5 with the inverse function notation, and we replace y with
x as follows:
Step 6:
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Inverse Functions (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 36 Inverse Functions
In example (149) on page 179 we found the function would convert

degrees Centigrade to degrees Fahrenheit; let’s see if the inverse function will reverse
this, so we can input degrees Fahrenheit, and obtain degrees Centigrade.
We will apply the same steps as in the previous example.
Example (176) Given find f -1(x)
Step 2: y =
Step 3: =y
Step 4: = y – 32
Step 5: 9x = 5(y – 32)
Step 6: x =
x as follows: In example (149) we found 20o C was converted
to 68o F; if this inverse function has been
performed correctly we should find inputting 68
Step 7: into the function outputs 20
Check inputting 68 into the function
Yes, we obtain 20 degrees Centigrade by inputting 68 degrees Fahrenheit.

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Graphs of Functions (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 37 Graphs of Functions
Sometimes in an exam, you may be given a function and a number of graphs, and you
are asked to identify which graph is produced by the function, we will look at this type
of question in more detail in my ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’ Graphs an
Introduction.
However, for now given below are some typical functions you may be given, can you
identity which graph belongs to which of the following six functions: the answers are
given on the next page:
1) y = 2 – x
2) y = 3cosx
3) y = x3 – 5x
4) y = 1/x Graph a) Graph b)
5) y = 2x + 1
6) y = 3sinx
Graph c) Graph d)
Graph e) Graph f)
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Graphs of Functions (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 37 Graphs of Functions
Answers from the previous page
The given six functions are identified as follows:
Graph c) y = 2 – x Graph a) y = 3cosx Graph d) y = x3 – 5x
Graph b) y = 1/x Graph e) y = 2x + 1 Graph f) y = 3sinx
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Functions as a Sequence (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 38 Functions as a Sequence
We will learn about sequences in my ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’ Series,
Sequences, and Sets an Introduction, however, for now functions can be made to
deliver sequences as follows:
Example (177) Given the function f(n) = 5 + 4n find f(n) for n = 0, 1, 2, 3

and determine the difference between the terms
We simply replace n for the values given:
f(0) = 5 + 4(0) = 5 The difference between the terms is 4 i.e.

5 to 9 = 4
f(1) = 5 + 4(1) = 9 9 to 13 = 4
13 to 17 = 4
f(2) = 5 + 4(2) = 13
We can see the function f(n) = 5 + 4n for n = 0, 1, 2, 3
f(3) = 5 + 4(3) = 17 increases by 4, so the difference between the terms is 4
We will learn in my ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’ Series, Sequences, and
Sets an Introduction that when a sequence changes by a constant value e.g. 4 as in
this example or by any constant e.g. 1 or 2 or 3 etc then this type of sequence is called
an ‘Arithmetic Progression’
Example (178) Given the function f(n) = n(n + 1) find f(n) for n = 1, 2, 3, 4
We simply replace n for the values given:
(1)(1 + 1) = 1
(2)(2 + 1) = 3
We will learn in my math book introductory series;
Series, Sequences, and Sets an Introduction this
(3)(3 + 1) = 6 sequence is known as the triangular sequence.
(4)(4 + 1) = 10
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We will learn in my ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’ Series, Sequences, and
Sets an Introduction not every sequence changes by a constant value, sometimes a
sequence change by a ratio such as in the next example; when sequences change by a
ratio they are known as ‘Geometric Sequences’ or sometimes a ‘Geometric
Progression’
We will find such sequences can be given a rule as follows:
f(n) = arn-1
Where a = the first term which is the output from the function when n = 0
r = the common ratio between terms
n = the position of the term
Example (179) Given the function f(n) = 2(3)n find f(n) when n = 0, 1, 2, 3
As previously explained, we simply replace n with the given terms e.g.
f(0) = 2(3)0 = 2 The difference between the terms is x3 (i.e. times 3)

2x3=6
f(1) = 2(3)1 = 6 6 x 3 = 18
18 x 3 = 54
f(2) = 2(3)2 = 18
We can see the function f(n) = 2(3)n for n = 0, 1, 2, 3
f(3) = 2(3)3 = 54 increase by x3
As we can see in this function the common ratio is 3, the function outputs the values as
follows:
2, 6, 18, 54
Functions are one way to generate geometric sequences.
Note: In standard arithmetic multiplication is considered ‘Commutative’ i.e. changing

the order of the numbers to be multiplied does not change the result e.g. 2 x 3 = 6
and 3 x 2 = 6. However, functions are not commutative, we will see on the next page
the result of f(n) = 3(2)n is not the same as f(n) = 2(3)n in the above example.
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Example (180) Given the function f(n) = 3(2)n find f(n) when n = 0, 1, 2, 3
We replace n with the given terms e.g.
f(0) = 3(2)0 = 3 The difference between the terms is x2 (i.e. times 2)

3x2=6
f(1) = 3(2)1 = 6 6 x 2 = 12
12 x 2 = 24
f(2) = 3(2)2 = 12
We can see the function f(n) = 3(2)n for n = 0, 1, 2, 3
f(3) = 3(2)3 = 24 increase by x2
As we can see in this function the common ratio is 2, the function outputs the values as
follows:
3, 6, 12, 24
Let’s use the f(n) = arn-1 rule to check the 3rd term in example (179)
The first output term when n = 0 is 2 therefore a = 2, the common ratio between
output terms is 3 therefore r = 3
The 3rd term will be given by f(3) = 2 x 33-1 = 18 Yes this is correct
Let’s use the f(n) = arn-1 rule to check the 4th term in example (180)
The first output term when n = 0 is 3 therefore a = 3, the common ratio between
output terms is 2 therefore r = 2
The 4th term will be given by f(4) = 3 x 24-1 = 24 Yes this is correct
The arn-1 rule is a quick way to find the value of any term in a geometric progression.
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Quadratic Equations an Introduction (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 39 Quadratic Equations an Introduction
We have mentioned the term quadratic equation a number of times in this book, now
let’s look at what a quadratic equation actual is.
This is a quadratic equation x2 + 5x − 3 = 0

This is also a quadratic equation 2x2 − 7x + 9 = 0
A quadratic equation is an equation where the highest power of the variable usually x is
a square power e.g. x2 otherwise it would not be a quadratic equation, but the variable
could just as well be y or z or any other letter; so, a quadratic equation will have
something like x2, or maybe 2x2, or 3x2 in it, but not x3, x4, x5, etc.
The standard form for a quadratic equation is shown below, where a, b, and c are the
known values, and x is the value to be determined; a, b, and c can be any value, but
a cannot be zero i.e. a ≠ 0
ax2 + bx + c = 0
The name of these equations comes from the term ‘quad’ meaning square, since the
highest power in these equations is a squared power e.g. x2
Once x has been found it is called the ‘root’ of the equation, and there are two roots in
a quadratic equation, this is because quadratic equations can be plotted on a graph, and
they produce a U-shaped curve called a parabola.
Graphed below is the quadratic equation of x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 that has been plotted as

a graph, as you can see, the solutions to the equation i.e. the unknown values of x also
known as the roots are the values where the graph curve crosses the x-axis.
In the graph of x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 shown opposite we y

can see the graph crosses the x-axis at the points or
‘intercepts’ where x = – 3, and x = 1, these are the
roots or solutions to this quadratic equation, these are
x
known as real roots, because the graph curve cuts
through the x-axis. On the next page, we will see
examples where the roots are complex or equal.
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j
If we were to plot the graph of the quadratic equation
x2 + 3x + 5 = 0 we would obtain a graph response as
shown opposite. As we can see the graph curve does not
cut through the x-axis, this quadratic equation produces
roots, which are known as ‘complex roots’
The answer to this quadratic is:

x = –1.5 + 1.6583j and x = –1.5 – 1.6583j
We could show this answer as x = –1.5 +/– 1.6583j x
j is the imaginary number you can learn more about

complex numbers also called imaginary numbers in my ‘introductory maths for
beginner’s series’ titled Complex Numbers an Introduction. Some books and web
sites use the imaginary operator as the letter ‘i’ in this book we will use the letter j to
represent the imaginary or complex operator.
y
If we plotted the graph of the quadratic equation
2x2 + 8x + 8 = 0 as shown opposite we can see the graph
curve touches the x-axis at only one point, in this example the
graph curve touches or intercepts the x-axis at the point where
x = –2 x
This type of quadratic is said to have a repeated root, the
solution has ‘two’ real roots both at the same location, the
answer to this quadratic is x = –2
Before we go any further, you might like to

know why we need to learn about quadratic Parabolic curve of suspension cables
equations in maths and engineering. Quadratic
equations have many applications in
engineering from calculating the trajectory of
moving items such as a ball, an arrow in flight,
to a military mortar shell, they can be used to
calculate the height a ball or mortar shell is
thrown, the distance travelled, or it’s velocity.
The curve a quadratic equation produces when
plotted on a graph is called a parabola, civil engineers can use quadratic equations to
calculate how much stress there will be at points in a suspension bridge, which uses a
parabolic shape in it’s suspension cables.
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Quadratic equations can be used by electrical engineers to calculate currents and

voltages in electrical circuits. Quadratic equations also describe the way planets move
around a star, astronomical reflecting telescopes use a mirror that has a parabolic
shape.
Galileo, you must have heard of him, he was an Italian astronomer, mathematician,
physicist, philosopher, and professor, and he was one of the first scientists who used a
telescope to study the motion of other planets, Galileo was the first scientist to spot the
relationship between quadratic equations and acceleration. This has very important
applications today in the modern world, since quadratic equations can be used to find
the stopping distance of motor vehicles, with a given velocity.
Have you ever played soccer or rugby? if so, you will have kicked the ball or thrown it in
a parabolic arc. There are many other uses of quadratic equations in mathematics and
engineering, differential equations can be solved using quadratic equations, this has an
enormous application in designing safe structures and machines; the solutions to such
differential equations, solved by using quadratics can tell the engineer whether the
solutions are likely to grow, stay the same size or get smaller.
This knowledge is very important to engineers who need to know if small disturbances
in structures or machines will lead to instability. Academic awarding bodies around the
globe, consider quadratic equations so important they are in nearly every engineering
and mathematic syllabus at some stage. So, you’d just better get used to the idea, if
you want to be an engineer, or mathematician, or just to pass your exams you need to
learn about quadratic equations.
Fortunately, quadratic equations are not difficult to solve, when compared to say
‘polynomial division’ or ‘partial fractions’ which we learnt about in previous chapters, the
following methods can be used to solve quadratic equations.
1) Factoring Cannot solve quadratics with complex roots
2) Completing the square Cannot solve quadratics with complex roots
3) Quadratic formula Can solve any quadratic equation
4) Graphing Cannot solve quadratics with complex roots
5) Internet solvers Can solve any quadratic equation
6) Calculator solvers Can solve any quadratic equation
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In general, if you are asked to factor a quadratic equation in an exam, and if the first
term is simply x2, or y2 as in x2 + 5x + 4, then the factors will usually be integers of
a low number such as 1 through to 9. However, where the first term is something like
2x2 or 3x2 then the factors can be more difficult to find.
The following are some examples of quadratic equations, some look like a quadratic,
some don’t, those that don’t are sometimes called hidden quadratics, but all are
quadratic equations where indicated.
Using the standard form for a quadratic equation e.g. ax2 + bx + c = 0

x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 This is a quadratic where a = 1, b = 5, c = 3
2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 This is a quadratic where a = 2, b = 5, c = 3
3x2 – 7x + 4 = 0 This is a quadratic where a = 3, b = – 7, c = 4
The following are examples of ‘hidden quadratics’ they don’t look like quadratic
equations but they are:
x2 – 5x = 0 This is a quadratic where a = 1, b = – 5, c = 0

we would rewrite this as:
x2 – 5x + 0 = 0
x2 = 5x – 3 This is a quadratic equation that needs to be rearranged

moving the 5x – 3 terms to the left-hand side gives
x2 – 5x + 3 = 0
In the quadratic above a = 1, b = – 5, c = 3
3(x2 – 2x) = 9 This is a quadratic equation that needs to be rearranged

multiplying out the brackets, and moving the number 9 to
the left-hand side gives
3x2 – 6x – 9 = 0
In the quadratic above a = 3, b = – 6, c = – 9
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Two more examples of ‘hidden quadratics’
w(w – 1) = 4 This is a quadratic equation that needs to be rearranged

multiplying out the brackets, and moving the number 4 to
the left-hand side gives
w2 – w – 4 = 0
In the quadratic above a = 1, b = – 1, c = – 4
3x + 5 = 0 This is ‘not’ a quadratic equation, since the square power

e.g. x2 is missing.
Chapter 40 The Discriminant
We will look at how to solve quadratic equations ‘that can be solved’ by factorization,
in chapter 42; but first you need to know how to decide which quadratic equations ‘can’
be solved by factorization.
You first need to check whether the ‘discriminant’ equals a positive number, a
negative number or equals zero, so what is the discriminant?
In the standard form of the quadratic equation i.e. ax2 + bx + c = 0
The discriminant (D) is given by the form: D = b2 – 4ac

The discriminant, forms part of the quadratic formula as shown below
The discriminant is useful since it’s result tells us the type of solution the
quadratic equation will have
If the discriminant results in a ‘perfect square’ e.g. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36 etc. this
indicates the quadratic can be factorized and will have two distinct real roots.
A number such as 25 is a perfect square since 25 can be written as 52

the number 9 is another perfect square since 9 can be written as 32
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Quadratic Equations - The Discriminant (Pre-Calculus)
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If the discriminant results in a positive number, but is not a perfect square; for example,
the number 52 approximates to 7.21112 this is ‘not’ a perfect square. This then indicates
no simple root exists, to solve this type of quadratic equation use the ‘Quadratic
Formula’ shown in chapter 49, the internet or a calculator that can solve quadratic
equations, the Casio FX 991 calculator can solve quadratic equations.
If the discriminant results in zero, this indicates the quadratic will have one result i.e. a
repeated root, (two answers at the same location on the x-axis) it ‘may’ be possible to
solve by factorization, but equally, simple factorization may not be possible, if so use the
quadratic equation formula, the internet or a Casio FX 991 calculator.
If the discriminant results in a negative number, this indicates the roots will be complex,
and simple factorization will not be possible, in this case use the quadratic equation
formula, the internet or a Casio FX 991 calculator.
The discriminant summary
The quadratic can be

The discriminant results in a perfect square
factorized, and will have two
the quadratic equation can be factorized
distinct real roots
The discriminant results in a positive number The quadratic will have two
but not a perfect square distinct real roots
The discriminant results in zero The quadratic will have a

real repeated root
The quadratic will have

The discriminant results in a negative number
complex roots
A very simple way to calculate the discriminant is to use an internet online

‘discriminant calculator’ if you have access to the internet.
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If you are still a little unsure as to what the discriminant indicates, let’s look at some
examples below, and all should become clear.
If we consider the quadratic equation x2 – 7x + 6 = 0

of example (181) on page 222 we will find the discriminant
becomes D = b2 – 4ac = (– 7)2 – 4(1 x 6) = 25
i.e. a perfect square. This quadratic equation can be
factorized and has two real distinct roots where:
x = 1 and x = 6, as shown in the graph opposite
It is not difficult to factorize this quadratic equation.
If we consider the quadratic equation x2 – 6x – 4 = 0

becomes: D = b2 – 4ac = (– 6)2 – 4(1 x – 4) = 52
This is not a perfect square, but is still a positive number, this
means the result of the quadratic equation will have two real
roots, but the results may not be a rational number, in this
example the roots are found where:
x = – 0.6055 and x = 6.6055 as shown in the graph
opposite. It would be very difficult to try and factorise this
quadratic equation.
If we consider the quadratic equation x2 – 4x + 4 = 0

becomes: D = b2 – 4ac = (– 4)2 – 4(1 x 4) = 0
When the discriminant equals zero this indicates the
quadratic equation will have a real repeated root, in this
example the root is found where:
x = 2 as shown in the graph opposite.
Since the root is an integer, it indicates we could factorize
this quadratic. However, if the root was some value with a
string of decimal numbers after the decimal point, it would
be very difficult to factorize the equation.
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If we consider the quadratic equation x2 + 4x + 5 = 0

becomes: D = b2 – 4ac = (4)2 – 4(1 x 5) = – 4
When the discriminant is a negative number, the quadratic

equation has no real roots, and will have ‘Complex Roots’
As we can see in the graph opposite, the graph of this

quadratic equation does not intersect with the x-axis.
The solution to this equation will be where:

x = – 2 + j and x = – 2 – j
If you want to learn more about complex numbers, or want to know where the roots are
located on this graph, check out my math book ‘Complex Numbers an Introduction’
part of my ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’
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Quadratic Equations Contents Page (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 41 Quadratic Equation Contents Page
This section lists all the quadratic equations examples that are solved in this book.
Examples solved by factorizing
Example (181) Solve x2 – 7x + 6 = 0 Page 222
Example (183) Solve x2 + x – 2 = 0 Page 226
Example (184) Solve x2 + 3x – 4 = 0 Page 227
Examples solved using the factor theorem
Example (186) Solve x2 + 2x – 8 = 0 Page 229
Example (187) Solve x2 – 2x – 15 = 0 Page 230
Example (188) Solve x2 + x – 2 = 0 Page 231
Factorizing harder quadratic equations
Example (189) Solve 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 Page 232
Example (190) Solve 3x2 – 11x – 4 = 0 Page 234
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Factorizing harder quadratic equations
Examples solved by completing the Square
Example (192) Solve x2 – 6x – 4 = 0 Page 239
Example (193) Solve x2 + 6x + 7 = 0 Page 242
Example (194) Solve 2x2 + 5x – 3 = 0 Page 243
Example (195) Solve 5x2 – 8x + 2 = 0 Page 245
Examples solved by completing the Square in the form (x + p)2 – q
Example (196)
Show how x2 + 6x + 2 can be written as (x + p)2 – q Page 247
Example (197)
Show how x2 + 8x + 10 can be written as (x + p)2 – q Page 248
Example (198)
Show how x2 – 3x + 2 can be written as (x – p)2 – q Page 249
Example (199)
Show how x2 – 10x + 27 can be written as (x – p)2 + q Page 250
Example (200)
Show how 2x2 – 8x – 3 can be written as a(x – p)2 – q Page 251
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Examples solved by completing the Square in the form a(x – p)2 – q
Example (201)
Example (202)
Example (203) When (x + 3)2 – 2 has a minimum value; Page 255

what is the minimum value of x
Examples solved using the quadratic formula
Example (205) Solve 3x2 + 7x – 2 = 0 Page 257
Example (207) Solve – 4x2 + 12x – 9 = 0 Page 259
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Examples solved using the internet
Example (210) Solve x2 – 5x + 4 = 0 using the internet Page 262
Example (211) Solve 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0 using the internet Page 263
Example (212) Solve x2 – 4x + 13 = 0 using the internet Page 264
Examples solved using the Casio FX 991 calculator
Example (213) Solve x2 – 7x + 6 = 0 using the Casio FX 991 Page 265
Example (214) Solve x2 – 2x + 1 = 0 using the Casio FX 991 Page 266
Example (215) Solve x2 + 3x + 3 = 0 using the Casio FX 991 Page 267
Solving Cubic Equations
Example (216) Factorize – 8x 3 + 12x 2 Page 272
Example (217) Factorize 15x 4 + 6x 2 Page 272
Example (218) Solve 3x3 – 2x2 + 14x = 0 Page 273
Example (219) Solve x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 Page 275
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Cubic Equation Examples solved using the internet
Example (220) Solve x3 – 3x2 – 6x + 14 = 0 using the internet Page 278
Cubic Equation Examples solved using the Casio FX 991
Example (221) Solve x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0 using the Casio FX 991 Page 279
Cubic Equation Examples solved using Graphs
Example (222) Solve x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0 using graphs Page 280
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Factorizing Quadratic Equations (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 42 Factorizing Quadratic Equations
We will look at how to solve quadratic equations ‘that can be solved’ by factorization,
but first you need to know how to decide which quadratic equations ‘can’ be solved by
factorization.
You first need to check whether the ‘discriminant’ equals a positive number, a
negative number or equals zero.
On the next page, we will solve the quadratic equation x2 – 7x + 6 = 0
The standard form for this quadratic equation is: ax2 + bx + c = 0
Therefore a = 1, b = – 7, c = 6
The discriminant (D) uses the form: D = b2 – 4ac
We will place a = 1, b = – 7, c = 6 into the discriminant expression as follows:
D = (– 7)2 – 4(1 x 6) = 25
The discriminant above results in a ‘perfect square’ remember 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, etc
are perfect squares; this indicates the quadratic can be factorized and will have two real
roots.
If you have not come across the term a ‘perfect square’ before perhaps, you should read
the first book in my ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’ Numbers, Arithmetic,
and Fractions an Introduction however, for now if a square root produces a whole
number answer, then the number within the square root will be a perfect square.
e.g. 25 = 5 the square root of 25 produces a whole number i.e. 5, because:

5 x 5 = 25 so 25 is a perfect square.
e.g. 36 = 6 the square root of 36 produces a whole number i.e. 6, because:

6 x 6 = 36 so 36 is a perfect square.
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Example (181) Solve by factorizing x2 – 7x + 6 = 0
In this example a = 1, b = – 7, c = 6
On the previous page, we found the discriminant to this quadratic to be a perfect square
The discriminant D = 25 = 52 i.e. a perfect square

Remember if you have access to the internet you can use an online ‘discriminant
calculator’ for assignments and homework, but obviously not exams.
Since the discriminant is a perfect square, this means the quadratic will have two simple
factors, and can be factorized.
Now to factor the above quadratic we need to find two numbers (the factors) which
when multiplied together will equal the value of c in this example c = 6 and when
added together will equal b in this example b = – 7
This is a trial and error method, but there are some ways to simplify the process, we
start with the numbers that when multiplied together will result in the number 6
Multiplication Addition We want multiplication to give 6 and

1x6=6 1+6=7 addition to give – 7 so this is not the
correct solution, let’s try some more factors.
–1 x –6 = 6 –1 – 6 = –7 Yes, these factors produce the result we want.
We have found the two factors, which are –1 and –6
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On the previous page, we found the factors to x2 – 7x + 6 = 0 which are –1 and –6
We place the factors within brackets as follows: (x – 1)(x – 6)
We don’t have to, but it’s a good idea to multiply out the brackets to see if this produces
the quadratic equation we hope to solve, in this example it is x2 – 7x + 6 = 0
This check will make sure we have selected the correct factors.
We learnt how to multiply out two brackets on page 35, we multiply out the brackets as
follows:
(x – 1) x (x – 6)
hand bracket as shown by the Red arc giving x x x = x2
right-hand bracket as shown by the Green arc giving x x –6 = –6x
right-hand bracket as shown by the Blue arc giving –1 x x = –x
Step 4 We multiply the second term in the left-hand bracket by the second term in
the right-hand bracket as shown by the Pink arc giving –1 x –6 = 6
We now combine the result of the four steps as follows:
(x – 1)(x – 6) = x2 – 6x – x + 6 = x2 – 7x + 6
Yes. These are the correct factors to factorizing this quadratic equation.
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Now we have the two factors i.e. (x – 1)(x – 6) we let each bracket equal zero to
solve for x as follows:
x – 1 = 0 Therefore x = 1
The solution to the quadratic equation x2 – 7x + 6 is x = 1 and x = 6
x = 1 and x = 6 are called the ‘Roots’ of the equation.

y
If we were to graph this quadratic equation, we
would obtain the graph as show opposite. We can
see the points or intercepts where the graph curve
crosses the x-axis, occurs at the points where
x
x = 1 and x = 6, these are the solutions or roots

to this quadratic equation.
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First check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac, e.g. D = (– 5)2 – 4(1)(4) = 9

i.e. a perfect square since 9 = 32 this means this quadratic will have two real roots.
Remember we need to find the ‘factors’, the two numbers that when multiplied
together results in c in this example c = 4, and when added together will equal b in
this example b = – 5
We will start with the numbers that when multiplied together will result in the number 4
as follows:
Multiplication Addition
–1x–4=4 –1+–4=–5 these are the factors we need, – 1 and – 4
We place the factors within brackets as follows:
(x – 1)(x – 4)
As a check, we will multiply out the brackets to check we obtain the original quadratic
equation. We have seen on the previous pages how to multiply out brackets, so we will
multiply out these brackets as follows:
x x x = x2
x x – 4 = – 4x
–1xx=–x
–1x–4=4
Summing the above terms, we find we have x2 – 4x – x + 4 = x2 – 5x + 4
We now know we have the correct factors since they reproduce the original equation
We now let each factored bracket equal zero to calculate the unknown value of x
x–1=0 Therefore x = 1
The roots or solution to this quadratic equation are at x = 1 and x = 4
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Example (183) Solve by factorizing x2 + x – 2 = 0
Check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac, which becomes D = 12 – 4(1)(–2) = 9

i.e. a perfect square since 9 = 32 this means this quadratic will have two real roots.
We need the ‘factors’, the two numbers that when multiplied together results in
c in this example c = –2; and when added together results in b in this example
b=1
Multiplication Addition We want multiplication to give – 2 and

1x2= 2 1+2=3 addition to give 1 so this is not the correct
solution, let’s try some more factors.
– 1 x 2 = –2 –1+2=1 These are the factors we need – 1 and 2
(x – 1)(x + 2)
Multiplying out the brackets as in previous examples to check we obtain the original
quadratic equation.
x x x = x2
x x 2 = 2x
–1xx=–x
– 1 x 2 = –2
Summing the above terms, we find we have x2 + 2x – x – 2 = x2 + x – 2
Now we know we have the correct factors since they reproduce the original equation
x+2=0 Therefore x = – 2
The roots or solution to this quadratic equation are at x = – 2 and x = 1
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Example (184) Solve by factorizing x2 + 3x – 4 = 0
Checking the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac, which becomes D = 32 – 4(1)(–4) = 25

i.e. a perfect square since 25 = 52 this quadratic will have two real roots.
together results in c in this example c = –4, and when added together will equal b in
this example b = 3

1x4 =4 1+4=5 addition to give 3 so this is not the correct
–1x4=–4 –1+4=3 These are the factors we need – 1 and 4
(x – 1)(x + 4)
Multiplying out the brackets as in previous examples to check we obtain the original
quadratic equation.
x x x = x2
x x 4 = 4x
–1xx=–x
– 1 x 4 = –4
Summing the above terms, we find we have x2 + 4x – x – 4 = x2 + 3x – 4
x+4=0 Therefore x = –4
The roots or solution to this quadratic equation are at x = – 4 and x = 1

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Check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac, which becomes D = (–4)2 – 4(1)(4) = 0

The discriminant = 0 this means the quadratic will have a real repeated root.
together results in c in this example c = 4, and when added together will equal b in
this example b = –4
Multiplication Addition We want multiplication to give 4 and

2x2=4 2+2=4 addition to give – 4 so this is not the
correct solution, let’s try some more factors.
– 2 x – 2 = 4 – 2 + – 2 = –4 These are the factors we need, – 2 and – 2
(x – 2)(x – 2) we could show this as (x – 2)2 i.e. a repeated linear factor

Multiplying out the brackets to check we obtain the original quadratic equation.
x x x = x2
x x – 2 = – 2x
– 2 x x = – 2x
–2x–2=4
Summing the above terms, we find we have x2 – 2x – 2x + 4 = x2 – 4x + 4
The roots or solution to this quadratic equation are a repeated root at x = 2
This means the quadratic will produces two roots at the same point i.e. x = 2
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Quadratics - The Factor Theorem (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 43 The Factor Theorem
The factor theorem is a continuation of ‘functions’ theory which we learnt about in

chapters 31 to 38, it involves substituting numbers in place of x in an equation to ‘test’
if the equation then equals zero. If the equation does equal zero then the substituted
number is a root of the equation. However, as we will see it takes quite a lot of work to
factor a quadratic using the factor theorem, and this method will only work if the
discriminant results in a ‘perfect square’ Let’s look at some examples which will make
this description clearer.
Example (186) Solve x2 + 2x – 8 = 0 using the factor theorem
First check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac, which becomes D = 22 – 4(1)(–8) = 36

The discriminant = 36 = 62, i.e. a perfect square this means the quadratic will have two
real roots which we can solve using the factor theorem.
We substitute numbers into f(x) = x2 + 2x – 8 as follows:
f(1) = (1)2 + 2(1) – 8 = – 5 No good, this does not equal 0
f(–1) = (–1)2 + 2(–1) – 8 = – 9 No good, this does not equal 0
f(2) = (2)2 + 2(2) – 8 = 0 Yes this equals 0
So, 2 is one of the roots e.g. x = 2 we factor this as follows (x – 2)
We still have the second root to find so we will continue substituting into the equation:
f(3) = (3)2 + 2(3) – 8 = 7 No good, this does not equal 0
f(4) = (4)2 + 2(4) – 8 = 16 No good, this does not equal 0
f(–4) = (–4)2 + 2(–4) – 8 = 0 Yes this equals 0
So, – 4 is the second root e.g. x = – 4 we factor this as follows (x + 4)

Therefore, the quadratic equation x2 + 2x – 8 = 0 factors to (x – 2)(x + 4)
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Example (187) Solve x2 – 2x – 15 = 0 using the factor theorem
First check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac, e.g. D = (–2)2 – 4(1)(–15) = 64

The discriminant = 64 = 82, i.e. a perfect square this means the quadratic will have
two real roots which we can solve using the factor theorem.
We substitute numbers into f(x) = x2 – 2x – 15 as follows:
f(1) = (1)2 – 2(1) – 15 = – 16 No good, this does not equal 0
f(–1) = (–1)2 – 2(–1) – 15 = – 12 No good, this does not equal 0
f(–2) = (–2)2 – 2(–2) – 15 = – 7 No good, this does not equal 0
f(–3) = (–3)2 – 2(–3) – 15 = 0 Yes this equals 0
So, – 3 is one of the roots e.g. x = – 3 we factor this as follows (x + 3)
f(–4) = (–4)2 – 2(–4) – 15 = 9 No good, this does not equal 0
f(5) = (5)2 – 2(5) – 15 = 0 Yes this equals 0
So, 5 is the second root e.g. x = 5 we factor this as follows (x – 5)
Therefore, the quadratic equation x2 – 2x – 15 = 0 factors to (x – 5)(x + 3)
x–5=0 Therefore x = 5 The roots of this quadratic are at:

x+3=0 Therefore x = – 3 x = – 3 and x = 5
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Example (188) Solve x2 + x – 2 = 0 using the factor theorem

We solved this quadratic by factorization on page 226, we will now
solve it using the factor theorem.
In the example above a = 1, b = 1, c = – 2
First check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac, which becomes D = 12 – 4(1)(–2) = 9

The discriminant = 9 = 32, i.e. a perfect square this means the quadratic will have two
real roots which we can solve using the factor theorem.
We substitute numbers into f(x) = x2 + x – 2 as follows:
f(1) = (1)2 + (1) – 2 = 0 Yes this equals 0
So, 1 is one of the roots e.g. x = 1 we factor this as follows (x – 1)
f(–1) = (–1)2 + (–1) – 2 = – 2 No good, this does not equal 0
f(2) = (2)2 + (2) – 2 = 4 No good, this does not equal 0
f(–2) = (–2)2 + (–2) – 2 = 0 Yes this equals 0
So, – 2 is the second root e.g. x = – 2 we factor this as follows (x + 2)
Therefore, the quadratic equation x2 + x – 2 = 0 factors to (x – 1)(x + 2)
The roots of this quadratic are at x = – 2 and x = 1
We have now seen how to factor quadratic equations using simple factorization.
Then we learnt how to factor quadratic equations by applying the factor theorem.
Next, we will look at factorizing quadratic equations that are a little harder to solve.
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Factorizing Harder Quadratic Equations (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 44 Factorizing Harder Quadratic Equations
Example (189) Solve 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 by factorization
First check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac, which becomes D = 52 – 4(2)(3) = 1

i.e. a perfect square. This means the quadratic will have two real roots.
Whenever a quadratic has a coefficient of x2 greater than 1 i.e. where the first term is
2x2, 3x2, 4x2, etc then we have to apply a different set of rules to those used
for simple factoring of the previous examples. Additionally, the quadratic equation
may not be easy to factor, sometimes it may not be possible to solve by factorization.
Using the standard form of a quadratic equation e.g. ax2 + bx + c = 0

In the example above a = 2, b = 5, c = 3
Now we have to find the factors, (see below) where the product of the two inner
terms when added to the product of the two outer terms equals the value of the b
term in this example the number 5 since the b term is 5x (remember a product is the
result from two or more numbers multiplied together)
We will start with the first term i.e. 2x2 the factors of 2x2 are 2x and x so we place
them in brackets as follows:
(2x + )(x + )
Next, we need to find the factors of the c term i.e. 3 these are: 1 x 3 or 3 x 1
Now we need to play around with the bracketed terms and the factors 1 and 3 or 3 and
1 to obtain factored brackets that result in the rule stated above. i.e. product of the two
inner terms when added to the product of the two outer terms equals the value of the b
term in this example the number 5 since the b term is 5x Let’s give it a go.
We will try (2x + 1)(x + 3)
The inner terms produce 1 x 1 = 1 (Note: x is equal to 1x so the value of x is 1)

The outer terms produce 2 x 3 = 6
Adding the two results 1 + 6 = 7 No good the sum does not add up to 5

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We will try reversing the factors 1 and 3 as follows:
We will try (2x + 3)(x + 1)

The outer terms produce 2 x 1 = 2
Adding the two results 3 + 2 = 5 Yes, the sum adds to 5
We have found the factors of the quadratic equation 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
These are (2x + 3) and (x + 1)
Multiplying out the brackets to check we obtain the original quadratic equation:
2x x x = 2x2
2x x 1 = 2x
3 x x = 3x
3x1=3
Summing the above terms, we find we have 2x2 + 2x + 3x + 3 = 2x2 + 5x + 3
Now we know we have the correct factors since they reproduce the original equation.
We will let each bracketed term equal zero to find the unknown values of x also called
the roots of the equation.
2x + 3 = 0 Therefore 2x = – 3 therefore or – 1.5
The solution or roots to this quadratic equation are at x = – 1.5 and x = – 1
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If we were to plot this quadratic equation 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 on a graph we would

find the roots cross or intercept with the x-axis at the points where:
x = – 1.5 and x = – 1 as shown below
Example (190) Solve 3x2 – 11x – 4 = 0 by factorization
In the example above a = 3, b = – 11, c = – 4
Check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac, which becomes:
D = (–11)2 – 4(3)(–4) = 169

i.e. a perfect square since 169 = 132 so it should be possible to factor this quadratic.
We have learnt how to factor this type of quadratic equation on the previous page so we
will skip some of the explanations.
(3x + )(x + )
Next, we need to find the factors of the c term i.e. – 4 these are:
1x–4 = – 4
–4x1 = – 4
2x–2 = – 4
–2x2 = – 4
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We now need to play around with the factors to obtain brackets that result in the rule
stated on the previous pages. i.e. The product of the two inner terms when added to the
product of the two outer terms equals the value of the b term, in this example the
number –11 since the b term is –11x Let’s give it a go.
We will try (3x + 1)(x – 4)

The outer terms produce 3 x (– 4) = – 12
Adding the two results 1 + (-12) = – 11 Yes, we have got it first time the sum
adds to – 11
We have found the factors of the quadratic equation 3x2 – 11x – 4 = 0
These are (3x + 1) and (x – 4)
Multiplying out the brackets to check we obtain the original quadratic equation:
3x x x = 3x2
3x x –4 = –12x
1xx=x
1 x –4 = –4
Summing the above terms, we find we have 3x2 –12x + x – 4 = 3x2 –11x – 4
We will let each bracketed term equal zero to find the unknown values of x also called
the roots of the equation
3x + 1 = 0 Therefore 3x = – 1 therefore
The solution or roots to this quadratic equation are at and x = 4
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Example (191) Solve 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0 by factorization
This is a much harder quadratic to solve by factorization; in an exam more than likely
you would be allowed to use the quadratic formula which we will look at on page 256,
however below we will find the steps required to solve this quadratic by factorization.
In the example above a = 4, b = 12, c = 9

Check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac, which becomes D = 122 – 4(4)(9) = 0
The discriminant = 0 this means the quadratic will have a repeated root.
We will start with the first term i.e. 4x2 the factors of 4x2 are 4x and x and also 2x
and 2x, so we place both options in brackets as follows:
(4x + )(x + ) (2x + )(2x + )

Next, we need to find the factors of the c term i.e. 9 these factors are:
1 x 9 or 9 x 1 or (– 1) x (– 9) or (– 9) x (– 1) or 3 x 3 or (– 3) x (– 3)
We now need to play around with the factors to obtain brackets that result in the rule
stated on the previous pages. i.e. The product of the two inner terms when added to the
product of the two outer terms equals the value of the b term, in this example the
number 12 since the b term is 12x Let’s give it a go.
We will try (4x + 1)(x + 9) and (2x + 3)(2x + 3)
The inner terms produce 1 x 1 = 1 The inner terms produce 3 x 2 = 6

The outer terms produce 4 x 9 = 36 The outer terms produce 2 x 3 = 6
Adding the two results 1 + 36= 37 Adding the two results 6 + 6 = 12
We have found the factors of the quadratic equation

4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0 to be (2x + 3)(2x + 3)
(2x + 3)(2x + 3) = (2x + 3)2 and will produce a repeated root.
As usual, we should multiply out the brackets to check we obtain the original quadratic
equation as shown on the next page.
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We will multiply out the factors (2x + 3)(2x + 3) to check they produce the
quadratic equation 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0
2x x 2x = 4x2
2x x 3 = 6x
3 x 2x = 6x
3x3=9
Summing the above terms, we find we have 4x2 + 6x + 6x + 9 = 4x2 + 12x + 9
We will let the bracketed term equal zero to find the unknown values of x also called
the roots of the equation.
2x + 3 = 0 Therefore 2x = – 3 giving
The second factor (2x + 3) = 0 will also result in
The solution to this quadratic equation is a repeated root at x = – 1.5
If we were to plot this quadratic equation on a graph it

would appears as shown opposite. As you can see there
is only one solution, known as a repeated root, but you
now know there are two roots at the one point or
intercept where x = – 1.5
– 1.5
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Quadratic Equations – Completing the Square (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 45 Completing the Square

Sometimes it is not possible to solve quadratic equations by factoring, when this occurs,
you have a few choices:
1) Solve using the internet (the easiest method)
2) Solve using a calculator such as the Casio FX 991 (another easy method)
3) Completing the square
4) Using the quadratic equation formula (another easy method)
If you are in an exam, it is very unlikely you could use the internet, you may be
permitted to use a Casio FX 991 calculator, but this will only give you the answer, you
would still be expected to show the working out to be awarded any marks.
I don’t know anyone who would prefer to solve a quadratic equation by ‘completing the
square’ rather than use the quadratic formula, which we will look at on page 256,
however if your tutor or exam board requires you to solve a quadratic equation by
completing the square, then you had better learn this method. Many math-books and
internet web sites seem to make this subject very difficult to understand, so I have tried
to explain the method as simply as I can.
If we consider the quadratic equation of example (192) on the next page i.e.
x2 – 6x – 4 = 0 and try to factorize it we find the following problem:
If we check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac we find D = (–6)2 – 4(1)(–4) = 52
The discriminant = 52 or approximately 7.21112 this is not a perfect square so it may

be difficult or impossible to factorize, let’s find out why?
We need to find the ‘factors’, the two numbers that when multiplied together results in
c = –4, and when added together results in the b = –6. Let’s try to find these factors
below:
1 x –4 = –4 1 + (–4) = –3 No good this does not work out
–1 x 4 = –4 –1 + 4 = 3 No good this does not work out
2 x –2 = –4 2 + (–2) = 0 No good this does not work out
–2 x 2 = –4 –2 + 2 = 0 No good this does not work out
As we can see, there are no simple linear factors we can find to factorize this quadratic
equation, so we will ‘complete the square’ as shown on the next page.
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Example (192) Solve x2 – 6x – 4 = 0 by completing the square
In this example a = 1, b = – 6, and c = – 4
Step 1: Start by rearranging the equation to obtain the x terms on the

left-hand side, and the c term (i.e. – 4) on the right-hand side as follows:
x2 – 6x = 4
Step 2: We add to each side of the equation half the value of the b term and
square it, as follows:
x2 – 6x + =4+ which becomes x2 – 6x + (– 3)2 = 4 + (– 3)2
Completed Square
By adding (– 3)2 to both sides of the equation we have ‘completed the square’ we
will see this geometrically on the next page.
This becomes x2 – 6x + (– 3)2 = 4 + 9 becoming x2 – 6x + (– 3)2 = 13
Whatever value is in this bracket ‘the completed square bit’ is what we need to
create a new factor. The new factor will help to provide the solution or roots to the
original quadratic equation. We place the new factor – 3 as shown below.
When the square

2
Step 3: We now write the new factor as: (x – 3) = 13 power moves
across the equals
Taking the square power to the RHS we obtain x – 3 = sign it changes to
a square root
We must include
Therefore x = 3 = 3 + 3.60555 or 3 – 3.60555
the ± sign
The solutions or roots to this quadratic are at x = – 0.60555 and x = 6.60555

We have now solved this quadratic equation by completing the square.
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So, let’s try and explain what we did in example 192 by completing the square.
If we consider what we have done geometrically by drawing squares and rectangles, we

would find the following: x
We start with the first term in the equation x2, which X2 x

we could draw as shown opposite:
b
Then we add the bx term bx x
x b
x+b
2 2
X2 + bx x Step 2
x+b
2 2
b
2
b
2
We next apply step 2 from the previous page i.e. we add half the b term to both sides
of the equation, and square it i.e. (b/2)2
We now have the situation where x2 + bx could almost be rearranged into a square,
but a small square i.e. (b/2)2 is missing.
Using algebra, the equation would look like this: x2 + bx + (b/2)2 = c + (b/2)2
2
b
By adding the part shown as the small hatched square we can complete the
2
square.
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Now this is the clever bit, whatever is in the ‘completed square bracket’ can be
used to create a new factor that will result in the solution or roots to the original
equation.
In example 192 we had (– 3)2 as the ‘completing the square bit’ so we used
(x – 3)2 as the new factor which provided the solution or roots to the original
quadratic equation.
One useful thing that also comes out of completing the

square, is that we are given the ‘vertex’ or ‘turning point’
of the quadratic equation, see the graph opposite.
Using the method shown in example 192 (and note there are
other methods which could be used) if we were to plot the
quadratic equation x2 – 6x – 4 = 0 on a graph as shown
opposite, we would find the roots which we now know to be
at x = – 0.60555 and x = 6.60555
On page 239 we had the following: Step 3: (x – 3)2 = 13
Vertex or Turning Point

of the graph occurs at
x = 3, y = –13
If we reverse the sign of the highlighted values above we have the vertex or turning
point on the graph which will be at the point (x = 3, y = –13)
Being able to obtain the vertex or turning point of a quadratic equation is one of the
advantages of completing the square.
Let’s look at some more examples of completing the square, which should enable you to
get a better understanding of this method.
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Example (193) Solve x2 + 6x + 7 = 0 by completing the square
In this example a = 1, b = 6, and c = 7
Checking the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac therefore D = 62 – 4(1)(7) = 8
The discriminant = 8 or approximately 2.82842 this is not a perfect square so it may be

difficult or impossible to factorize, so we will complete the square.
Step 1: We start by rearranging the equation to obtain the x terms on the

left-hand side, and the c term (7) on the right-hand side as follows:
x2 + 6x = – 7
Step 2: We add to each side of the equation half the value of the b term and
square it, as follows:
x2 + 6x + =–7+ which becomes x2 + 6x + (3)2 = – 7 + (3)2
Which becomes x2 + 6x + (3)2 = – 7 + 9 becoming x2 + 6x + (3)2 = 2
original quadratic equation. We place the new factor as shown below.
Remember, when
the square power
Step 3: We now write the new factor as: (x + 3)2 = 2 moves across the
equals sign it
Taking the square power to the RHS we obtain x + 3 = changes to a
square root
Therefore x = –3 = –3 + 1.41421 or –3 – 1.41421 We must include
the ± sign
The solutions or roots to this quadratic are at x = – 4.41421 and x = – 1.58579
We have now solved this quadratic equation by completing the square.
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Example (194) Solve 2x2 + 5x – 3 = 0 by completing the square
To complete the square, we must have the coefficient of x2 equal to 1 so we will divide
the quadratic equation by 2, which will cause the 2 in 2x2 to cancel as follows:
which becomes x2 + 2.5x – 1.5 = 0
Now a = 1, b = 2.5, and c = – 1.5
Checking the discriminant:
D = b2 – 4ac therefore D = (2.5)2 – 4(1)(– 1.5) = 12.25

The discriminant = 12.25 or 3.52 this is not a perfect square so it may be difficult or
impossible to factorize, so we will complete the square.

left-hand side, and the constant c = (– 1.5) on the right-hand side
x2 + 2.5x = 1.5
Step 2: Finding half the value of the b term and squaring it, we obtain:
(1.25) Now squaring this we obtain (1.25)2
We now add this value to each side of the equation in step 1
x2 + 2.5x + (1.25)2 = 1.5 + (1.25)2
original quadratic equation. We place the new factor as shown on the next page.
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From the previous page we had x2 + 2.5x + (1.25)2 = 1.5 + (1.25)2
This becomes x2 + 2.5x + (1.25)2 = 3.0625
The ‘completed square’ part i.e. (1.25)2 is

placed in the new factor brackets as shown
Step 3: We now write (x + 1.25)2 = 3.0625
Remember
Taking the square power to the RHS we obtain x + 1.25 = to include
the ± sign
Therefore x = – 1.25 ± 1.75
Giving:
x = – 1.25 + 1.75 = 0.5
or
x = – 1.25 – 1.75 = – 3
The solutions or roots to this quadratic are at x = – 3 and x = 0.5
We have now solved this quadratic equation by

completing the square and if we were to graph this
quadratic, we can see the roots in the graph
opposite.
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Example (195) Solve 5x2 – 8x + 2 = 0 by completing the square
Remember we must have the coefficient of x2 equal to 1 so we will divide the quadratic
equation by 5, which will cause the 5 in 5x2 to cancel as follows:
which becomes x2 – 1.6x + 0.4 = 0
Now a = 1, b = – 1.6, and c = 0.4
Checking the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac therefore D = (–1.6)2 – 4(1)(0.4 ) = 0.96
The discriminant = 0.96 or 0.97972 this is not a perfect square so it may be difficult or
impossible to factorize, so we will complete the square.

left-hand side, and the constant c = 0.4 on the right-hand side as follows:
x2 – 1.6x = – 0.4
Step 2: Finding half the value of the b term and squaring it, we obtain:
(– 0.8) Now squaring this we obtain (– 0.8)2
We now add this value to each side of the equation in step 1
x2 – 1.6x + (– 0.8)2 = – 0.4 + (– 0.8)2
original quadratic equation. We place the new factor as shown on the next page.
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From the previous page we had x2 – 1.6x + (– 0.8)2 = – 0.4 + (– 0.8)2
This becomes x2 – 1.6x + (– 0.8)2 = 0.24

The ‘completed square’ part i.e.
(– 0.8)2 is placed in the new
factor brackets as shown
Step 3: We now write (x – 0.8)2 = 0.24
Remember
Taking the square power to the RHS we obtain x – 0.8 = to include
the ± sign
Therefore
Giving x = 1.2898 and x = 0.3101
The solutions or roots to this quadratic become x = 0.3101 and x = 1.2898

completing the square.
If we were to graph this quadratic, as shown

opposite, we would find the roots intercept with
the x-axis where: 0.3101 1.2898
x = 0.3101 and x = 1.2898
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Chapter 46 Completing the Square in the form (x + p)2 – q
Example (196) Show how x2 + 6x + 2 can be written as (x + p)2 – q
The value of the b term in this example is 6 we divide this value by 2 then square the
result.
e.g. 3 and 32 = 9 we will use these two numbers 3 and 9 to solve the problem.
We write the equation as an identity ‘≡’ as shown below:

We place the squared result i.e. 9
x2 + 6x + 2 ≡ (x2 + 6x + 9) – 9 + 2 within the brackets. However, to
balance the identity we must place – 9
x2 + 6x + 2 ≡ (x2 + 6x + 9) – 7 outside the brackets, and – 9 + 2 = – 7
We now factorize the bracketed terms,

using the value we first obtained by
x2 + 6x + 2 ≡ (x + 3)2 – 7
halving the coefficient of x as the
factor, in this example the number 3
Note: (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9
We have now shown how x2 + 6x + 2 can be written as (x + p)2 – q
Sometimes, you are asked to find the value of p and q, if so p = 3 and q = – 7
Sometimes, you are asked to solve the roots of the quadratic if so proceed as follows:
We take the identity (x + 3)2 – 7 and make it equal to zero as follows:
(x + 3)2 – 7 = 0 rewriting as (x + 3)2 = 7

We take square roots of both sides to eliminate
x + 3 = +/– the square power as shown:
Therefore: We must show the resulting square root as both

x=–3+ and x = – 3 – a positive (+) and negative (–) value
This approximates to x = – 0.354 and x = – 5.645 to 3-decimal places

We have solved the roots of this quadratic using the form (x + p)2 – q
247
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Chapter 46 Completing the Square in the form (x + p)2 – q
Example (197) Show how x2 + 8x + 10 can be written as (x + p)2 – q
The value of the b term in this example is 8 we divide this value by 2 then square the
result.
e.g. 4 and 42 = 16 we use these two numbers 4 and 16 to solve the problem.

We place the squared result i.e. 16
x2 + 8x + 10 ≡ (x2 + 8x + 16) – 16 + 10 within the brackets. However, to
balance the identity we must place
x2 + 8x + 10 ≡ (x2 + 8x + 16) – 6 – 16 outside the brackets.
Note: – 16 + 10 = – 6
We now factorize the bracketed terms, using
x + 8x + 10 ≡
2 2
(x + 4) – 6 the value we first obtained by halving the
coefficient of x as the factor, in this example
the factor is the number 4
Note: (x + 4)2 = x2 + 8x + 16
We have now shown how x2 + 8x + 10 can be written as (x + p)2 – q
To solve the roots of the quadratic, proceed as follows:
We take the identity (x + 4)2 – 6 and make it equal to zero as follows:
(x + 4)2 – 6 = 0 rewriting as (x + 4)2 = 6

We take square roots of both sides to eliminate
x + 4 = +/– the square power as shown:
Therefore: We must show the resulting square root as both

x=–4+ and x = – 4 – a positive (+) and negative (–) value
This approximates to x = – 1.550 and x = – 6.449 to 3-decimal places.
We have solved the roots of this quadratic using the form (x + p)2 – q
248
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Chapter 46 Completing the Square in the form (x – p)2 – q
Example (198) Show how x2 – 3x + 2 can be written as (x – p)2 – q
The value of the b term in this example is –3 we divide this value by 2 then square the
result.
–1.5 and (–1.5)2 = 2.25 we use –1.5 and 2.25 to solve the problem.

We place the squared result i.e.
x – 3x + 2 ≡ (x – 3x + 2.25) – 2.25 + 2
2 2
2.25 within the brackets. However,
to balance the identity we must
x2 – 3x + 2 ≡ (x2 – 3x + 2.25) – 0.25 place – 2.25 outside the brackets.
Note: – 2.25 + 2 = – 0.25

x – 3x + 2 ≡
2 2
(x – 1.5) – 0.25 the value we first obtained by halving the
the factor is the number – 1.5
Note: (x – 1.5)2 = x2 – 3x + 2.25
We have now shown how x2 – 3x + 2 can be written as (x – p)2 – q
We take the identity (x – 1.5)2 – 0.25 and make it equal to zero as follows:
(x – 1.5)2 – 0.25 = 0 rewriting as (x – 1.5)2 = 0.25

We take square roots of both sides to
x – 1.5 = +/– eliminate the square power as shown:
Therefore
x = 1.5 + and x = 1.5 – We must show the resulting square root
as both a positive (+) and negative (–)
value
Therefore x = 2 and x = 1
We have solved the roots of this quadratic using the form (x – p)2 – q
249
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Chapter 46 Completing the Square in the form (x – p)2 + q
Example (199) Show how x2 – 10x + 27 can be written as (x – p)2 + q
The value of the b term in this example is –10 we divide this value by 2 then square
the result.
–5 and (–5)2 = 25 we use –5 and 25 to solve the problem.
x2 – 10x + 27 ≡ (x2 – 10x + 25) – 25 + 27 We place the squared result i.e. 25

within the brackets. However, to
balance the identity we must place
x2 – 10x + 27 ≡ (x2 – 10x + 25) + 2 – 25 outside the brackets.
Note: – 25 + 27 = 2
x – 10x + 27 ≡
2 2
(x – 5) + 2 the value we first obtained by halving the
the factor is the number – 5
Note: (x – 5)2 = x2 – 10x + 25
We have now shown how x2 – 10x + 27 can be written as (x – p)2 + q
We take the identity (x – 5)2 + 2 and make it equal to zero as follows:
(x – 5)2 + 2 = 0 rewriting as (x – 5)2 = – 2

We take square roots of both sides to
x – 5 = +/– j eliminate the square power as shown:
We cannot obtain the square root of a
Therefore negative number, so we imagine – 2 is
x=5+ j and x = 5 – j not a negative number but just 2 but to
show it was a negative root we place
the complex operator sometimes called
The roots are complex, which approximate to:
the imaginary operator ‘j’ after the root
symbol.
x = 5 + 1.414j and x = 5 – 1.414j
We have solved the roots of this quadratic using the form (x – p)2 + q
250
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Chapter 47 Completing the Square in the form a (x – p)2 – q
Example (200) Show how 2x2 – 8x – 3 can be written as a(x – p)2 – q
Just as we learnt in examples 194 and 195, we must have the coefficient of x2 = 1
we will rewrite the equation as follows: 2(x2 – 4x) – 3
The value of the b term is now – 4 we divide this value by 2 then square the result.
2x2 – 8x – 3 ≡ 2((x – 2)2 – 4) – 3 We now factorize the (x2 – 4x) equation,

using the value we first obtained by halving
the coefficient of x as the factor, in this
2x2 – 8x – 3 ≡ 2(x – 2)2 – 8 – 3
example the factor is the number – 2
Note: (x – 2)2 = x2 – 4x + 4
2x2 – 8x – 3 ≡ 2(x – 2)2 – 11
Because expanding (x – 2)2 will give
We have now shown how x2 – 4x + 4 we have to include – 4 to balance
2x2 – 8x – 3 can be written as the identity.
a(x – p)2 – q
Note: 2 outside the brackets times – 4 = – 8
To solve the roots of the quadratic we first make 2(x – 2)2 – 11 equal to zero.
2(x – 2)2 – 11 = 0 therefore 2(x – 2)2 = 11
Divide by 2 to eliminate the 2 in front of 2(x – 2)2
(x – 2)2 = 5.5 take square roots of both sides giving x – 2 =
Which approximates to x = 4.345 and x = – 0.345 to 3-decimal places.
251
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Chapter 47 Completing the Square in the form a(x – p)2 – q
Just as we learnt in the previous example, we must have the coefficient of x2 = 1

we will rewrite the equation as follows: 5(x2 – 0.8x) – 2 Note: 5 x (– 0.8x) = 4x
The value of the b term is now – 0.8 we divide this value by 2 then square the result.
–0.4 and (–0.4)2 = 0.16 we use –0.4 and 0.16 to solve the problem.
5x2 – 4x – 2 ≡ 5((x – 0.4)2 – 0.16) – 2 We now factorize the (x2 – 0.8x)

equation, using the value we first
obtained by halving the coefficient of x
5x2 – 4x – 2 ≡ 5(x – 0.4)2 – 0.8 – 2
as the factor, in this example the factor
is the number – 0.4
5x2 – 4x – 2 ≡ 5(x – 0.4)2 – 2.8 Note: (x – 0.4)2 = x2 – 0.8x + 0.16
We have now shown how Because expanding (x – 0.4)2 will give

5x2 – 4x – 2 can be written as x2 – 0.8x + 0.16 we have to include
– 0.16 to balance the identity.
a(x – p)2 – q
Note: 5 outside the brackets times
To solve the roots of the quadratic we first – 0.16 = – 0.8
make 5(x – 0.4)2 – 2.8 equal to zero.
5(x – 0.4)2 – 2.8 = 0 therefore 5(x – 0.4)2 = 2.8
Divide by 5 to eliminate the 5 in front of 5(x – 0.4)2
(x – 0.4)2 = 0.56 take square roots of both sides giving x – 0.4 =
Therefore x = 0.4 and x = 0.4
252
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Chapter 47 Completing the Square in the form a(x – p)2 – q
Just as we learnt in the previous example, we must have the coefficient of x2 = 1

we will rewrite the equation as follows: 2(x2 – 2x) – 1
The value of the b term is now –2 we divide this value by 2 then square the result.
2x2 – 4x – 1 ≡ 2((x – 1)2 – 1) – 1 We now factorize the (x2 – 2x)

equation, using the value we first
obtained by halving the coefficient of x
2x2 – 4x – 1 ≡ 2(x – 1)2 – 2 – 1
as the factor, in this example the factor
is the number – 1
2x2 – 4x – 1 ≡ 2(x – 1)2 – 3 Note: (x – 1)2 = x2 – 2x + 1
We have now shown how Because expanding (x – 1)2 will give

2x2 – 4x – 1 can be written as x2 – 2x + 1 we have to include
– 1 to balance the identity
a(x – p)2 – q
Note: 2 outside the brackets times
To solve the roots of the quadratic we first –1=–2
make 2(x – 1)2 – 3 equal to zero.
2(x – 1)2 – 3 = 0 therefore 2(x – 1)2 = 3
Divide by 2 to eliminate the 2 in front of 2(x – 1)2
(x – 1)2 = 1.5 take square roots of both sides giving x – 1 =
253
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Chapter 48 What we can find from the form (x + p)2 – q
We learnt on page 241 that we can find the ‘vertex’ or lowest point on a graph from
completing the square.
Let’s look at example 196 (page 247) x2 + 6x + 2 resulted in the form (x + 3)2 – 7
We rewrite the form to (x + 3)2 = 7 and reverse the sign of

the p and q terms.
Equals the x value Equals the y value

x=–3 y=–7
The graph of y = x2 + 6x + 2 will be at it’s lowest point or

‘vertex’ at: x = – 3, and y = – 7
Looking at example 197 (page 248) x2 + 8x + 10 resulted in the form (x + 4)2 – 6
We rewrite the form to (x + 4)2 = 6 and reverse the sign of

the p and q terms.

x=–4 y=–6
The graph of y = x2 + 8x + 10 will be at it’s lowest point or

‘vertex’ at: x = – 4, and y = – 6
254
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Chapter 48 What we can find from the form (x + p)2 – q
Sometimes you may be presented with an exam question as shown next:
Example (203) When (x + 3)2 – 2 has a minimum value of y

what is the value of x
Solution:
To solve this problem, you need to realise that (x + 3)2 – 2 is a quadratic equation
written in the form (x + p)2 – q
This is just a variation of the examples shown on the previous page.
We rewrite (x + 3)2 – 2 as (x + 3)2 = 2
We reverse the p and q values

x=–3 y=–2
Answer: (x + 3)2 – 2 has a minimum value of y when x = – 3
The graph of this equation will be at it’s lowest point where the vertex occurs at:
x = – 3 and y = – 2
The equation of y = x2 + 6x + 7 when solved by

completing the square would produce the form
(x + 3)2 – 2
If the quadratic equation was graphed it would

have a vertex at x = – 3 and y = – 2
255
The Quadratic Formula (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 49 The Quadratic Formula
The quadratic equation formula is shown below; most exam bodies around the world will
expect you to memorise this formula.
The quadratic formula is given by: x=
Where a, b, and c are constants of the equation: ax2 + bx + c = 0

We simply plug in the values of a, b, and c and do the calculations. Remember, most
exam boards around the world will expect you to be able to remember this formula.
Note, in the quadratic equation formula we have the ± (plus/minus sign) before the
square root symbol, this means there will be two results, as we have seen in previous
examples.
Example (204) Solve 5x2 + 6x + 1 = 0 using the quadratic formula
In this example a = 5, b = 6 and c = 1
Checking the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac therefore D = (6)2 – 4(5)(1) = 16
The discriminant = 16 or 42 this is a perfect square; so, the solution will have two real
roots.
We plug the values into the formula as follows:
Which becomes giving
Therefore and
The solutions or roots to this quadratic are at x = – 1 and x = – 0.2
We have now solved this quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula.
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Example (205) Solve 3x2 + 7x – 2 = 0 using the quadratic formula
In this example a = 3, b = 7, and c = – 2
Checking the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac therefore D = (7)2 – 4(3)(– 2) = 73
The discriminant = 73 or 8.5442 this is not a perfect square, but the solution will have
two real roots.
Using the quadratic formula as shown opposite x=
Which becomes
Giving and
The solutions or roots to this quadratic are at x = – 2.5906 and x = 0.2573
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Example (206) Solve x2 – 2x + 1 = 0 using the quadratic formula
In this example a = 1, b = – 2, and c = 1
Checking the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac therefore D = (–2)2 – 4(1)(1) = 0
The discriminant = 0 therefore the solution will have a repeated root at the same
location on the x-axis.
Which becomes Note, the square root of zero is zero.
Giving and
The solution or roots to this quadratic become x = 1
We have a repeated root on the x-axis where x = 1
The factors of this equation are (x – 1)(x – 1) which we could show as (x – 1)2
258
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Example (207) Solve – 4x2 + 12x – 9 = 0 using the quadratic formula
In this example a = –4, b = 12, and c = – 9
Checking the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac therefore D = 122 – 4(–4)(–9) = 0
The discriminant = 0 therefore the solution will have a repeated root at the same
location on the x-axis.
Which becomes Note, the square root of zero is zero.
Giving and
The solution or roots to this quadratic are a

repeated root where x = 1.5
If we were to graph this quadratic we would

find it appears as shown opposite i.e. an
inverted parabola, it is inverted since the first
term in the quadratic equation is negative i.e.
– 4x2

using the quadratic formula.
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Example (208) Solve x2 + 4x + 5 = 0 using the quadratic formula
Checking the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac therefore D = 42 – 4(1)(5) = – 4

The discriminant is a negative number, therefore the roots will be complex, there is no
way we could solve this quadratic by factorization, so we will use the quadratic formula.
We cannot find the square root of a negative

Which becomes number unless we use ‘complex numbers’
You can learn more about complex numbers in my book titled ‘Complex Numbers an
Introduction’ part of my ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’ we will learn the
complex operator is given by the symbol i or j. The symbol i can be mistaken for the
symbol for electrical current so many math books use the symbol j to represent the
complex operator. However, for now just imagine the number within the square root
symbol was not negative i.e. just the plain ordinary number 4. However, we will place
the complex or imaginary operator ‘j’ after the result 2 to show it is a complex answer.
The graph of this quadratic is shown opposite.
We could find the square root of
So we will write
We can show the answer as – 2 ± 1j
Or we can present the answer as:

x = – 2 + 1j and x = – 2 – 1j
260
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Example (209) Solve x2 + 3x + 3 = 0 using the quadratic formula
Checking the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac therefore D = 32 – 4(1)(3) = – 3

The discriminant is a negative number, therefore the roots will be complex, there is no
way we could solve this quadratic by factorization, so we will use the quadratic formula.
As advised on the previous page, we cannot find

Which becomes the square root of a negative number unless we
use ‘complex numbers’
However, for now we will imagine the number within the square root symbol was not
negative i.e. just the plain ordinary number 3, but we will place the complex operator ‘j’
after the square root of 3 to show it is a complex answer.
We could find the square root of approximates to 1.732, but we will leave it as
for now. The graph of this quadratic is shown opposite.
The solution or complex roots to this quadratic become:
and
The answer approximates to:

x = – 1.5 + 0.866j and x = – 1.5 – 0.866j
If you are curious to know where the complex roots are

located on this graph, you need to read my book Complex
Numbers an Introduction.
261
Solving Quadratic Equations with the Internet (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 50 Solving Quadratic Equations with the Internet
If you have access to the internet, this is the easiest way to solve quadratic equations,
and whilst this method won’t be permitted in an exam, you can use it to check the result
of any homework, or assignment work you have performed on quadratic equations.
Open an internet browser and enter into the search field quadratic equation solver
you will be presented with many links, open one or two links and select the solver you
feel easiest to use. Check out my Facebook page, given below where I will list all the
best internet solvers I have found whilst writing this math book ‘introductory series’
Example (210) Solve x2 – 5x + 4 = 0 using the internet
We have previously solved the above quadratic equation in example 182 on page 225,
we found the roots to be x = 1 and x = 4
With the internet solver shown opposite

you simply enter the equation values e.g.
a = 1, b = – 5, and c = 4 into the
a, b and c fields as shown opposite
x2 – 5x + 4 = 0
This solver automatically solves the Roots: 1, 4
quadratic as soon as you input the last Discriminant: 9
term in this case the number 4 Vertex: (2.5, – 2.25)
Factored: f(x) = (x – 4)(x – 1)
This solver even shows you a graph with the roots

indicated at the x intercept
As mentioned above the roots of this quadratic

equation occur where x = 1 and x = 4
262
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Example (211) Solve 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0 using the internet
Shown below is another example of an internet quadratic equation solver.
Enter the quadratic equation values into the entry fields as shown below, once you have
entered the values, the solver presents you with the quadratic equation formula and the
worked out answer.
A 4 B 12 C 9
Actual solution
x = – 1.5
In this example the roots are x = – 1.5, this means the solution is a repeated root.
You need to try out a few internet quadratic equation solvers yourself, and find the one
you like the best or follow my recommendations on my Facebook page
263
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Example (212) Solve x2 – 4x + 13 = 0 using the internet
As you can see, I have input the quadratic equation values into the entry field, of the
online internet quadratic equation calculator, and the calculator automatically solves the
quadratic equation, and provides a graph of the solution.
With this solver shown opposite simply enter the equation values e.g.
a = 1, b = – 4, and c = 13 into the

a, b and c fields as shown opposite
This solver automatically solves the

quadratic as soon as you input the last x2 - 4x + 13 = 0
term in this case the number 13 Roots: 2 + 3j, 2 – 3j Complex Roots
Discriminant: – 36
Vertex: (2, 9)
Factored: f(x) = (x – 2 + 3j)(x – 2 – 3j)
This solver shows you a graph of the quadratic equation
If you are curious to know where the complex roots are

located on this graph, you need to read my book
Complex Numbers an Introduction part of my
‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’
264
Solving Quadratic Equations with the Casio FX 991 (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 51 Solving Quadratic Equations with the Casio FX 991
The Casio FX 991 is not the only calculator on the market that can solve quadratic
equations, however I have found the Casio FX 991 to be the easiest to use.
Example (213) Solve x2 – 7x + 6 = 0 using the Casio FX 991
Using a Casio FX 991: Turn on the calculator

1: COMP 2: CMPLX
Step 1: Press the Mode key, the display will appear as
3: STAT 4: BASE-N
5: EQN 6: MATRIX
7: TABLE 8: VECTOR
shown next.
1: anX+bnY=cn
Step 2: Press the number 3 key; this is for quadratic 2: anX+bnY=cnZ=dn
equations. 3: aX2+bX+c=0
4: aX3+bX2+cX+d=0
1 –7 6
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the X1 answer i.e. X1 = 6
This means the solution or roots to this quadratic equation are at x = 1 and x = 6
We solved the above example by factorization in example 181 on page 222-224.
We found the roots were x = 1 and x = 6, so the Casio FX 991 calculator has
confirmed this answer.
Note: To return you Casio to normal mode, press the Mode key then the number 1 key
for Computations.
265
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We will solve the next quadratic equation, which has a repeated root using the Casio FX
991 calculator so you can see the answer repeated root quadratics produce on the
Casio.
Example (214) Solve x2 – 2x + 1 = 0 using the Casio FX 991

1: COMP 2: CMPLX
3: STAT 4: BASE-N
5: EQN 6: MATRIX
7: TABLE 8: VECTOR
shown next.
1: anX+bnY=cn
Step 2: Press the number 3 key; this is for quadratic 2: anX+bnY=cnZ=dn
equations. 3: aX2+bX+c=0
4: aX3+bX2+cX+d=0
1 –2 1
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the X answer i.e. X = 1
Note, you were not presented with an X1 and X2 answer just X = 1, this indicated, the
quadratic has a repeated root at x = 1
We solved the above example by the quadratic formula in example 206 on page 258,
where we found the answer was a repeated root at x = 1, so the Casio FX 991
calculator has confirmed this answer.
for Computations.
266
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We will solve the next quadratic equation, which has complex roots using the Casio FX
991 calculator so you can see the type of answer, complex root quadratics produce on
the Casio.
Example (215) Solve x2 + 3x + 3 = 0 using the Casio FX 991

1: COMP 2: CMPLX
3: STAT 4: BASE-N
5: EQN 6: MATRIX
7: TABLE 8: VECTOR
shown next.
Step 2: Press the number 3 key; this is for quadratic 1: anX+bnY=cn

equations. 2: anX+bnY=cnZ=dn
3: aX2+bX+c=0
4: aX3+bX2+cX+d=0
1 3 3
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the X1 answer i.e. X1 =
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the X2 answer i.e. X2 =
Note, how the Casio uses the letter ‘i’ to represent the complex operator, as previously
advised, this book will use the letter ‘j’ to represent the complex operator.
We solved the above example by the quadratic formula in example 209 on page 261,
where we found the answer was a complex root given as above, so the Casio FX 991
calculator has confirmed this answer.
for Computations.
267
Solving Cubic Equations (Pre-Calculus)
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Chapter 52 Solving Cubic Equations
As advised at the beginning of this book, this book is designed as an introduction to

algebra; this section covering cubic equations is really in the domain of further or
advanced A-level mathematics, which will be covered in my follow-on book,
Mathematics - An introduction to Further, Advanced, and Degree Level
Mathematics part of my college to university series. However, we will touch on the
basics to help any student looking for help on how to solve cubic equations.
A cubic equation is of the general form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0

Where a cannot equal 0 i.e. a ≠ 0
All cubic equations will have one real root, or three real roots, and ‘must’ have the term
x3 in the equation, or it would not be a cubic equation. Not all cubic equations have all
the terms in them as shown in the general form above; the following are examples of
cubic equations with some of the general terms absent.
x3 + 5x2 – 10x = 0 x3 + 5x2 = 0 x3 – 10x = 0
We have previously learnt that a quadratic equation may have two real roots, a repeated
root, or even no real roots, but a cubic equation will always have at least ‘one’ real root.
When a cubic equation has three roots, two or even all three of them may be repeated
roots positioned at the same point on the x-axis.
There are a number of ways to solve cubic equations depending on the roots of the
equation.
The discriminant of a cubic equation will show whether the equation has three distinct
real roots, has repeated roots, or one real root with two complex roots.
The discriminant of the cubic equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0

is given as follows:
D = b2c2 – 4ac3 – 4b3d – 27a2d2 + 18abcd
If D > 0 then the equation has three distinct real roots.

If D = 0 then the equation has a repeated root and all it’s roots are real.
If D < 0 then the equation has one real root and two non-real complex conjugate roots.
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The following methods can be used to solve cubic equations.
1) When there is no constant in the equation, i.e. no d term we can rearrange the
cubic equation, into a quadratic equation and solve the quadratic to obtain the first
two roots as shown in example (218) page 273.
2) If the cubic equation has three simple roots we can use the factor f(x) theorem
as shown in example (219) page 275.
3) We can use the internet and a cubic equation solver see example (220) Page 278.
4) We can use a Casio FX 991 calculator see example (221) page 279.
5) We can graph the cubic equation and find the roots this way, but only if the roots
are real. If the roots are complex then additional work, involving complex number
theory is required to find the location of the complex roots. My book Complex
Numbers an Introduction will guide you through plotting complex roots.
There are numerous examples starting with the image below, and over the
following pages that demonstrate finding the roots of a cubic equation by using
graphs.
We will first look at some examples of cubic equations, which have been converted to
graph form below, and on the following pages:
Opposite we can see the graph of the cubic

equation (x3 + 3x2 – 6x – 8)/4 = 0
We can observe that this equation has three real

roots where x = – 4, x = – 1, and x = 2
We will find some more equations and graphs on

the next page.
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Opposite we can see the graph of the cubic

equation x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0
We can observe that this equation has three real

roots where x = 1, x = 2, and x = 3
If we consider the graph opposite this is

formed from the cubic equation
x3 – 5x2 + 8x – 4 = 0
This equation has three real roots, but two of

them are at the same position on the x-axis,
at x = 2 so we only have two distinct solutions
which is where
x = 1, and x = 2
This equation could be factorized to produce

(x – 1)(x – 2)2
The square power in the term (x – 2)2 informs us that there will be two repeated roots
at one position on the x-axis.
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If we consider the graph below this is formed from the cubic equation
x3 + 9x2 + 27x + 27 = 0
This equation has three real roots, but all three of them are at the same position on the
x-axis, so we only have one distinct solution which is where x = – 3
This equation could be factorized to produce (x + 3)3
The cube power in the term (x + 3)3 informs us that there will be three repeated roots
at one position on the x-axis.
Graph of x3 + 9x2 + 27x + 27 = 0
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We will start by exploring some simple cubic and quartic expressions.
Example (216) Factorize – 8x 3 + 12x 2
We need to find common factors of 8x 3 and 12x 2
We find we could write 8x 3 as 4x 2(2x)
We find we could write 12x 2 as 4x 2(3)
We can see that 4x 2 is the common factor.
Therefore – 8x 3 + 12x 2 = 4x 2(3 – 2x)
Example (217) Factorize 15x 4 + 6x 2
We need to find common factors of 15x 4 and 6x 2
We find we could write 15x 4 as 3x 2(5x2)
We find we could write 6x 2 as 3x 2(2)
We can see that 3x 2 is the common factor.
Therefore 15x 4 + 6x 2 = 3x 2(2 + 5x2)
The above two examples were easy, next we will look at examples that need a method
to solve them.
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Example (218) Solve 3x3 – 2x2 + 14x = 0
To help simplify this for you we will colour the a, b, c, and d term in the general
expression as follows: 3x3 – 2x2 + 14x = 0
Using the form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 then a = 3, b = – 2, c = 14, d = 0
We will first obtain the discriminant to see what type of answer to expect.
Remember if you have access to the internet, you can solve discriminants, and cubic
equations such as the one shown below by searching for a ‘cubic discriminant
calculator’ and a ‘cubic equation solver’ check out my Facebook page for details
The discriminant is given by D = b2c2 – 4ac3 – 4b3d – 27a2d2 + 18abcd
Substituting the values into the discriminant we obtain:

D = (-2)2(14)2 – 4(3)(14)3 – 4(-2)3(0) – 27(3)2(0)2 + 18(3)(-2)(14)(0)
D = (4)(196) – 4(3)(2744) – 4(-2)3(0) – 27(3)2(0)2 + 18(3)(-2)(14)(0)
Three of the above terms cancel as they involve multiplication by zero
D = 784 – 32928 D = – 32144
Since the discriminant is a negative number, we can expect to obtain one real root, and
two complex roots.
Because there is no constant in this equation i.e. the ‘d’ variable equals zero, we can
rearrange the cubic equation to factor an x out of the equation to obtain a quadratic
equation as follows: (Remember you were advised of this on page 269).
x(3x2 – 2x + 14) = 0

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From the previous page, we had factored an x out of the equation as follows:
x(3x2 – 2x + 14) = 0
Solving this quadratic using the quadratic formula we find two roots are located at:
and these are complex roots.
The third root will be zero; this is because we split the cubic equation into two parts,
e.g. the x part, and the quadratic part. We solved the quadratic part, so if we take the
quadratic part away from the original equation we are left with x = 0 as follows:
x(3x2 – 2x + 14) = 0
(3x2 – 2x + 14) taking the quadratic part away.
We are left with x = 0
The solution or roots to the cubic equation 3x3 – 2x2 + 14x = 0 are:
and and x = 0
The graph opposite shows the plot of

this cubic equation, as we can see there
is one intercept on the x-axis this is
the real root at x = 0
If you are curious to know where the

complex roots are located on this graph,
you need to read my book
Complex Numbers an Introduction.
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Method 2 If the cubic equation has simple roots we can use the factor f(x) theorem as
shown in the example below, if you have forgotten your factor theory review
chapter 43.
Example (219) Solve x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 using the factor theorem
Again, we will colour the terms to help you identify them e.g. x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 = 0
In this example a = 1, b = – 2, c = – 5, d = 6
Remember if you have access to the internet, you can solve discriminants such as the
one shown below by searching for a ‘discriminant calculator’
The discriminant is shown below:
D = b2c2 – 4ac3 – 4b3d – 27a2d2 + 18abcd
D = (-2)2(-5)2 – 4(1)(-5)3 – 4(-2)3(6) – 27(1)2(6)2 + 18(1)(-2)(-5)(6)
D = (4)(25) – 4(1)(-125) – 4(-8)(6) – 27(1)(36) + 18(60)
D = 100 + 500 + 192 – 972 + 1080 Therefore D = 900
The discriminant D = 900 is a perfect square i.e. 302 = 900, so the cubic polynomial
will have three real and simple roots, which is ideal for using the factor theorem.
The factors of a = 1 can only be 1, and the factors of d = 6 can be:
1x6 –1 x –6 2x3 –2 x –3
So, we have the following factors 1, -1, 2, -2, 3, -3, 6, -6, it makes sense to try these
factors before any other, we might just get lucky and find a root of the above cubic
equation.
Remember we are looking for a function of a factor, which results in zero, if we can find
this exists then the factor forms one of the roots of the cubic equation.
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We will substitute the following into f(x) = x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 = 0
f(1) = (1)3 – 2(1)2 – 5(1) + 6 = 0 Yes, we are lucky this factor equals 0
f(-1) = (-1)3 – 2(-1)2 – 5(-1) + 6 = 8 No good this factor does not equal 0
f(2) = (2)3 – 2(2)2 – 5(2) + 6 = -4 No good this factor does not equal 0
f(-2) = (-2)3 – 2(-2)2 – 5(-2) + 6 = 0 Yes, we are lucky this factor equals 0
f(3) = (3)3 – 2(3)2 – 5(3) + 6 = 0 Yes, we are lucky this factor equals 0
We have now found the three roots to the cubic equation: x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 = 0
Which are located at: x = – 2, 1, and 3
We could factor the equation as follows:

x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x – 1)(x – 3)
Remember when you place the roots in factor brackets you must change the sign.
Let’s multiply out these brackets to check we get the original expression:
(x + 2)(x – 1) = x2 – x + 2x – 2 which becomes x2 + x – 2
We now multiply (x – 3) by (x2 + x – 2) as follows:
(x – 3)(x2 + x – 2) = x3 + x2 – 2x – 3x2 – 3x + 6
Which becomes x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6
We have reconstructed the original cubic polynomial so we know our answer is correct.
See the graph of this cubic equation on the next page.

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We could graph the cubic equation x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 and we would obtain the
graph as shown below, note how the roots of this cubic expression are shown as real
roots located on the x-axis at x = – 2, x = 1, and x = 3
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Chapter 53 Solving Cubic Equations using the Internet
Method 3 Using the internet and a cubic equation solver.
Example (220) Solve the cubic equation x3 – 3x2 – 6x + 14 = 0 using the internet
In this example a = 1, b = – 3, c = – 6 and d = 14
Open an internet browser and enter into the search field Cubic Equation Solver
Choose one of the links or check out my Facebook page where I will list all the best
solvers I have found whilst writing this book.
All cubic equation internet solvers present you with an a

entry field, the style changes from solver to solver, shown
opposite is one I like best as it is easy to enter the cubic b
equation values into the entry field.
c
When you click on the button you are presented d
with the equation and the solution to the equation as
shown below:
Input
x – 3x – 6x + 14 = 0
3 2
Solution:
X1 = – 2.2899
X2 = 1.7057
X3 = 3.5842
As we can see on the graph above, the roots are located on the x-axis at:
x = – 2.2899, and x = 1.7057 and x = 3.5842
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Chapter 54 Solving Cubic Equations using the Casio FX 991
On page 270 we found the cubic equation x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0 produced three
real roots located at x = 1, x = 2, and x = 3
We will use the Casio FX 991 calculator to obtain the answer to this cubic equation and
prove this answer is correct.
Example (221)
Solve the cubic equation x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0 using the Casio FX 991
In this example a = 1, b = – 6, c = 11 and d = – 6
Using a Casio FX 991: Turn on the calculator.

1: COMP 2: CMPLX
3: STAT 4: BASE-N
5: EQN 6: MATRIX
7: TABLE 8: VECTOR
shown next:
1: anX+bnY=cn
Step 2: Press the number 4 key; this is for cubic equations. 2: anX+bnY=cnZ=dn
3: aX2+bX+c=0
4: aX3+bX2+cX+d=0
1 –6 11 –6
This means the solution or roots to this cubic equation are at x = 1, x = 2, x = 3
We have found the roots using the Casio FX 991 calculator, which agree with the graph
shown on page 270, which is continued on the next page.
To return your Casio FX 991 to normal mode press Mode then 1 for Computations.
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Chapter 55 Solving Cubic Equations by Graphing
This graphing method is only for finding ‘real’ roots, it will not show the location of
‘complex roots’ to find the location of complex roots you need to read my book
Complex Numbers an Introduction.
Example (222)
Solve the cubic equation x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0 using a graphing method
Using the internet, I have used a graphing solver as shown below, my Facebook page
will list all the best internet solvers I have found whilst writing this book.
The internet solver shown below requires you to input this cubic equation as indicated,
use the ‘caret’ (^) key located on US and UK keyboards above the number 6 key to raise
the x terms to a power.
1. f(x) = x^3-6x^2+11x-6
When you click on the ‘Plot’ button, you are presented with the graph shown
Plot
below:
You can see the roots occur

where the graph crosses or
‘intercepts’ with the x-axis at
the points where:
x = 1, x = 2, x = 3
280
Chapter 56 Algebra Exercises
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Chapter 56 Algebra Exercises
On the next page, the question section will start for all the exercises in this book; all
exercises are hyperlinked so you can move back and forth between questions and
answers.
Remember what you learnt on page 21 and 22, if you have access to the internet you
can use an online ‘Algebra Calculator’ to obtain the answer to most algebra type
questions; check out my Facebook page for guidance on the best online calculators and
solvers.
As an example, let’s use an internet ‘Algebra Calculator’ to solve exercise 26 which

you will find on page 283:
Exercise (26) 2y + 2y x 3y
Below is an image of an internet ‘Algebra Calculator’ you enter the terms as shown
below, then click on the ‘CALCULATE IT!’ BUTTON
Note: Use the ‘Asterisk’ key (*) sometimes referred to as the ‘Star’ key as the
multiplication symbol between 2y x 3y the algebra calculator will display the asterisk
as a period (.) dot symbol.
Algebra Calculator
2y + 2y.3y
Answer
= 6y2 + 2y
281
Algebra Exercises - Simplifying algebraic terms
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Simplifying algebraic terms
Go to exercise answers (1) to (25)
Simplify the following exercises
Exercise (1) m+m+m Exercise (2) pxqx3
Exercise (3) 2a x 3b Exercise (4) 4a x -5b
Exercise (5) –3a x –7b Exercise (6) 2p + 3p
Exercise (7) 4a x 6a Exercise (8) 5ab x 8a
Exercise (9) 2c + 3d + 4c Exercise (10) yxyxy
Exercise (11) 2x + 5x + 9x Exercise (12) 2y x 5y
Exercise (13) a + a + 3a Exercise (14) 2y x 5y x 9y
Exercise (15) pxp Exercise (16) 11x – 5x – 2x
Exercise (17) 4a x 3b x 2c Exercise (18) y + 2y + 3y
Exercise (19) 2a3b x 5a2b3 Exercise (20) 2p x p x p
Exercise (21) 9a x 7b x 5c Exercise (22) 11y x –5y x –2y
Exercise (23) x+x+yxy Exercise (24) 4x + 5y + 4x – y
Exercise (25) 5a – (2a + 6)
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Exercise (26) 2y + 2y x 3y Exercise (27) 7(y + z)
Exercise (28) 3(a – 7b) Exercise (29) yxyxyxyxy
Exercise (30) 11y x –5y x 2y Exercise (31) 5(wy) x 4(5y)
Exercise (32) 5p x 6q x 7p Exercise (33) 9a + 7b + 5c
Exercise (34) 7a2 + 15b2 – 2a2 + 3b2
Exercise (35) 5ab2 x 9a2b x 15a2b2
Exercise (36) 5ab2 + 9a2b + 15a2b2
Exercise (37) 3xy + 5xz + 9xy + 8xz

Exercise (38) b x (– b) x b x b x (– b)
Exercise (39) (– b) x b x (– b) x b x (– b) x (– b) x (– b)
Exercise (40) Exercise (41)
Exercise (42)

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284
Algebra Exercises - Solving algebraic terms
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Solving algebraic terms

Exercise (49) Solve x – 3 = 0 Exercise (50) 9 = 2 – x
Go to exercise answer (51) Go to exercise answer (52)
Exercise (51) Solve 3x = 3x + 4x Exercise (52) 4(x + 5) = 15
Exercise (53) Solve – 2 – 9x = – 8 – x Exercise (54) 3(x – 2) = 21
Exercise (55) Solve 3x – 2x = – 5x + 3 Exercise (56) x = 9 + 4x
Exercise (57) Solve 19 = 3x – 5x Exercise (58) 6 + 4x = x
Exercise (59) Solve 5y – 11 = 24 Exercise (60) 5x – 7 = – 10x – 2
Exercise (61) Solve 4y – 3 = 14 Exercise (62) 6 + 9x = 5x – 3
285
Algebra Exercises – Solving algebraic terms
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Solve the following exercises

Exercise (63) Solve x – 11 = 14 Exercise (64) 4x – 7 = 5 – 2x
Exercise (65) Solve x + 5 = – 7 + 3x Exercise (66) 7x – 9 = 3x + 23
Exercise (67) Solve 6x – 4 = x Exercise (68) 3x – 5 = 19
Exercise (69) Solve to obtain y Exercise (70) 5x – 3 > 3x + 11
Go to exercise answer (71)
Exercise (71) Solve to obtain x
Exercise (72) Solve 8x – 8 > 6x + 12 Exercise (73) 5x + 2x = 5x
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Exercise (74) for the number machine shown below; the value of y can be 2 or 3,
the value of z can be 6 or 7; List the possible values of y x z
Input Output
y x z yx z
Exercise (75) for the number machine shown below; Alfie says, “If I know the value
of y, I can work out the value of x, I will subtract 3 then add 5”
Is this correct? and give the reason for your answer?
Input Output
x + 3 –5 y
of y, I can work out the value of x, I will divide by 3 then subtract 5”
Input Output
x x 3 +5 y
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Exercise (77) Solve 3x + 5 = 6 – 3(5 – 2x)
Exercise (78) Solve to find ‘a’
Exercise (79) Reduce the fraction to it’s lowest terms
288
Algebra Exercises – Substituting values
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Substituting values
On the next page, you will find a series of exercises where you substitute some value for
an algebraic term e.g. x, y, z, or some other variable. You can also use an internet
‘Algebra Calculator’ to solve these types of problems too. Shown below is an image
from an Algebra Calculator I have used to confirm the answer to Exercise 80 which you
will find on the next page.
Exercise (80) Solve 3x + 5 when x = 3
You enter the terms as shown below, and click on the ‘CALCULATE IT!’ button
Algebra Calculator
3x + 5
Once you have done that, the Algebra Calculator gives you the option to ‘Solve’ or
‘Evaluate’ the problem, as shown below
Solve Evaluate
Click on ‘Evaluate’ you are presented with the following option
Evaluate: Enter a number for each variable

3x + 5
x= Evaluate!
Enter 3 in the box for x = 3 and click on the ‘Evaluate’ button, you are presented with
the answer e.g.
x = 14
If you have more than one variable in a problem, such as x and y the calculator will
then offer you two boxes where you enter the value for each variable
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Substituting values
Exercise (81) Solve 7p + 2q when p = 3 and q = – 4
Exercise (82) Solve 3(x + 5) when x = 4
Exercise (83) Solve (x + 3)2 when x = 2
Go to answers to exercises (84) to (87)
Exercise (84) Solve 5x + 9y when x = 5 and y = – 2
Exercise (85) Solve 2a + 3b + 4c when a = 3, b = – 4 and c = 5
Exercise (86) Solve when z = 100 and y = 5
Exercise (87) Solve when p = – 3 and q = 2
Go to answer to exercise (88)
Exercise (88) x and y are whole numbers where x > 50 and y < 40
What is the smallest possible value of x – y
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Substituting values
Go to answers to exercise (89)
Exercise (89) p and q are whole numbers where p < 70 and q ≤ 40

What is the largest possible value of p + q
Exercise (90) Nathan is trying to calculate a value of x for which the

equation 27x – x3 = 10
His two values are 5 and – 5, are his values correct? You must show
your working out
Exercise (91) Here are four expressions:
(i) x – y (ii) x + y (iii) xy (iv)
When x = 3, and y = – 9 which expression has the smallest value?
Exercise (92) The price of a peak rate rail journey is given by the formulae:
C = 0.01 + 0.2m
C is the cost of the journey in (UK) pounds

m is the number of miles
Calculate the cost of the journey for 350 miles
Exercise (93) Using the formula E = mc2 calculate the available energy in 2 kg of
sand, if all the mass could be converted to energy

291
Algebra Exercises – Factorizing expressions
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Factorizing linear expressions

On the following pages, you will find a series of exercises where you factorize numerical
and algebraic terms. You can also use an internet ‘Algebra Calculator’ to solve these
types of problems too. Shown below is an image from an Algebra Calculator I have used
to confirm the answer to Exercise 94 which you will find on the next page. Check out my
Facebook page for guidance on the best internet calculators and solvers I have found
whilst writing this ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’
Exercise (94) Factorize 3y + 6
Algebra Calculator
3y + 6
Once you have done that, the Algebra Calculator gives you the option to ‘Solve’ or
‘Evaluate’ the problem, as shown below
Solve Evaluate
The Algebra Calculator is intelligent enough to assume you want to ‘Factor’ this
expression, which it does for you automatically. You are presented with the factored
answer as shown below
Factor 3y + 6
3y + 6
= 3(y + 2)
You can use this internet Algebra Calculator to factorize a wide range of
algebraic terms
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Factorize the following linear expressions

Go to answers to exercise (94) to (97)
Exercise (95) Factorize 7x + 28
Exercise (97) Factorize 2a + 12
Exercise (100) Factorize 7x – 14
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Exercise (104) Factorize 6 – 3y
Exercise (105) Factorize 4a – 12
Exercise (106) Factorize 9y – 81
Exercise (107) Factorize 5q + 20
Exercise (109) Factorize 6x – 18y
Exercise (111) Factorize 24p + 30q
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Exercise (114) Factorize 6x + 9y + 3
Exercise (115) Factorize 9x – 6y + 12
Exercise (116) Factorize 15x – 10y – 30
Factorizing expressions with powers

Exercise (118) Factorize 3y5 – 7y3
Exercise (119) Factorize 8x2 + 17x6
Exercise (120) Factorize 24p – 60q – 72r
Exercise (121) Factorize 24x2y3 – 8y
Exercise (122) Factorize 25a + 35b + 50c
295
Algebra Exercises – Expanding brackets
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Expanding brackets
On the following pages, you will find a series of exercises where you expand bracketed,
numerical, and algebraic terms. You can also use an internet ‘Algebra Calculator’ to
solve these types of problems too. Shown below is an image from an Algebra Calculator
I have used to confirm the answer to Exercise (123) which you will find on the next
page. For guidance on the best internet calculators and solvers check out my Facebook
page
Algebra Calculator
What do you want to calculate? Exercise (123) Expand 3(x + 2)
3(x + 2)
Once you have done that, the Algebra Calculator gives you the option to ‘Simplify’
‘Evaluate’ or choose ‘Lesson’ as shown below
Simplify Evaluate Lesson
The Algebra Calculator is intelligent enough to assume you want to ‘Simplify’ this
expression, which means to expand the brackets, which it does for you automatically.
You are presented with the expanded answer as shown below
3(x + 2)
There is an option to show this problem
Show Step-By-Step solved Step-By-Step. Just click on the
Show Step-By-Step button
= 3x + 6
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Expanding the following bracketed terms

Exercise (123) 3(x + 2)
Exercise (124) 2(a + 4)
Exercise (125) 3(x – 4)
Exercise (126) –4(y + 4)
Exercise (127) –4(y – 4)
Exercise (128) 5(4 + 3)
Exercise (129) 6(3 – y)
Exercise (130) 2(x + y)
Exercise (131) 12(2 – 3y)
Exercise (132) –(x – 7y)
Exercise (133) –(5x + 3y)
Exercise (134) –5p(3 – q)
Exercise (135) 3(x – 5) – 3
Exercise (136) 5(2y – 3)
Exercise (137) 3x(2x + 3y)
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Expanding the following bracketed terms

Exercise (138) 4y(x + 5y)
Exercise (139) (x + 1)2
Exercise (140) (x + 3)2
Exercise (141) (x + 5)(x + 2)
Exercise (142) (x + 2)(x + 7)
Exercise (143) (x – 3)(x + 9)
Exercise (144) (x – 5)(x – 3)
Exercise (145) (x + 4)(x – 5)
Exercise (146) (2x – 5)2
Exercise (147) (3x + 4y)2
Exercise (148) (3x + 2y)(3x – 2y)
Exercise (149) (x + 3)(x + 2)(x + 1)
Exercise (150) (x + 4)(x – 2)(y + 3)
Exercise (151) (x – 5)(x – 3)(y – 7)
298
Algebra Exercises – Linear equations as word problems
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Linear equations as word problems

Exercise (152) Go to answer (152)
The sum of two numbers is 18, and three times the larger number exceeds four times

A lumberjack cuts down a tree, which was 120 feet high, and the part cut off is 11
times the length of the part left standing. What is the length of each part?

The sum of two numbers is 46, and four times one of them exceeds three times the
other by 9. What are the two numbers?

A farmer sold 30 pounds of butter and 100 gallons of milk for £364. He sold the milk for
six times as much as the butter. How much did he get for each?


A rectangle is constructed and it’s length is twice it’s breadth. If the perimeter is 72
metres, find the length and breadth of the rectangle.

Bill is 20 years’ older than Tom. In two years’ time Bill will be twice as old as Tom.
How old are they now?

A father is four times as old as his son; and in 20 years’ time, he will only be twice as
old. What are their present ages?
There is no internet Calculator, which will solve word type problems; however, if you
enter the problem ‘word-for-word’ into an internet search engine, you might get lucky.
There is a very good chance you may find the answer, or a very similar type question
you can use to help you solve your word problems.
299
Algebra Exercises – Solving simultaneous equations
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Simultaneous linear equations

On the following pages, you will find a series of exercises where you are required to
solve simultaneous equations. You can also use an internet ‘Simultaneous Equation
Solver’ to solve these types of problems. Shown below is an image from an internet
Simultaneous Equation Solver I have used to confirm the answer to exercise (160) which
you will find on the next page.
For guidance on the best internet calculators and solvers check out my Facebook page
System of Equations Calculator

Step-by-step calculator for systems of equations
Equation #1: x + y = 12 Enter your simultaneous

equation in the two input
fields shown opposite, then
Equation #2: x – y = 2 click on the Calculate! button
Calculate!
Solve Graph Lesson
Once you have clicked on the Calculate! Button you are presented with a step-by-step
method of solving the simultaneous equation, finally you are presented with the answer
to the simultaneous equation e.g.
Answer:
x = 7 and y = 5
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Solve the following simultaneous equations

x + y = 12
x –y= 2

x+y=5
6x – 3y = 3

4x + y = 15
x + y = 12

x+y=8
x –y=2

2x – 5y = 11
3x + 2y = 7

2x + y = 5
3x – 2y = –3

2x – 3y = 24
6x + 2y = –5
301
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Solve the simultaneous equation

For the number machine shown below; when the input is y the output is z, when the
input is y + z the output is 64, calculate the values of y and z
Input Output
y x 3 –5 z
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Simultaneous equations as word problems

sold?

Tom has 105 coins consisting of 5 and 10 pence pieces, which total to £9.50 how many




Charlie and Tom have a combined age of 50. Five years’ ago, Charlie was double the
age Tom is now. How old are Charlie and Tom today?


The internet is very useful in solving simultaneous equation word problems. Just type
the problem into an internet search engine. You may not find the exact answer, but you
will find a very similar example you can use to work towards finding the answer to your
problem.
303
Algebra Exercises – Simultaneous equations 3 unknowns
(Go to Contents)
Simultaneous equations with 3 unknowns
Solve for A, B and C using elimination and substitution.
2A + 3B + C = 7 Equation 1
A+ B – C=4 Equation 2
A – 2B + 3C = –6 Equation 3
Solve the simultaneous equation below, for A, B and C using an internet solver and if
you have one the Casio FX 991 calculator.
1A + 1B + 0C = 1
– 2A + 2B + 1C = 0
4 A + 0B + 2C = 8
304
Algebra Exercises – Polynomial Division
(Go to Contents)
Polynomial Division Exercises
Exercise (178) Simplify Go to answer (178)
305
Answer to Partial Fractions
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Partial Fractions
Solve the following exercises using partial fractions
Exercise (183) Solve Go to answer (183)
Answer to Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors
Answer to Partial Fractions with Quadratic Factors
306
Algebra Exercises – Functions
(Go to Contents)
Function exercises
The answer to many function problems can be solved using an internet ‘Function
Calculator’ if you have access to the internet; over the following pages I will
demonstrate how an internet function calculator can be used to check your answers to
many function problems you have been set as part of your homework or course revision.
Check out my Facebook page for guidance on the best internet calculators and solvers I
have found whilst writing this ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’
On page 309 we will find Exercise (187) the image below shows how an internet
function calculator has given the answer to this problem.
Exercise (187)
The function of x is given by f(x) = x 2 if x = – 3 what is the output
f (x) =
Using an internet function calculator, the entry window looks like that shown above, we
enter the function in the function field, after the f (x) = sign as follows, then click on
the Red Go button.
f (x) = (– 3)2
We are presented with the answer as follows: Solution (– 3)2 = 9
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Function exercises
function calculator has given the answer to this problem
Exercise (203)
The function of t is given by f(t) = 3t2 + 4t what is the output for f(5t)
We enter the function into the function field after the f (x) = sign as follows, then click
on the Red Go button.
f (x) = 3(5t)2 + 4(5t)
We are presented with the answer: Solution f (5t) = 75t2 + 20t
function calculator has given the answer to this problem.
Exercise (204)
Given the function h(t) = t2 + 2t evaluate h(5)
We enter the function into the function field after the f (x) = sign as follows, then click
on the Red Go button.
f (x) = (5)2 + 2(5)
We are presented with the answer: Solution h(5) = 35
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Function exercises
Exercise (187) Go to answers (187 to 190)

The function of x is given by f(x) = x 2 if x = – 3 what is the output
Exercise (188)
Shown below is a function machine, what is the output?
x function ½ output
Exercise (189)
The function of x is given by f(x) = x + 3 if x = 2 what is the output
Exercise (190)

The function of x is given by f(x) = x3 + 7 if x = 2 what is the output
Exercise (192)
The function of g is given by f(g) = g2 + g + 5 if g = 3 what is the output
Exercise (193)
The function of x is given by f(x) = 3x2 – 5 what is the output when x = 0, 1, 2
Exercise (194)
Given the function f:x → y when f:x = 4x 2 – 5x + 2
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Function exercises

Given the function f(x) = 4x3 – 7x2 + 5x – 6 what is the argument of this function?
Exercise (196)
Given the function y = f(x) where f(x) = find the value of y when x = 5
Exercise (197)
The formulae for the height of a ball (t) seconds after it has been dropped from rest is
given by a function of height (h) in metres, time (t) in seconds, and the initial starting
height (h0). Where h(t) = – 4.9t 2 + h0
If time the ball drops is 5 seconds, and the initial height the ball is dropped from is 200
metres, what is the height of the ball?

Given the function f(x) = what is the domain and range of this function?
Exercise (199)
If a function is given by g(h) = dh2 + 6h and h = 12 what is the output

If a function is given by g(x) = and x = 12 what is the output
Exercise (201)
The function of x is given by f(x) = 15 + 3x2 what is the output for f(2t)
Exercise (202)
The function of x is given by f(x) = 3x2 + 4x what is the output for f(y)
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Function exercises

The function of t is given by f(t) = 3t2 + 4t what is the output for f(5t)
Exercise (204)
Exercise (205)
The function of x is given by f(x) = 3x2 + 4x what is the output for f(q2)

Given the function f:x → y when f:x = what is the output for f(– 2x)
Exercise (207)
The domain of the function f(x) = 2x2 + 3x – 1 is {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}
Find the range of f(x), and map this on a ‘domain – range’ diagram

Given that f(3x – 5) = x what is f(x) = 4
Exercise (209)
Given the function f(x) = x2 + 2x what is f(x) = 3

Given the function f(x) = evaluate f(21)
Exercise (211)
Given the function f(x) = solve f(x) = 8
311
Algebra Exercises – Composite Functions
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Composite Functions
Composite functions give many students a headache, mainly because you are working in
reverse; you obtain the second function first, then feed this into the first function to
obtain an output. Fortunately, if you have access to the internet, there are a number of
‘Composite Function Calculators’ available which you can use to check the answer
to any homework or revision problems you may be working on.
Check out my Facebook page for guidance on the best internet calculators and solvers I
have found whilst writing this ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’
Let’s use an internet composite function calculator to obtain the answer to exercise
(212), which you can find on the next page.
Exercise (212)
Given that f(x) = 3x + 7 and g(x) = 2x2 find g(f(x))
You may leave your answer in a factorized form
We enter the functions into the function field as shown in the image below; ignore the
‘Enter a Point’ field for this type of problem. This field usually has the number 5 entered
by default, just ignore it, you ‘will’ use this field for later exercises; use the caret key ‘^’
to raise x to the power of 2 in g(x) then click on the calculate button.
Enter f (x): Note:

3x+7
What I particularly like about
this function calculator is that it
Enter g (x): 2x^2 gives you the answer to both
f(g(x)) and g(f(x)), shown
Enter a point 5 as (f o g)(x) and (g o f)(x).
Many internet function
calculators will only give you
Calculate
the answer to f(g(x))
You are presented with the solution to this problem in both f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) form
Answer: (g o f)(x) = 2(3x + 7)2
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Composite Functions
2
Given that f(x) = 3x + 7 and g(x) = 2x find g(f(x))
Exercise (213)
Given the function f(x) = 3x – 2 and g(x) = x2 + 1 what is f(g(x))

Exercise (215)
Given the function f(x) = 6x – 3 and g(x) = what is g(f(x))

Given the function f(x) = and g(x) = what is f(g(x))
See the next two pages for examples of using an internet

composite function calculator to obtain the answer to
Exercises (217) and (218)
Given the function f(x) = 2x – 1 and g(x) = x + 5 what is g(f(4))
2
Exercise (218)
Given the function f(x) = 3x – 1 and g(x) = x2 + 1 what is g(f(5))
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Composite Functions
(217). Now this type of composite function question often baffles many students, and to
have an internet calculator that can solve this type of question is in my opinion just
brilliant, I wish I had access to such calculators, when I was a student a long, long time
ago, it would have made my studies much easier.
Exercise (217)
As previously shown, enter the functions into the function field as shown in the image
below. In the ‘Enter a Point’ field enter the number 4 since we are asked what is g(f(4))
Remember to use the caret key ‘^’ to raise x to the power of 2 in g(x) then click on
the calculate button.
Enter f (x): 2x–1
Enter g (x): x^2+5
Enter a point 4
Calculate
Answer:
(f o g)(x) = 2x2 + 9 (g o f)(x) = (2x – 1)2 + 5
(f o g)(4) = 41 (g o f)(4) = 54
The answer to this exercise is g(f(4)) = 54
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Composite Functions
(218)
Exercise (218)
Enter the functions into the function field as shown in the image below. In the ‘Enter a
Point’ field enter the number 5 since we are asked what is g(f(5)) Remember to use the
caret key ‘^’ to raise x to the power of 2 in g(x) then click on the calculate button.
Enter f (x): 3x–1
Enter g (x): x^2+1
Enter a point 5
Calculate
Answer:
(f o g)(x) = 3x2 + 2 (g o f)(x) = (3x – 1)2 + 1
(f o g)(5) = 77 (g o f)(5) = 197
The answer to this exercise is g(f(5)) = 197
315
Algebra Exercises – Inverse Functions
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Inverse Functions
You can use an internet ‘Inverse Function Calculator’ to find the answer to many
inverse function problems. Check out my Facebook page for guidance on the best
internet calculators and solvers I have found whilst writing this math book introductory
series.
Let’s use an internet inverse function calculator to obtain the answer to exercise (221)
which you can find on the next page.
Exercise (221)
Given f(x) = 7x – 2 find f-1(x)
Enter the function into the function field as shown in the image below then click on the
calculate button
Enter a function: y = f (x): 7x–2
Calculate
You are presented with the solution to this problem as shown below:
Answer:
y=
If you follow the hyperlink on the next page to the worked-out answer to this exercise
you will find the answer is shown as:
Both answers are the same; you just have to remember this particular internet-based
calculator indicates the output as y most internet inverse function calculators do not
show the f-1(x) notation.
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Algebra Exercises – Inverse Functions
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Inverse Functions
Given f(x) = 2x + 3 find the inverse of this function i.e. f -1(x) using a function
machine
Given f(x) = find the inverse of this function i.e. f -1(x) using a function
machine

Given f(x) = 7x – 2 find f-1(x)
Exercise (222)
Given f(x) = x + 4 find f-1(x)

Given f(x) = 4x find f-1(x)
Exercise (224)
Given g(x) = 2x find g-1(x)
Given g(x) = find g-1(x)
Exercise (226)
Given f(x) = find f-1(x)
Given f(x) = find the inverse of this function i.e. f -1(x)
317
Algebra Exercises – Quadratic equations
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Factoring quadratic equation exercises
Exercise (228) Show how to factor x2 – 4 = 0 Go to answer (228)
Exercise (229) Show how to factor x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 Go to answer (229)
Exercise (230) Show how to factor x2 – 9x – 10 = 0 Go to answer (230)
Exercise (231) Show how to factor x2 + 7x + 6 = 0 Go to answer (231)
Exercise (232) Show how to factor x2 – 9 ≤ 0 Go to answer (232)
Exercise (233) Show how to factor x2 – 1 < 0 Go to answer (233)
Exercise (234) Show how to factor x2 – 36 ≥ 0 Go to answer (234)
Exercise (235) Show how to factor 2x2 + x – 3 = 0 Go to answer (235)
Exercise (236) Show how to factor 3x2 – x – 2 = 0 Go to answer (236)
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Algebra Exercises – Quadratic equations
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Factoring quadratic equation exercises

Solve using the quadratic formulae 2y2 – 8y + 6 = 0
Use the factor theorem to show (x + 3) is a factor of f(x) = x3 – 5x2 – 8x + 48

Show how to factor x3 + 9x2 + 27x + 27 = 0

3 2
Using an internet solver show how to factor 3x – 11x – 22x + 10 = 0

Show how to factor 3x 3 – 4x + 5 = 0

Show how to factor x3 + 8 = 0

Show how to factor x3 + x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
319
Chapter 57 Answers to Algebra Exercises
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Answers – Simplify the following terms

Return to Exercises (1) to (25)
Exercise (1) m + m + m = 3m Exercise (2) p x q x 3 = 3pq
Exercise (3) 2a x 3b = 6ab Exercise (4) 4a x -5b = -20ab
Exercise (5) –3a x –7b = 21ab Exercise (6) 2p + 3p = 5p
Exercise (7) 4a x 6a = 24a2 Exercise (8) 5ab x 8a = 40a2b
Exercise (9) 2c + 3d + 4c = 6c + 3d Exercise (10) y x y x y = y3
Exercise (11) 2x + 5x + 9x = 16x Exercise (12) 2y x 5y = 10y 2
Exercise (13) a + a + 3a = 5a Exercise (14) 2y x 5y x 9y = 90y3
Exercise (15) p x p = p2 Exercise (16) 11x – 5x – 2x = 4x
Exercise (17) 4a x 3b x 2c = 24abc Exercise (18) y + 2y + 3y = 6y
Exercise (19) 2a3b x 5a2b3 = 10a5b4 Exercise (20) 2p x p x p = 2p 3
Exercise (21) 9a x 7b x 5c = 315abc
Exercise (22) 11y x –5y x –2y = 110y3
Exercise (23) x + x + y x y = 2x + y2
Exercise (24) 4x + 5y + 4x – y = 8x + 4y
Exercise (25) 5a – (2a + 6) = 5a – 2a – 6 = 3a – 6
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Chapter 57 Answers to Algebra Exercises – Simplifying terms
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Exercise (26) 2y + 2y x 3y = 2y + (2y x 3y) = 2y + 6y2
Exercise (27) 7(y + z) = 7y + 7z
Exercise (28) 3(a – 7b) = 3a – 21b
Exercise (29) y x y x y x y x y = y5
Exercise (30) 11y x –5y x 2y = –110y3
Exercise (31) 5(wy) x 4(5y) = (5 x 4 x 5) x (w x y x y) = 100wy2
Exercise (32) 5p x 6q x 7p = 210p2q

All terms are unlike terms,
Exercise (33) 9a + 7b + 5c = 9a + 7b + 5c cannot be simplified further
Exercise (34) 7a2 + 15b2 – 2a2 + 3b2 = (7 – 2)a2 + (15 + 3)b2 = 5a2 + 18b2
Exercise (35) 5ab2 x 9a2b x 15a2b2 = 675a5b5
Exercise (36) 5ab2 + 9a2b + 15a2b2 = 5ab2 + 9a2b + 15a2b2

Exercise (36) cannot be simplified any further, ab2 is not the same as a2b, nor a2b2
none of the terms are ‘like terms’ as a result this expression cannot be simplified any
further
Exercise (37) 3xy + 5xz + 9xy + 8xz = 12xy + 13xz
Collect the like terms, underlining with different colours helps to see the like terms.
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Exercise (38) b x (– b) x b x b x (– b) = b5
If ever you are unsure whether the answer to questions with lots of positive
and negative values in them, is a positive answer or a negative answer, then
use you calculator; let the variable i.e. b = 1. Enter the above exercise into
you calculator as follows: 1 x -1 x 1 x 1 x -1 = 1
Exercise (39) (– b) x b x (– b) x b x (– b) x (– b) x (– b) = – b7
The expression
It now Positive
becomes negative
becomes again
positive
Negative
Negative
again
again
Exercise (40) =
Exercise (41)
Exercise (42) =
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To simplify this type of problem you need to

Exercise (43) realise the numerator terms form a quadratic
equation; you then factorize the numerator.
You also factorize the denominator, and then you
will find two of the factors are identical and will
cancel, thus simplifying the expression. If you
have forgotten how to factorize quadratic
equations see chapter 42
The (x – 1) factors will cancel as follows
simplifies to
Exercise (44)
The (x + 6) factors will cancel as follows
simplifies to
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Exercise (45)
The (x – 2) factors will cancel as follows
simplifies to
Exercise (46)
simplifies to
324
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Exercise (47)
The (2x + 1) factors will cancel as follows
simplifies to
Exercise (48)
simplifies to
325
Chapter 57 Answers to Algebra Exercises – Solving terms
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Answers – Solve the following terms

Exercise (49) Solve x – 3 = 0

x–3=0 x–3=0
To get x by itself we will add 3 to both We will move –3 from the left-hand side
sides of the equation as shown next (LHS) of the equation to the right-hand
side (RHS) in doing so it’s mathematical
x–3+3=0+3 operator –3 will change to +3 as shown
– 3 and +3 cancel to zero leaving x=0+3
x=3 x=3
Exercise (50) Solve 9 = 2 – x

Solve 9 = 2 – x Solve 9 = 2 – x
To get x by itself we will subtract 2 from We will move –x to the left-hand side
both sides of the equation as shown next (LHS) of the equation in doing so it’s
mathematical operator –x will change to
9–2=2–x–2 +x, at the same time we will move 9 to
2 and –2 on the RHS cancel the (RHS) of the equation, it’s sign will
7=–x change from positive to negative
x=2–9
Divide both sides by –1
x=–7
And we have solved x
–7 = x
Rewriting as
x = –7
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Return to Exercise (51)
Exercise (51) Solve 3x = 3x + 4x

3x = 3x + 4x 3x = 3x + 4x
3x = 7x 3x = 7x
To get an x by itself we will subtract 3x To get an x by itself we will subtract 3x
from both sides of the equation as shown from both sides of the equation as shown
3x – 3x = 7x – 3x 3x – 3x = 7x – 3x
0 = 4x
0 = 4x
Divide both sides by 4
The number 4 moves to the (LHS) in doing
so it’s operator changes from multiplication
to division
The 4’s cancel
x=0
x=0
By now, you should be getting the idea how to perform these types of
algebra problems so I will reduce the text explanations in the following
exercises.
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Exercise (52) Solve 4(x + 5) = 15

4(x + 5) = 15 4(x + 5) = 15
Multiply out the brackets Multiply out the brackets
4x + 20 = 15 4x + 20 = 15
4x + 20 – 4x = 15 – 4x 4x = 15 – 20
20 = 15 – 4x 4x = – 5
20 – 15 = 15 – 4x – 15
5 = – 4x x = – 1.25
Divide both sides by 4 And we have solved x
1.25 = –x
Divide both sides by –1
x = – 1.25
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Exercise (53) Solve – 2 – 9x = – 8 – x

– 2 – 9x = – 8 – x – 2 – 9x = – 8 – x
– 2 – 9x + 2 = – 8 – x + 2 – 2 + 8 = – x + 9x
– 9x = – 6 – x 6 = 8x
– 9x + x = – 6 – x + x
– 8x = – 6
x = 0.75

x = 0.75
Exercise (54) Solve 3(x – 2) = 21

3(x – 2) = 21 3(x – 2) = 21
3x – 6 = 21 3x – 6 = 21
3x – 6 + 6 = 21 + 6 3x = 27
3x = 27

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Exercise (55) Solve 3x – 2x = – 5x + 3

3x – 2x = – 5x + 3 3x – 2x = – 5x + 3
x = – 5x + 3 x = – 5x + 3
x + 5x = – 5x + 3 + 5x x + 5x = 3
x + 5x = 3 6x = 3
6x = 3
x = 0.5
x = 0.5
Exercise (56) Solve x = 9 + 4x

x = 9 + 4x x = 9 + 4x
x – 9 = 9 + 4x – 9 x – 4x = 9
x – 9 = 4x – 3x = 9
x – 9 – x = 4x – x
– 9 = 3x
x=–3
x=–3
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Exercise (57) Solve 19 = 3x – 5x

19 = 3x – 5x 19 = 3x – 5x
19 = – 2x 19 = – 2x
– 9.5 = x
x = – 9.5
Exercise (58) Solve 6 + 4x = x

6 + 4x = x 6 + 4x = x
6 + 4x – 6 = x – 6 6 = x – 4x
4x = x – 6 6 = – 3x
4x – x = x – 6 – x
x=–2
3x = – 6
x=–2
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Exercise (59) Solve 5y – 11 = 24

5y – 11 = 24 5y – 11 = 24
5y – 11 + 11 = 24 + 11 5y = 24 + 11
5y = 35 5y = 35
y=7
y=7
Exercise (60) Solve 5x – 7 = – 10x – 2

5x – 7 = – 10x – 2 5x – 7 = – 10x – 2
5x – 7 + 7 = – 10x – 2 + 7 5x + 10x = – 2 + 7
5x = – 10x + 5
15x = 5
5x + 10x = – 10x + 5 + 10x
15x = 5
x = 1/3
x = 1/3 And we have solved x
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Exercise (61) Solve 4y – 3 = 14

4y – 3 = 14 4y – 3 = 14
4y – 3 + 3 = 14 + 3 4y = 14 + 3
4y = 17 4y = 17
y = 4.25
y = 17/4 = 4.25
Exercise (62) Solve 6 + 9x = 5x – 3

6 + 9x = 5x – 3 6 + 9x = 5x – 3
6 + 9x – 6 = 5x – 3 – 6 9x – 5x = – 3 – 6
9x = 5x – 9 4x = – 9
9x – 5x = 5x – 9 – 5x
4x = – 9
x = – 9/4

x = – 9/4
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Exercise (63) Solve x – 11 = 14

x – 11 = 14 x – 11 = 14
x – 11 + 11 = 14 + 11 x = 14 + 11
x = 25 x = 25
Exercise (64) Solve 4x – 7 = 5 – 2x

4x – 7 = 5 – 2x 4x – 7 = 5 – 2x
4x – 7 + 7 = 5 – 2x + 7 4x + 2x = 5 + 7
4x = 12 – 2x 6x = 12
4x + 2x = 12 – 2x + 2x
6x = 12
x=2

x=2
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Exercise (65) Solve x + 5 = – 7 + 3x

x + 5 = – 7 + 3x x + 5 = – 7 + 3x
x + 5 – 5 = – 7 + 3x – 5 x – 3x = – 7 – 5
x = – 12 + 3x – 2x = – 12
x – 3x = – 12 + 3x – 3x
– 2x = – 12
x=6
x=6
Exercise (66) Solve 7x – 9 = 3x + 23

7x – 9 = 3x + 23 7x – 9 = 3x + 23
7x – 9 + 9 = 3x + 23 + 9 7x – 3x = 23 + 9
7x = 3x + 32
4x = 32
7x – 3x = 3x + 32 – 3x
4x = 32
x=8
x=8 And we have solved x

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Exercise (67) Solve 6x – 4 = x

6x – 4 = x 6x – 4 = x
6x – 4 + 4 = x + 4 6x – x = 4
6x = x + 4 5x = 4
6x – x = x + 4 – x
5x = 4
x = 0.8
x = 0.8
Exercise (68) Solve 3x – 5 = 19

3x – 5 = 19 3x – 5 = 19
3x – 5 + 5 = 19 + 5 3x = 19 + 5
3x = 24 3x = 24
x=8
x=8
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Exercise (69) Solve to obtain y
Multiply by 3
Rewrite as: 3x = y + 27
3x – 27= y
Multiply by 3
Rewrite as: y = 3x – 27
y + 27 = 3x
y + 27 – 27 = 3x – 27
y = 3x – 27
Exercise (70) Solve 5x – 3 > 3x + 11

5x – 3 > 3x + 11 5x – 3 > 3x + 11
5x – 3 + 3 > 3x + 11 + 3 5x – 3x > 11 + 3
5x > 3x + 14
2x > 14
5x – 3x > 3x + 14 – 3x
2x > 14
x>7
x>7
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Exercise (71) Solve to obtain x
Rewrite as:
y–3=
y–3=
y–3=
Multiply by x x(y – 3) =
x(y – 3) = 5
Divide by (y – 3)
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Exercise (72) Solve 8x – 8 > 6x + 12

8x – 8 > 6x + 12 8x – 8 > 6x + 12
8x – 8 + 8 > 6x + 12 + 8 8x – 6x > 12 + 8
8x > 6x + 20
2x > 20
8x – 6x > 6x + 20 – 6x
2x > 20
x > 10
x > 10
Exercise (73) Solve 5x + 2x = 5x

5x + 2x = 5x 5x + 2x = 5x
7x = 5x 7x = 5x
To get an x by itself we will subtract 5x To get an x by itself we will subtract 5x
from both sides of the equation as shown from both sides of the equation as shown
7x – 5x = 5x – 5x 7x – 5x = 5x – 5x
2x = 0 2x = 0
Divide both sides by 2
x=0 x=0

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Exercise (74) for the number machine shown below; the value of y can be 2 or 3,
the value of z can be 6 or 7; List the possible values of y x z
Input Output
y x z yx z
Solution: 2 x 6 = 12 2 x 7 = 14 3 x 6 = 18 3 x 7 = 21
of y, I can work out the value of x, I will subtract 3 then add 5”
Input Output
x + 3 –5 y
Solution: Yes, Alfie is correct. To solve these types of problems, pick a number for x, it
can be any number you want, I will let x = 4, then work out the value of y
Input Output
x=4 + 3 –5 Y=2
We perform the sum: y = 4 + 3 – 5 = 2
Now let’s see if Alfie’s assumption is correct? Alfie says, “If I know the value of y, I will
subtract 3 then add 5”
y = 2, subtract 3, = – 1 then add 5, x should = 4

The reason Alfie is correct, is that the order does not matter for ‘Inverse’ operations
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of y, I can work out the value of x, I will divide by 3 then subtract 5”
Input Output
x x 3 +5 y
Solution: Sadly, Alfie is wrong this time. Again, to solve these types of problems, pick a
number for x, it can be any number you want, once again I will let x = 4, then work
out the value of y
Input Output
x=4 x 3 +5 Y = 17
We perform the sum: y = 4 x 3 + 5 = 17
Now let’s see if Alfie’s assumption is correct? Alfie says, “If I know the value of y, I will
divide by 3 then subtract 5”
y = 17, divide by 3, = 17/3 then subtract 5, x should = 2/3
x is clearly ‘not’ = 2/3 since we can see from the above number machine x = 4
The reason Alfie is incorrect, is that the inverse operations, have been performed in the
wrong order
The correct order would be y = (17 – 5)  3 = 4
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Exercise (77) Solve 3x + 5 = 6 – 3(5 – 2x)
We first multiply out the bracket on the right-hand side of the equation as follows:
3x + 5 = 6 – 15 + 6x
Which becomes 3x + 5 = 6x – 9
Which becomes 3x – 6x = – 9 – 5
Which becomes – 3x = – 14
x = 4.6666
Note how the two minus signs i.e. result is a positive answer
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Exercise (78) Solve to find ‘a’
We need a lowest common denominator (LCD) to solve this fraction, for more
information on lowest common denominators check out my math book ‘Numbers,
Arithmetic, and Fractions an Introduction’ part of my introductory math book
series from school to college, the LCD is 6 (e.g. 3 x 2) we will therefore multiply all
terms by the LCD as follows. (Note 6 is the smallest number both 2 and 3 can divide
exactly by)
Multiplying the lowest common denominator i.e. 6 by all the terms gives:
This becomes
We will now split the terms into individual fractions
This simplifies to Note how the effect of the two

minus signs results in plus 3
24 = 2a – 8 – 6a + 3
Collecting the numbers on the RHS and ‘a’ terms on the LHS
– 2a + 6a = – 8 + 3 – 24
4a = – 29

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Exercise (79) Reduce the fraction to it’s lowest terms
This is an exercise where we need to use ‘prime factors’ to reduce the number 58 term
and the number 87 term to their prime factors so we can cancel down.
Using a Casio FX 83, 85 or 115 or an internet online calculator we find the number 58
reduces to the prime factors of 2 x 29, and the number 87 reduces to 3 x 29
Note: The Casio FX 991 does not appear to have a Prime Factor key.
To obtain the prime factors for the number 58 using a Casio enter the following keys:
To obtain the prime factors for the number 87 using a Casio enter the following keys:
expands to:
The terms shown above cancel as indicated:
Leaving which becomes
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Chapter 57 Answers to Algebra Exercises – Substituting values
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Answers – Substituting values

Simply substitute the number 3 for x as follows:
3(3) + 5 = 14
Exercise (81) Solve 7p + 2q when p = 3 and q = – 4
Simply substitute the number 3 for p and – 4 for q as follows:
7(3) + 2(– 4) = 21 + (– 8)
21 – 8 = 13
Exercise (82) Solve 3(x + 5) when x = 4
Multiply out the brackets 3(x + 5) = 3x + 15
Now substitute the number 4 for x as follows: 3(4) + 15 = 12 + 15
12 + 15 = 27
Exercise (83) Solve (x + 3)2 when x = 2
Multiply out the brackets (x + 3)2 = (x + 3)(x + 3) = x2 + 6x + 9
Now substitute the number 2 for x as follows: (2)2 + 6(2) + 9
4 + 12 + 9 = 25

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Exercise (84) Solve 5x + 9y when x = 5 and y = – 2
Simply substitute the number 5 for x and – 2 for y as follows:
5(5) + 9(– 2) = 25 + (– 18)
25 – 18 = 7
Exercise (85) Solve 2a + 3b + 4c when a = 3, b = – 4 and c = 5
Substitute the number 3 for a, then – 4 for b and 5 for c as follows:
2(3) + 3(– 4) + 4(5) = 6 + (– 12) + 20
6 – 12 + 20 = 14
Exercise (86) Solve when z = 100 and y = 5
Substitute the number 100 for z, and 5 for y as follows:
Exercise (87) Solve when p = – 3 and q = 2
Substitute the number – 3 for p, and 2 for q as follows:

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Exercise (88) x and y are whole numbers where x > 50 and y < 40
What is the smallest possible value of x – y
Solution:
For the smallest possible value:

x wants to be as small as possible, whilst y wants to be as large as possible.
x > 50 means x can be any value greater than 50
For x to be as small as possible, x must be 51
y < 40 means y can be any value less than 40
For y to be as large as possible, y must be 39
We now know the values of x = 51 and y = 39
The smallest possible value of x – y would be 51 – 39 = 12
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Return to Exercise (89) to (90)
Exercise (89) p and q are whole numbers where p < 70 and q ≤ 40

What is the largest possible value of p + q
Solution:
For the largest possible value:
p wants to be as large as possible, whilst q wants to be as large as possible.
p < 70 means p can be any value less than 70
For p to be as large as possible, p must be 69
q ≤ 40 means q must be any value less than or equal to 40
For q to be as large as possible, q must be 40
We now know the values of p = 69 and q = 40
The largest possible value of p + q would be 69 + 40 = 109
Exercise (90) Nathan is trying to calculate a value of x for which the

equation 27x – x3 = 10
His two values are 5 and – 5, are his values correct? You must show
your working out
Solution:
Try substituting x = 5 into the equation as follows:
27(5) – (5)3 = 10, Yes 5 is correct
Try substituting x = – 5 into the equation as follows:

27(–5) – (–5)3 = – 10, No –5 is not correct

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Exercise (91) Here are four expressions:
(i) x – y (ii) x + y (iii) xy (iv)
When x = 3, and y = – 9 which expression has the smallest value?
Solution:
We will try substituting x = 3, and y = – 9 into the four expressions as follows:
(i) x – y = (3) – (–9) = 12
(ii) x + y = (3) + (–9) = – 6
(iii) xy = (3) x (–9) = – 27
(iv) Expression (iii) has the smallest value i.e. – 27
Exercise (92) The price of a peak rate rail journey is given by the formulae:
C = 0.01 + 0.2m
C is the cost of the journey in (UK) pounds

m is the number of miles
Calculate the cost if the journey is 350 miles
Solution: Substitute the value of m = 350 into the formula
Cost = 0.01 + 0.2(350) = £70.01
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Exercise (93) Using the formula E = mc2 calculate the available energy in 2 kg of
sand, if all the mass could be converted to energy
Solution:
E = mc2 is Albert Einstein’s famous equation discovered in 1905. This equation shows
that the energy (E) contained within any object, for example 2 kg of sand, is equal to
the mass (m) of that object multiplied by the speed of light (c) squared.
The speed of light is equal to 299,792,458 metres per second, so we substitute these
values into Einstein’s famous equation, we must enter mass in kilograms
E = 2 x 299,792,4582 = 1.797510357 x 1017 Joules / sec

Any scientific calculator will indicate the above result, what I like about the Casio FX
series of calculators is the ‘ENG’ key, after obtaining the above result press the ‘ENG’ key
The Casio FX will now display 179.7510357 x 1015 press the ‘ENG’ key ‘twice’ more
The Casio FX will now display 179751035.7 x 109
This represents 179751035.7 giga joules / sec of energy
Using an internet Giga joule to Giga-watt-hour converter you can find:
179751035.7 giga joules / sec = 49930 Giga-watt-hours (GWh) of electricity
The annual electricity consumption of Greater London is approximately 40000 GWh (*)
per year, so our 2 kg of sand would power the whole of Greater London for a more than
a year, but only ‘if’ someone can figure out how to convert that mass to energy
efficiently; could that someone be you in the future?
Return to page 9
(*) Reference UK Department of Energy & Climate Change

document Sub-national_electricity_consumption_factsheet_2012.pdf
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Chapter 57 Answers to Algebra Exercises – Factorizing expressions
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Answers – Factorizing linear expressions

Solution: Look for a common factor between 3 and 6
6 = 3 x 2 we can factor this expression to 3(y + 2)
3 x y = 3y and 3 x 2 = 6
3y + 6 factorizes to 3(y + 2)
28 = 7 x 4 we can factor this expression to 7(x + 4)
7x + 28 factorizes to 7(x + 4)
12 = 2 x 6 we can factor this expression to 2(a + 6)

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Exercise (100) Factorize 7x – 14
Solution: Look for a common factor between 7 and – 14
–14 = 7 x (–2) we can factor this expression to 7(x – 2)
35 = 5 x 7 we can factor this expression to 5(a + 7)
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Exercise (104) Factorize 6 – 3y
– 3 = 3 x –1 we can factor this expression to 3(2 – y)
Exercise (105) Factorize 4a – 12
–12 = 4 x (–3) we can factor this expression to 4(a – 3)
Exercise (106) Factorize 9y – 81
–81 = 9 x (–9) we can factor this expression to 9(y – 9)
Exercise (107) Factorize 5q + 20
20 = 5 x 4 we can factor this expression to 5(q + 4)
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10 = 2 x 5 we can factor this expression to 2(3x + 5)
Solution: Look for a common factor between 6 and –18
–18 = 6 x (–3) we can factor this expression to 6(x – 3y)
–10 = 5 x (–2) we can factor this expression to 5(x – 2y)
Exercise (111) Factorize 24p + 30q
30 = 6 x 5 we can factor this expression to 6(4p + 5q)
6 = 2 x 3 we can factor this expression to 2(5x + 3)
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–28 = 4 x (–7) we can factor this expression to 4(5x – 7y)
Solution: Look for a common factor between 6, 9, and 3
3 = 3 x 1 we can factor this expression to 3(2x + 3y + 1)
Exercise (115) Factorize 9x – 6y + 12
Solution: Look for a common factor between 9, – 6, and 12
12 = 3 x 4 we can factor this expression to 3(3x – 2y + 4)
Exercise (116) Factorize 15x – 10y – 30
Solution: Look for a common factor between 15, – 10, and – 30
–30 = 5 x (–6) we can factor this expression to 5(3x – 2y – 6)
35 = 7 x 5 we can factor this expression to 7(4x + 2y + 5)
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Chapter 57 Answers to Algebra Exercises – Factorizing with powers
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Answers – Factorizing expressions with powers

Exercise (118) Factorize 3y5 – 7y3
Solution: Look for a common factor between 3, y, and –7
–7 = 1 x (–7) we can factor this expression to y3(3y2 – 7)
Exercise (119) Factorize 8x2 + 17x6
Solution: Look for a common factor between 8, x, and 17
17 = 1 x 17 we can factor this expression to x2(8 + 17x4)
Exercise (120) Factorize 24p – 60q – 72r
Solution: Look for a common factor between 24, –60, and –72
–72 = 12 x (–6) we can factor this expression to 12(2p – 5q – 6r)
Exercise (121) Factorize 24x2y3 – 8y
Solution: Look for a common factor between 24, y, and –8
–8 = 8 x (–1) we can factor this expression to 8y(3x2y2 – 1)
Exercise (122) Factorize 25a + 35b + 50c
50 = 5 x 10 we can factor this expression to 5(5a + 7b + 10c)

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Chapter 57 Answers to Algebra Exercises – Expanding brackets
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Answers – Expanding the following bracketed terms

Exercise (123) 3(x + 2) = 3x + 6
Exercise (124) 2(a + 4) = 2a + 8
Exercise (125) 3(x – 4) = 3x – 12
Exercise (126) –4(y + 4) = –4y – 16
Exercise (127) –4(y – 4) = –4y + 16
Exercise (128) 5(4 + 3) = 20 + 15 = 35
Exercise (129) 6(3 – y) = 18 – 6y
Exercise (130) 2(x + y) = 2x + 2y
Exercise (131) 12(2 – 3y) = 24 – 36y
Exercise (132) –(x – 7y) = –x + 7y
Exercise (133) –(5x + 3y) = –5x – 3y
Exercise (134) –5p(3 – q) = –15p + 5pq
Exercise (135) 3(x – 5) – 3 = 3x – 15 – 3 = 3x – 18
Exercise (136) 5(2y – 3) = 10y – 15
Exercise (137) 3x(2x + 3y) = 6x2 + 9xy
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Exercise (138) 4y(x + 5y) = 4xy + 20y2
Exercise (139) (x + 1)2 = (x + 1)(x + 1) = x2 + x + x + 1 = x2 + 2x + 1
Exercise (140) (x + 3)2 = (x + 3)(x + 3) = x2 + 3x + 3x + 9

= x2 + 6x + 9
Exercise (141) (x + 5)(x + 2) = x2 + 2x + 5x + 10 = x2 + 7x + 10
Exercise (142) (x + 2)(x + 7) = x2 + 7x + 2x + 14 = x2 + 9x + 14
Exercise (143) (x – 3)(x + 9) = x2 + 9x – 3x – 27 = x2 + 6x – 27
Exercise (144) (x – 5)(x – 3) = x2 – 3x – 5x + 15 = x2 – 8x + 15
Exercise (145) (x + 4)(x – 5) = x2 – 5x + 4x – 20 = x2 – x – 20
Exercise (146) (2x – 5)2 = (2x – 5)(2x – 5) = 4x2 – 10x – 10x + 25

= 4x2 – 20x + 25
Exercise (147) (3x + 4y)2 = (3x + 4y)(3x + 4y)

= 9x2 + 12xy + 12xy + 16y2
= 9x2 + 24xy + 16y2
Exercise (148) (3x + 2y)(3x – 2y) = 9x2 – 6xy + 6xy – 4y2 = 9x2 – 4y2
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Exercise (149) (x + 3)(x + 2)(x + 1)
First multiply out (x + 3)(x + 2) = x2 + 2x + 3x + 6 = x2 + 5x + 6
Now take (x2 + 5x + 6) and multiply it by (x + 1)
(x2 + 5x + 6)(x + 1) = x3 + 5x2 + 6x + x2 + 5x + 6

= x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6
Exercise (150) (x + 4)(x – 2)(y + 3)
As above first multiply out (x + 4)(x – 2) = x2 – 2x + 4x – 8 = x2 + 2x – 8
Now take (x2 + 2x – 8) and multiply it by (y + 3)
(x2 + 2x – 8)(y + 3) = x2y + 2xy – 8y + 3x2 + 6x – 24
= x2y + 3x2 + 2xy + 6x – 8y – 24
Exercise (151) (x – 5)(x – 3)(y – 7)
As above first multiply out (x – 5)(x – 3) = x2 – 3x – 5x + 15 = x2 – 8x + 15
Now take (x2 – 8x + 15) and multiply it by (y – 7)
(x2 – 8x + 15)(y – 7) = x2y – 8xy + 15y – 7x2 + 56x – 105
= x2y – 7x2 – 8xy + 56x + 15y – 105
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Chapter 57 Answers to Algebra Exercises
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Answers to linear equation as word problems
Answer to Exercise (152)

The sum of two numbers is 18, and three times the larger number exceeds four times
We let x = the larger number

Since 18 is the sum of the two numbers and x is one of the numbers, the other number
must be the sum minus x, so we write:
18 – x = the smaller number
Since x = the larger number, then 3x is three times the larger number
Since 18 – x = the smaller number, then 4(18 – x) is four times the smaller number
Therefore: 3x – 4(18 – x) = the excess
However, 5 = the excess
Therefore: 3x – 4(18 – x) = 5
3x – 72 + 4x = 5
7x = 77
We now know the value of the larger number i.e. x = 11
Since the sum is 18 the smaller number must be 18 – 11 = 7

We can check if we are correct: i.e. 3 times the larger number is 3 x 11 = 33, does 33
exceed 4 times the smaller number, plus 5 i.e. 4 x 7 = 28 + 5 = 33 yes, all conditions
agree so we know we have the correct answer.

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Answers to linear equation as word exercises
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A lumberjack cuts down a tree, which was 120 feet high, and the part cut off is 11
times the length of the part left standing. What is the length of each part?
We let x = the part which was cut off
Since 120 is the sum of the two lengths and x is one of the lengths, the other length,
the part left standing must be the sum minus x, so we write:
120 – x = the part left standing
Since 120 – x = the part left standing, then 11(120 – x) is 11 times the part left
standing
The part left standing (120 – x) plus 11
120 – x + 11(120 – x) = 120 times the part left standing 11(120 – x)
= 120 feet
120 – x + 1320 – 11x = 120
– 12x = 120 – 120 – 1320
– 12x = – 1320
The part which was cut off = 110 feet.
Therefore, the part left standing must be 120 – 110 = 10 feet.
Let’s check our answer: We are informed, the part cut off was 11 times the part left
standing. We now know the part left standing was 10 feet, so 11 x 10 = 110 foot, which
is what we have calculated for the length of the part cut off.
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The sum of two numbers is 46, and four times one of them exceeds three times the
other by 9. What are the two numbers?
We will let one number = x

We will let the other number = 46 – x
Therefore: 4x – 3(46 – x) = 9 The number 4 appears in this line first as the

question states, four times one of them. The
number 3 and 9 appears since the question
Therefore: 4x – 138 + 3x = 9
states, exceeds three times the other by 9
Therefore: 7x = 147
So, one number = 21
Since the sum of the two numbers is 46 then 46 – 21 = 25 i.e. the other number
We can check our answer: If 4 x 21 = 84
Then 3 x 25 + 9 = 84
The conditions agree so we know we have obtained the correct answer.
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Answers to linear equation as Word Exercises
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Answer to Exercise (155) Return to Exercise (155)

A farmer sold 30 pounds of butter and 100 gallons of milk for £364. He sold the milk for
six times as much as the butter. How much did he get for each?
We let x = the butter sold

We let 6x = the milk sold
So, the butter sold for £52.00
Since the farmer received £364 for all his produce then £364 - £52 = £312 which is the
money he received for the milk.

We will let x = the number of minutes to fill the tank
Since we are informed, the tank is a 1200-gallon tank we will write:
8x + 10x + 12x = 1200
Therefore 30x = 1200 which becomes
It will take 40 minutes to fill the tank.
We can check our answer:

Total gallons into the tank = 1200 gallons (we now know our answer is correct)
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A rectangle is constructed and it’s length is twice it’s breadth. If the perimeter is 72
metres, find the length and breadth of the rectangle.
Let x = the breadth of the rectangle Length 2 x Breadth i.e. 2x
Then the length of the rectangle = 2x

Breadth = x
Therefore 2(x + 2x) = 72
The number 2 appears because in a rectangle

2x + 4x = 72 there are two lengths and breadths
6x = 72
so the breadth = 12 metres
We know, length of the rectangle = 2x
Therefore the length of the rectangle = 2 × 12 = 24 metres
Therefore, length of the rectangle is 24 m and breadth of the rectangle is 12 m.
We can check this answer, since the two lengths and two breadths should add up to the
perimeter value i.e. 24 + 24 + 12 + 12 = 72 metres, so we know the answer is correct.
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Bill is 20 years’ older than Tom. In two years’ time Bill will be twice as old as Tom.
How old are they now?
Let Bill’s present age = x Let Tom’s present age = x – 20
In two years’ time Bill = x + 2 and Tom = 2(x – 20 + 2)
x + 2 = 2(x – 20 + 2)
x + 2 = 2x – 40 + 4
x – 2x = – 40 + 4 – 2
–x = –38 Therefore x = 38 so Bill’s present age = 38
So, Tom must be 38 – 20 = 18 Tom’s present age = 18
We can check our answer: Do the conditions agree?
In two years’ time Bill will be 38 + 2 = 40
Tom will be 18 + 2 = 20 therefore, yes Bill will be twice as old as Tom, the conditions
agree so we know our answer is correct.
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A father is four times as old as his son; and in 20 years’ time he will only be twice as
old. What are their present ages?
Let x = the sons present age Then let 4x = the father’s age
20 years’ later the sons age is x + 20, so the father’s age must be is 4x + 20
In 20 years’ time the father will be twice as old as his son:
4x + 20 = the father’s age in 20 years’ time

Therefore 4x + 20 = 2(x + 20)
x + 20 = the sons age in 20 years’ time
2(x + 20) = 2 times the sons age in 20 years’ time
4x + 20 = 2x + 40
4x – 2x = 40 – 20
2x = 20 Therefore x = 10 the sons present age is 10 years’
Since we are informed the father is four times as old as his son, then the father must be
4 x 10 = 40 years of age.
We can check our answer; the conditions must be that in twenty years’ time the father
is only twice as old as his son.
The father now = 40, in twenty years’ time he will be 60
The son now = 10 in twenty years’ time’ he will be 30
For the conditions to agree, in twenty years’ time the father must be twice as old as his
son, and yes, the conditions agree.
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Answers – Solving linear simultaneous equations
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Solve the following linear simultaneous equations

Answer to Exercise (160) Return to exercise (160)
x + y = 12 equation 1
x – y = 2 equation 2
Perform subtraction as follows; the x terms cancel

– x – y = 2 equation 2
2y = 10 therefore y = 5
Substitute y = 5 into equation 1 or 2, I will substitute y = 5 into equation 2
x – y = 2 equation 2 which becomes x – (5) = 2
x = 2 + 5 therefore x = 7 Solution: x = 7 and y = 5
6x – 3y = 3 equation 2
Multiply equation 1 by 6 6(x + y = 5) = 6x + 6y = 30 equation 3

6x + 6y = 30 equation 3
– 6x – 3y = 3 equation 2
x + y = 5 equation 1 which becomes x + (3) = 5
x = 5 – 3 therefore x = 2 Solution: x = 2 and y = 3

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4x + y = 15 equation 1
Perform subtraction as follows; the y terms cancel

– x + y = 12 equation 2
3x = 3 therefore x = 1
Substitute x = 1 into equation 1 or 2, I will substitute x = 1 into equation 2
x + y = 12 equation 2 which becomes (1) + y = 12
y = 12 – 1 therefore y = 11 Solution: x = 1 and y = 11
x – y = 2 equation 2

– x – y = 2 equation 2
x – y = 2 equation 2 which becomes x – (3) = 2
x = 2 + 3 therefore x = 5 Solution: x = 5 and y = 3
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3x + 2y = 7 equation 2
Multiply equation 1 by 2 2(2x – 5y = 11) = 4x – 10y = 22 equation 3

Multiply equation 2 by 5 5(3x + 2y = 7) = 15x + 10y = 35 equation 4
Perform addition as follows; the y terms cancel

+ 15x + 10y = 35 equation 4
2x – 5y = 11 equation 1 which becomes 2(3) – 5y = 11
– 5y = 11 – 6 therefore – 5y = 5 therefore y=–1
Solution: x = 3 and y = – 1
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3x – 2y = –3 equation 2
Multiply equation 1 by 2 2(2x + y = 5) = 4x + 2y = 10 equation 3
Perform addition as follows; the y terms cancel
3x – 2y = –3 equation 2
+ 4x + 2y = 10 equation 3
3x – 2y = –3 equation 2 which becomes 3(1) – 2y = –3
– 2y = – 3 – 3 therefore – 2y = – 6 therefore y=3
Solution: x = 1 and y = 3
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6x + 2y = –5 equation 2
Multiply equation 1 by 3 3(2x – 3y = 24) = 6x – 9y = 72 equation 3
6x + 2y = –5 equation 2
– 6x – 9y = 72 equation 3
11y = –77 therefore y = –7
Substitute y = –7 into equation 1 or 2, I will substitute y = –7 into equation 1
2x – 3y = 24 equation 1 which becomes 2x – 3(–7) = 24
2x + 21 = 24 therefore 2x = 3 therefore x = 1.5
Solution: x = 1.5 and y = –7
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Solve the following linear simultaneous equation

For the number machine shown below; when the input is y the output is z, when the
input is y + z the output is 64, calculate the values of y and z
Input Output
y x 3 –5 z
Solution:
We create two simultaneous equations as follows: y x 3 – 5 = z Equation 1
y+z x 3 –5 64
3y + 3z – 5 = 64 Equation 2
Writing in the form of solving simultaneous equations we have:
3y + 3z = 69 Equation 2
– 3y – z = 5 Equation 1 subtracting equation 1 from equation 2
4z = 64
Substituting z = 16 into equation 1: 3y – z = 5 gives 3y – 16 = 5
3y = 5 + 16 3y = 21
Solution: y = 7 and z = 16
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Answers to Simultaneous Equations as word problems
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Answers to Linear Simultaneous Equations with two unknowns
sold?
We will let the total number of tickets sold be: x + y = 2000 Equation 1
We will let the total money collected be: 2.5x + 4.5y = 7500 Equation 2
We will multiply equation 1 by 2.5; this will allow the x variables to cancel after
subtraction as follows:
Equation 1: 2.5 (x + y = 2000) = 2.5x + 2.5y = 5000
2.5x + 2.5y = 5000 becomes Equation 3
2.5x + 4.5y = 7500 Equation 2

– 2.5x + 2.5y = 5000 Equation 3 subtracting equation 3 from equation 2
2y = 2500
Therefore, We now know 1250 adult tickets were sold
Let’s not substitute this time:
2000 tickets were sold – 1250 adult tickets = 750 child tickets
Answer: x = 750 child tickets sold, y = 1250 adult tickets sold.
Let’s check our answer:
750 child tickets sold at £2.50 = £1875

1250 adult tickets sold at £4.50 = £5625
Adding the two sums together gives £1875 + £5625 = £7500, which is the total money
collected quoted in the question, we now know this answer is correct.
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Tom has 105 coins comprising of 5 and 10 pence pieces, which total to £9.50 how many
We will let the total number of coins be: x + y = 105 Equation 1

We will let the total value of coins be: 0.05x + 0.1y = 9.5 Equation 2
We will multiply equation 2 by 20; this will allow the x variables to cancel after
subtraction
Equation 2: 20 (0.05x + 0.1y = 9.5) = x + 2y = 190
x + 2y = 190 becomes Equation 3
x + 2y = 190 Equation 3
– x + y = 105 Equation 1 Subtracting equation 1 from equation 3
y = 85
We now know Tom has 85 ten pence coins 85 x 10p = £8.50
The total money quoted is £9.50 therefore £9.50 – £8.50 = £1.00
Tom must have £1.00 in five pence pieces, therefore £1.00 ÷ 0.05 = 20
We now know Tom has 20 five pence coins 20 x 5p = £1.00
Answer: x = 20 five pence coins, y = 85 ten pence coins
Let’s check our answer, all together their must be 105 coins.
20 five pence coins + 85 ten pence coins = 105 coins, so we know our answer is
correct.
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50% indicates the final solution is at half strength therefore it will contain 8 gallons of
pure acid.
We will let the total number of gallons be: x + y = 16 Equation 1

We will let the gallons of pure acid be: 0.25x + 0.75y = 8 Equation 2
We will multiply equation 2 by 4; this will allow the x variables to cancel after
subtraction
Equation 2: 4 (0.25x + 0.75y = 8) = x + 3y = 32
x + 3y = 32 becomes Equation 3
x + 3y = 32 Equation 3
– x + y = 16 Equation 1 Subtracting equation 1 from equation 3
2y = 16
Therefore, we now know 8 gallons of 75% acid is required
If the total solution is 16 gallons then:

16 – 8 gallons of 75% = 8 Gallons of 25%
Answer:
x = 8 Gallons of 25% acid
y = 8 Gallons of 75% acid
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We will let x be the present age of the man, and let y be the present age of his son
The present age of the man in relation to his son is x = y + 35

17 years’ ago, we will let the equation be x – 17 = 2(y – 17)
Rearranging x = y + 35 we obtain x – y = 35 Equation 1
Rearranging x – 17 = 2(y – 17) we obtain

x – 17 = 2y – 34
x – 2y = – 34 + 17
x – 2y = – 17 Equation 2
Our simultaneous equation is shown below, we will solve by elimination & substitution
x – y = 35 Equation 1
x – 2y = –17 Equation 2
x – y = 35 Equation 1
– x – 2y = –17 Equation 2 Subtracting equation 2 from equation 1
y = 52
We now know y = 52, we will substitute this into equation 1 to find the value of x
Equation 1 is x – y = 35 Substituting y = 52 we obtain x – (52) = 35
Which becomes: x = 35 + 52, Therefore x = 87
The man’s present age is 87 and his sons present age is 52
We will check to see if the conditions agree. The man must presently be 35 years’ older
than his son. 87 – 52 = 35 yes, this condition agrees. 17 years’ ago, he must have been
twice as old.
Man 87 – 17 = 70, Son 52 – 17 = 35. Yes, this condition agrees, 17 years’ ago the man
was 70, twice as old as his son who was then 35, we now know this answer is correct.
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We will let the two numbers be x and y
The sum of the numbers will be x + y = 36 This will be equation 1
The difference between the numbers will be x – y = 8 This will be equation 2
x + y = 36 Equation 1
– x–y = 8 Equation 2 Subtracting equation 2 from equation 1
2y = 28
Therefore, We now know one number is 14
Substituting y = 14 into equation 1 we obtain x + 14 = 36
x = 36 – 14 Then x = 22 The second number is 22
Answer: We have found the two numbers which are 14 and 22
We will check this answer:
The sum of the two numbers must be 36. 14 + 22 = 36

Yes, the sum of the two numbers equals 36
The difference of the two numbers must be 8. 22 – 14 = 8

Yes, the difference of the two numbers equals 8, we now know this answer is correct.
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Charlie and Tom have a combined age of 50. Five years’ ago, Charlie was double the
age Tom is now. How old are Charlie and Tom today?
We will let x = Charlie’s present age, and y = Tom’s present age.
Since they have a combined age of 50 years’ we will write x + y = 50
5 years’ ago Charlie was double the age Tom is now we will write x – 2y = 5
Our simultaneous equation is shown below.

x + y = 50 Equation 1
– x – 2y = 5 Equation 2 Subtracting equation 2 from equation 1
3y = 45
Therefore, We now know Tom’s present age is 15 years’
Substituting y = 15 into equation 1 we obtain: x + 15 = 50
Therefore x = 50 – 15 = 35 Charlie’s present age is 35 years’
Answer: We have found Charlie’s present age is 35 and Tom’s is 15
We will check our answer:
The combined ages must be 50 years’. 35 + 15 = 50

Yes, the combined ages are 50 years’.
5 years’ ago, Charlie must have been double the age Tom is now. 35 – 5 = 30
So, five years’ ago, Charlie was 30 years’ old, since Tom is presently 15 years’ old then,
this condition is also correct as Charlie would have been double Tom’s age five years’
ago. We now know this answer is correct.
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We will let the first number = x and the second number = y
When I double the first number and ‘add-on’ the second I get 21 so, we will write:
2x + y = 21 Equation 1
When I treble the first number and subtract the second, I get 19 so, we will write:
3x – y = 19 Equation 2
We will add equations 1 and 2 so the y variables cancel
2x + y = 21 Equation 1
+ 3x – y = 19 Equation 2
5x = 40
Therefore, The first number is 8
Substituting x = 8 into equation 1 we obtain 2(8) + y = 21
Therefore 16 + y = 21
Therefore y = 21 – 16 y=5 The second number is 5
Answer: The first number x = 8, the second number y = 5

Let’s check our answer: For the conditions to agree:
When I double the first number and ‘add-on’ the second I get 21
Therefore, 8 x 2 + 5 = 21 yes, this condition agrees.
When I treble the first number and subtract the second, I get 19
Therefore, 8 x 3 – 5 = 19 yes, this condition agrees.
We therefore know this answer is correct
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We will let x = the money Billy has, and y = the money David has
If David gave £35 to Billy, then Billy would have twice as much as David, we will write
this as:
x + 35 since Billy (x) receives £35
x + 35 = 2(y – 35) Equation 1 y – 35 since David (y) give away £35
The number 2 due to the twice as much
If Billy gave David £30, they would have the same amount, we will write this as:
x – 30 since Billy (x) gave away £30
x – 30 = y + 30 Equation 2
y + 30 since David (y) receives £30
We will rewrite Equation 2 as x = y + 30 + 30, which becomes x = y + 60
We will substitute x = y + 60 into Equation 1
Equation 1: x + 35 = 2(y – 35) becomes (y + 60) + 35 = 2(y – 35)
Therefore y + 60 + 35 = 2y – 70 becomes y – 2y = – 70 – 60 – 35
–y = –165 Therefore y = 165 the money David has is £165

We will substitute y = 165 into Equation 2: Substituting gives x – 30 = 165 + 30
Therefore x = 165 + 30 + 30 so x = 225 the money Billy has is £225
We will check our answer: Billy should have more money than David.
Billy has £225, David has £165; therefore, this condition is true.
If David gave Billy £35, then Billy should have twice as much as David:
Billy has £225 + £35 = £260. David had £165 – £35 = £130, so Billy would have twice
as much as David, this condition is true.
If Billy gave David £30, they would have the same amount:
Billy had £225 – £30 = £195, David had £165 + £30 = £195, they would both have the
same amount, this condition is true. We therefore know this answer is correct.
380
Answers to Simultaneous Equations with three unknowns
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Answers to Linear Simultaneous Equations with three unknowns
Solve for A, B and C using elimination and substitution.
2A + 3B + C = 7 Equation 1
Adding Equations, 1 and 2 causes the C term to cancel as follows:
+ 2A + 3B + C = 7 Equation 1
3A + 4B = 11 Equation 4
We now want to obtain a second set of equations with only terms of A and B so we will
multiply Equation 2 by the number 3:
(A + B – C = 4) x 3 = 3A + 3B – 3C = 12 Equation 5
We will now add Equations 3 and 5 and the C terms will cancel
+ 3A + 3B – 3C = 12 Equation 5
4A + B =6 Equation 6
We will now multiply Equation 6 by the number – 4
(4A + B = 6) x (– 4) =–16A – 4B = – 24 Equation 7
We will now add Equations 7 and 4 and the B terms will cancel
– 16A – 4B = – 24 Equation 7
+ 3A + 4B = 11 Equation 4
– 13A = – 13
Therefore (Continued on the next page)
381
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Exercise (176 Continued)
We will substitute A = 1 into Equation 4 as follows:
3A + 4B = 11 Equation 4
3(1) + 4B = 11 Substituting A = 1 into Equation 4
3 + 4B = 11
4B = 11 – 3
4B = 8
We will substitute A = 1 and B = 2 into Equation 2 as follows:
A+B–C=4 Equation 2
1+2–C=4 Substituting A = 1 and B = 2 into Equation 2
C=1+2–4
C=–1
We have now solved this simultaneous equation and found

A=1
B=2
C=–1
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Solve the simultaneous equation below, for A, B and C using an internet solver and if
you have one the Casio FX 991 calculator.
1A + 1B + 0C = 1
– 2A + 2B + 1C = 0
4 A + 0B + 2C = 8
Open an internet browser and type in 3 x 3 simultaneous equation solver.
Pick the solver you like best, we usually enter the values as x, y, z coordinates as
shown in the image below, then click on the Solve button
Solve
The solution is presented as x = 1, y = 0, z = 2

Which means A = 1, B = 0, C = 2
1: COMP 2: CMPLX
Using a Casio FX 991: Turn on the calculator 3: STAT 4: BASE-N
5: EQN 6: MATRIX
Step 1: Press the Mode key, the display appears as 7: TABLE 8: VECTOR
shown next. 1: anX+bnY=cn
2: anX+bnY=cnZ=dn
Step 2: Press the number 2 key; this is for simultaneous 3: aX2+bX+c=0
equations with three unknowns. 4: aX3+bX2+cX+d=0
1 1 0 1 –2 2 1 0 4 0 2 8
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the x answer i.e. A = 1
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the y answer i.e. B = 0
Press the equals key again, you are presented with the z answer i.e. C = 2
for Computations
383
Answers to Polynomial Division Exercises
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Answer to Polynomial Division Return to Exercise (178)
Dividend
Answer to Exercise (178) Simplify
Divisor
x + 1 ) x2 – 9x – 10
divisor e.g. x2 ÷ x = x
line as shown next
x This is the solution line. By the time we have
x + 1 ) x2 – 9x – 10 worked our way through the problem it will
(x + 1) x (x) = x2 + x
We now write this result x 2 + x below the dividend as shown next:

x
x + 1 ) x 2 – 9x – 10
x2 + x Result from step 2
then bring down the –10 term into the result from step 3 line
x
x + 1 ) x 2 – 9x – 10
– x2 + x Result from step 2
384
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Answer to Polynomial Division

Answer to Exercise (178 continued from the previous Page)
We now repeat the process of step 1 to 3 this time – 10x – 10 becomes our new
dividend
Step 4: We now divide the highest power of x from step 3, which was – 10x by the
x
x + 1 ) x 2 – 9x – 10
– x2 + x
– 10x – 10
We now write the result of this division i.e. – 10 above the bar in the solutions line as
shown below
x – 10
x + 1 ) x 2 – 9x – 10
Step 5: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 4 (which was – 10)
(x + 1) x (– 10) = – 10x – 10
We now write this result – 10x – 10 below the result from step 3 as shown next:
x – 10
x + 1 ) x 2 – 9x – 10

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step 5
x – 10
x + 1 ) x 2 – 9x – 10
– – 10x – 10 Result from step 5
0 + 0
The result of the last subtraction is zero; the polynomials have been divided exactly,
leaving no remainder value. The overall result of the division is shown in the solution
line above the bar i.e. the solution is x – 10
386
Answers to Polynomial Division
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Dividend
Divisor
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 5
Step 1: We divide the first term in the dividend 2x2 by the highest power of x in the
divisor e.g. 2x2 ÷ x = 2x
line as shown next
2x This is the solution line. By the time we have

x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 5 worked our way through the problem it will
(x – 1) x 2x = 2x2 – 2x
We now write this result 2x2 – 2x below the dividend as shown next:
2x
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 5
then bring down the – 5 term into the result from step 3 line
2x
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 5 Note: (x) – (–2x) = +3x
– 2x2 – 2x
Note the result after step 3 is 3x – 5 (Continued on the next page)
387
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We now repeat the process of step 1 to 3 this time 3x – 5 becomes our new dividend
2x
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 5
– 2x2 – 2x
3x – 5
shown below
2x + 3
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 5
– 2x2 – 2x
(x – 1) x 3 = 3x – 3
2x + 3
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 5
– 2x2 – 2x

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step 5
2x + 3 Solution line
x – 1 ) 2x2 + x – 5
– 2x2 – 2x
0 –2
The result of the last subtraction is – 2, the polynomials have been divided; there is no
value of x left to multiply by the divisor. The overall result of the division is shown in
the solution line above the bar i.e. the solution is 2x + 3 remainder – 2
we can also show the answer as:
Quotient Remainder Quotient Remainder
numerator (see page 398 for an example)
389
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Dividend
Divisor
In this example, we have no x term with a power of 1, and we ‘must’ have such a term,
so we rewrite the dividend as follows: x 3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
We write the fraction as shown opposite: x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
divisor e.g. x3 ÷ x = x2
line as shown next

x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42 worked our way through the problem it will
Step 2: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 1 (which was x2)
(x – 3) x (x2) = x3 – 3x2
We now write this result x3 – 3x2 below the dividend as shown next:
x2
x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
x3 – 3x2 Result from step 2
then bring down the 0x – 42 term and place it in the result from step 3 line
x2
x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
– x3 – 3x2
0 – 9x2 + 0x – 42 Result from step 3
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We now repeat the process of step 1 to 3 this time – 9x2 + 0x – 4 becomes our new
dividend
Step 4: We now divide the highest power of x from step 3, which was – 9x2 by the
x2
x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
x3 – 3x2
0 – 9x2 + 0x – 42
We now write the result of this division i.e. – 9x above the bar in the solutions line as
shown below
x2 – 9x
x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
x3 – 3x2
– 9x2 + 0x – 42
Step 5: We now multiply the divisor by the solution from step 4 (which was – 9x)
(x – 3) x (– 9x) = – 9x2 + 27x
We now write this result – 9x2 + 27x below the result from step 3 as shown next
x2 – 9x
x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
x3 – 3x2
– 9x2 + 0x – 42 Result from step 3
– 9x2 + 27x Result from step 5
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step 5; we then bring down the – 42 term into the results from step 6 line
x2 – 9x
x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
x3 – 3x2
– 9x2 + 0x – 42 Result from step 3
– – 9x2 + 27x Result from step 5
0 – 27x – 42 Result from step 6
Step 7: We now divide the highest power of x from step 6, which was – 27x by the
x2 – 9x
x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
x3 – 3x2
– 9x2 + 0x – 42
– – 9x2 + 27x
0 – 27x – 42
shown below
x2 – 9x – 27
x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
x3 – 3x2
– 9x2 + 0x – 42
– 9x2 + 27x
– 27x – 42
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(x – 3) x (– 27) = –27x + 81
We now write this result –27x + 81 below the result from step 6 as shown next:
x2 – 9x – 27
x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
x3 – 3x2
– 9x2 + 0x – 42
– 9x2 + 27x
– 27x + 81 Result from step 8
step 8
x2 – 9x – 27
x – 3 ) x3 – 12x2 + 0x – 42
x3 – 3x2
– 9x2 + 0x – 42
– 9x2 + 27x
– – 27x + 81 Result from step 8
0 – 123
We have divided out all the x terms, there are none left to multiply by the dividend to
continue the division process, so we have finished our polynomial division. We are left
with the number – 123, this is termed the remainder, we show the solution to this
example as follows. The second form of answer is useful when rearranging partial
fractions where the divisor is of a greater degree than the dividend.
(See page 398 for an example)
= x2 – 9x – 27 – 123 we can show as x2 – 9x – 27 +

Quotient Remainder
393
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Dividend
Divisor
In this example, we have no x term with a power of 1 in the dividend, and we ‘must’
have such a term, so we rewrite the dividend as follows: x 2 + 0x + 3
We write the fraction as shown opposite: x2 – 5x + 4 ) x2 + 0x + 3
divisor e.g. x2 ÷ x2 = 1
line as shown next
This is the solution line. By the time we have
1 worked our way through the problem it will
x – 5x + 4 ) x + 0x + 3
2 2 finally show the solution to the division
(x2 – 5x + 4) x (1) = x2 – 5x + 4
We now write this result x2 – 5x + 4 below the dividend as shown next:
1
x – 5x + 4 ) x2 + 0x + 3
2
x2 – 5x + 4 Result from step 2
Step 3: We now perform subtraction on the dividend minus the result from step 2
1
x2 – 5x + 4 ) x2 + 0x + 3
– x2 – 5x + 4 Result from step 2
Continued on the next page

394
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We now repeat the process of step 1 to 3 this time 5x – 1 becomes our new dividend
1
x2 – 5x + 4 ) x2 + 0x + 3
– x2 – 5x + 4
5x – 1 ‘won’t go’ we cannot divide x2 into 5x and
obtain a whole number answer, so we have
finished the polynomial division
Our solution of 1 + remainder 5x – 1
We can also show this as
numerator. (See page 398 for an example)
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Answers to Polynomial Division Return to Exercise (182)
Answer to Exercise (182) Simplify Dividend

Divisor
We write the fraction as shown opposite: x2 + x – 2)x3 – 2x2 – 4x – 4
divisor e.g. x3 ÷x2 = x
line as shown next
This is the solution line. By the time we have
x
worked our way through the problem it will
x2 + x – 2)x3 – 2x2 – 4x – 4 finally show the solution to the division
(x2 + x – 2) x (x) = x3 + x2 – 2x
We now write this result x3 + x2 – 2x below the dividend as shown next:
x
x2 + x – 2)x3 – 2x2 – 4x – 4
x3 + x2 – 2x Result from step 2
then bring down the – 4 term and place it in the result from step 3 line
x
x2 + x – 2)x3 – 2x2 – 4x – 4
– x3 + x2 – 2x Result from step 2
0 – 3x2 – 2x – 4 Result from step 3
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We now repeat the process of step 1 to 3 this time – 3x2 – 2x – 4 becomes our new
dividend
Step 4: We now divide the highest power of x from step 3, which was – 3x2 by the
x
x2 + x – 2)x3 – 2x2 – 4x – 4
– x3 + x2 – 2x
– 3x2 – 2x – 4
shown below
x–3
x2 + x – 2)x3 – 2x2 – 4x – 4
– 3x2 – 2x – 4 Result from step 3
(x2 + x – 2) x (– 3) = – 3x2 – 3x + 6
We now write this result – 3x2 – 3x + 6 below the result from step 3 as shown next:
x–3
x2 + x – 2)x3 – 2x2 – 4x – 4
– 3x2 – 3x + 6 Result from step 5

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step 5
x–3
x2 + x – 2)x3 – 2x2 – 4x – 4
– – 3x2 – 3x + 6 Result from step 5
0 + x – 10 Result from step 6
We have now finished the division, the next step if it were possible would be to divide
the highest power of x in step 6, which is x by the highest power of x in the divisor
This would give now x cannot divide by x2 and leave a whole number answer, so
we have finished the division.
We present the answer as shown + x – 10
Quotient Remainder
We can also show the answer as
The second form of the answer is useful when performing partial fractions. In partial
fraction example (141) on page 167 we need to rearrange the example as shown above
into a form where the divisor is of a greater degree than the dividend. Polynomial
division solve this problem for us; as you can observe in the rearranged form after
polynomial division the divisor is of a greater degree than the dividend.
398
Answers to Partial Fraction with Linear Factors
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Answer to Exercise (183) Solve Return to Exercise (183)
We must first factor the denominator, we will learn how to factor this quadratic on page
434 but for now the factors are (3x + 2)(x – 1)
We write exercise (183) as follows
This exercise consists of linear factors and is of the form given on page 155.
We multiply B’s denominator by A and

Where A and B are the values to be found A’s denominator by B, if you are
unsure about performing this type of
fraction manipulation see my
introductory math book ‘Numbers,
Arithmetic and Fractions an
Introduction’
equation we can write:
– 4x + 9 ≡ A(x – 1) + B(3x + 2)
We want to make the A term cancel to zero so we can obtain the value for B so we will
substitute x = 1 into the above identity giving:
– 4(1) + 9 ≡ A(1 – 1) + B(3(1) + 2)

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Answer to Exercise (183 continued)
– 4(1) + 9 ≡ A(1 – 1) + B(3(1) + 2)
– 4 + 9 = A(0) + 3B + 2B
5 = 5B
Therefore
We now need to make the B(3x + 2) term cancel to zero so we can obtain the value
A, however there is no value of x we can substitute into the B(3x + 2) term to make
B cancel, so we have to apply a little transposition as follows:
We previously obtained – 4x + 9 ≡ A(x – 1) + B(3x + 2)
We will rearrange the right-hand side as follows:
Multiplying out the RHS gives: Ax – A + 3Bx + 2B
Factorizing the x terms gives: (A + 3B)x – (A – 2B)
Therefore – 4x + 9 ≡ (A + 3B)x – (A – 2B)
– 4x ≡ (A + 3B)x
Therefore – 4 = A + 3B We have previously found B = 1, so we will substitute this
into the equation below:
Giving: – 4 = A + 3(1) Therefore – 7 = A
We have found A = – 7, and B = 1
The format for this exercise is:

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We must first factor the denominator, we will learn how to factor this quadratic in
exercise (231) on page 429 but for now the factors are (x + 1)(x + 6)
We write exercise (184) as follows
This example consists of linear factors and is of the form given on page 155.

equation we can write:
5(x + 2) ≡ A(x + 6) + B(x + 1)
We want to cancel the A term so we can find the value of B so we will let x = – 6 and
substitute into the above identity
5(– 6 + 2) ≡ A(– 6 + 6) + B(– 6 + 1)

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5(– 6 + 2) ≡ A(– 6 + 6) + B(– 6 + 1)
– 30 + 10 = A(0) – 6B + B
– 20 = – 5B
Therefore
To find the value of A, we need to make the B term cancel, we can substitute
x = – 1 as shown below:
5(x + 2) ≡ A(x + 6) + B(x + 1) now substituting x = – 1
5(–1 + 2) = A(–1 + 6) + B(–1 + 1)
–5 + 10 = A(5) + B(0)
5 = 5A Therefore
We have found A = 1, and B = 4
The format for this exercise is:
402
Answers to Partial Fraction with Repeated Linear Factors
(Go to Contents)
Just as in the previous examples, we first factor the denominator, in example (206) on
page 258 we will find the denominator factors to:
(x – 1)(x – 1), which is equal to (x – 1)2
Because the factor (x – 1) occurs twice in the denominator, we call this a ‘repeated
linear factor’
In general, repeated linear factors are shown as
We will let
5x + 7 ≡ A(x – 1) + B
To cancel the A term, we will let x = 1 and substitute this into the equation below e.g.
5(1) + 7 = A(1 – 1) + B
5 + 7 = A(0) + B
12 = B
Therefore B = 12
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Answer to Exercise (185 Continued)
We don’t have any x term associated with the variable B, so we cannot use the
substitution method to find the value of A; instead we will find the value of A by
comparing coefficients of x as shown below.
Our identity is as follows: 5x + 7 ≡ A(x – 1) + B
We will expand the terms on the right-hand side of the equation as follows:
5x + 7 ≡ Ax – A + B
5x ≡ Ax therefore 5 = A
So, we have calculated A = 5 and B = 12
We previously used the form
404
Answers to Partial Fraction with Quadratic Factors
(Go to Contents)
Answers to Partial Fraction with Quadratic factors
Solve the following exercise into partial fractions
As usual our first task is to factor the denominator, I have shown you how to factor this
denominator in exercise (243) page 445-446, we will find the denominator factors to:
(x + 1)(x2 + 2) this is a quadratic factor that will not factorize into two simple factors

expression of the form (ax2 + bx +c) gives rise to a partial fraction in the form
So, we will write
Combining the fractions on the right-hand side gives:
then the numerators must also be equal
Simplifying gives:
7x2 + 5x + 13 ≡ A(x2 + 2) + (Bx + C)(x + 1) we expand as follows

7x2 + 5x + 13 ≡ Ax2 + 2A + Bx2 + Bx + Cx + C
7x2 + 5x + 13 ≡ (A + B)x2 + (B + C)x + 2A + C Factoring the RHS
405
Answers to Partial Fraction with Quadratic Factors
(Go to Contents)
Answers to Partial Fraction with Quadratic factors
Since on the previous page we have an identity, we can equate like terms as follows:
Equating the coefficients of x2 terms: Since 7x2 ≡ (A + B)x2 Then 7 = A + B
Equating the coefficients of x terms: Since 5x ≡ (B + C)x Then 5 = B + C
Equating the coefficients of constant terms: 13 ≡ 2A + C
We now have three simultaneous equations e.g.
1A + 1B + 0C = 7 Equation 1
0A + 1B + 1C = 5 Equation 2
2A + 0B + 1C = 13 Equation 3
You can solve this set of simultaneous equations using the internet in a similar way as
shown in example (135) on page 149, using the Casio FX 991 calculator, also shown on
page 149, or working out using elimination and substitution as we have previously learnt
in chapter 25.
You will find the solution is A = 5, B = 2, C = 3
We prepare the solution to this exercise as follows:
The solution becomes:
406
Answers to Function Exercises
(Go to Contents)
Answers to function exercises
Answer to Exercise (187) Return to Exercises (187 to 190)

The function of x is given by f(x) = x if x = – 3 what is the output
2
Answer: Since x = – 3, therefore f(– 3) = (– 3)2
The output f(– 3)2 = 9
In the example above the input or argument is x = – 3 and the output is 9

Shown below is a function machine, what is the output?
x function ½ output
Answer: The function halves anything put into it, since the input is x the output is

Answer: Since x = 2, therefore f(2) = 2 + 3 = 5
The output f(2) = 5

The output f(9) = 14
Return to Exercises (187 to 190)

407
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3

The function of g is given by f(g) = g2 + g + 5 if g = 3 what is the output
Answer: We simply replace g with 3 to obtain the answer shown below
Since g = 3, therefore f(3) = 32 + 3 + 5 = 17

The function of x is given by f(x) = 3x2 – 5 what is the output when x = 0, 1, 2
Answer: We place x = 0, 1, and 2 into the function as follows:
When x = 0 then f(0) = 3(0)2 – 5 therefore f(0) = – 5
When x = 1 then f(1) = 3(1)2 – 5 therefore f(1) = – 2
When x = 2 then f(2) = 3(2)2 – 5 therefore f(2) = 7

Given the function f:x → y when f:x = 4x 2 – 5x + 2
Answer: when x = 3 then y = 23 since f(3) = 4(3) 2 – 5(3) + 2 = 23

408
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3 2
Given the function f(x) = 4x – 7x + 5x – 6 what is the argument of this function?
Answer: The argument is the input variable, in this exercise the argument is x
Given the function y = f(x) where f(x) = find the value of y when x = 5
Answer: when x = 5 then y = 0.2 since

The formulae for the height of a ball (t) seconds after it has been dropped from rest is
given by a function of height (h) in metres, time (t) in seconds, and the initial starting
height (h0)
Where h(t) = – 4.9t 2 + h0
If time the ball drops is 5 seconds, and the initial height the ball is dropped from is 200
metres, what is the height of the ball?
Answer: We simply replace t with 5 to obtain the answer shown below
Since t = 5, therefore h(5) = – 4.9(5) 2 + 200
The output h(5) = 77.5 metres
409
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Given the function f(x) = what is the domain and range of this function?
Answer: As we learnt in example (156) on page 188, a function must not be divisible
by zero; this type of answer is not permitted for functions.
Therefore, the domain is x ≠ 5, i.e. x may not be equal to 5
Because if it was then we would have f(x) = NOT PERMITTED
The range is f(x) = > 0 i.e. f(x) must be any value greater than zero

If a function is given by g(h) = dh2 + 6h and h = 12 what is the output
Answer: We simply replace h with 12 to obtain the answer shown below
Since h = 12, therefore g(12) = d(12)2 + 6(12) = 144d + 72
The output g(12) = 144d + 72
We leave answer as shown since we don’t know the value of ‘d’ this function could be
the basis of some formulae, where ‘d’ would be given later, ‘d’ for example could
represent ‘distance’ but since we don’t know what ‘d’ represents we leave the answer as
shown
410
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If a function is given by g(x) = and x = 12 what is the output
Answer: We simply replace x with 12 to obtain the answer shown below
Since x = 12, therefore g(12) =
The output g(12) = 7

The function of x is given by f(x) = 15 + 3x2 what is the output for f(2t)
OK! So, this function exercise looks different to those we have attempted so far but
don’t let this type of problem freak you out. Just substitute the given value in this case
‘2t’ into the function as follows:
f(x) = 15 + 3x2
f(2t) = 15 + 3(2t)2
f(2t) = 15 + 3 x 4t2 the output f(2t) = 15 + 12t2

The function of x is given by f(x) = 3x2 + 4x what is the output for f(y)
Answer: We simply replace x with y to obtain the answer shown below
f(y) = 3(y)2 + 4(y)
The output f(y) = 3y2 + 4y
411
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The function of t is given by f(t) = 3t + 4t what is the output for f(5t)
2
Answer: We simply replace t with 5t to obtain the answer shown below
f(5t) = 3(5t)2 + 4(5t)
f(5t) = 3 x 25t2 + 20t
The output f(5t) = 75t2 + 20t

OK so exercise this looks a bit different to previous examples, but it is no different, it is

just presented in a different way. We still have an input variable t and we are asked to
evaluate the function named h when t = 5
Answer: We simply replace t with 5 to obtain the answer shown below
h(5) = (5)2 + 2(5)
h(5) = 25 + 10
h(5) = 35

The function of x is given by f(x) = 3x2 + 4x what is the output for f(q2)
Answer: We simply replace x with q2 to obtain the answer shown below
f(q2) = 3(q2)2 + 4(q2)
The output f(q2) = 3q4 + 4q2
412
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Given the function f:x → y when f:x = what is the output for f(– 2x)
Find the value of y when x = (– 2x)
Answer: We simply replace x with (– 2x) to obtain the answer shown below
Answer: when x = (– 2x) then

The domain of the function f(x) = 2x2 + 3x – 1 is {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}
Find the range of f(x), and map this on a ‘domain – range’ diagram
When f(–2) = 2(–2)2 + 3(–2) – 1 = 1 f(x) = 2x2 + 3x – 1
When f(–1) = 2(–1)2 + 3(–1) – 1 = –2 –2 –2
When f(0) = 2(0)2 + 3(0) – 1 = –1 –1 –1

R
a
When f(1) = 2(1)2 + 3(1) – 1 = 4 0 1 n
g
When f(2) = 2(2)2 + 3(2) – 1 = 13 1 4 e
2 13
The range is {–2, –1, 1, 4, 13}
Domain Codomain
413
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Given that f(3x – 5) = x what is f(x) = 4
Answer: This exercise definitely looks different to previous examples, but it is not hard
to solve, we simply ask ourselves; What value of x do we need to input into the
function f(3x – 5) to obtain f(x) = 4? Unfortunately, I have not found any internet
calculator that can solve these types of problems, so we will have to solve it using
algebra
We write out the function as follows:
3x – 5 = 4 therefore 3x = 4 + 5 giving x = therefore x = 3
Let’s try substituting x = 3 into f(3x – 5) if we have our substitutions correct we

should obtain an answer of 4 as we want to know what value x is to obtain f(x) = 4
f(3(3) – 5) = 4 Therefore f(3) = 4

Given the function f(x) = x2 + 2x what is f(x) = 3
Answer:
This exercise is similar to (208), we ask ourselves, what value of x do we need to input
into the function f(x) = x2 + 2x to obtain f(x) = 3?
We let the function x2 + 2x = 3 therefore x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 i.e. a quadratic equation
We factor the quadratic equation to (x – 1)(x + 3) see page 427:
This gives us two roots or solutions as follows:
x – 1 = 0 therefore x = 1, and x + 3 = 0 therefore x = – 3
The output f(x) = 3 when x = – 3 and x = 1

414
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Given the function f(x) = evaluate f(21)
Answer: We simply replace x with 21 to obtain the answer shown below.
f(21) =
f(21) =
f(21) = 4

Given the function f(x) = solve f(x) = 8
Answer: We ask ourselves, what value of x do we need to input into the function
f(x) = to obtain an output equal to 8
The question involves a square root, so we first need to know what square root will give
us an answer of 8. The easiest way to find out is to square 8 e.g.
82 = 64, so the square root of 64 will give us 8 e.g.
We now need to find some number for x when 12 is subtracted from it will give us 64
The easiest way to find this number is to add 12 to 64 e.g. 12 + 64 = 76
So, 76 – 12 = 64
Therefore x = 76 since
The output f(x) = 8 when x = 76
415
Answers to Composite Function Exercises
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Answers to function exercises – Composite functions

2
Given that f(x) = 3x + 7 and g(x) = 2x find g(f(x))
Answer: This is a composite function type question with two functions named f and g
we always take the second function first, in this exercise the f(x) function; we simply
substitute f(x) = 3x + 7 into the g(x) function. I will colour the functions blue and
red, to help you follow what is happening, blue for the first function, and red for the
second function.
3x + 7 is now applied as the input to the first function g(x) = 2x2

3x + 7
x 3 (input) + 7 2(input)2 2(3x + 7)2
Answer: g(f(x)) = 2(3x + 7)2

Answer: Once again, this is a composite function, with two functions named f and g.
We substitute the second function g(x) into the x position of the first function:
g(x) = x2 + 1
f(g(x)) = 3(x2 + 1) – 2
f(g(x)) = 3(x2 + 1) – 2 = 3x2 + 3 – 2
f(g(x) = 3x2 + 1

416
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Answer: Once again, this is a composite function type question with two functions
named f and g.
The first function is f(x) = 2x – 1 and the second function is g(x) = x2 + 5
We substitute the second function g(x) into the x position of the first function:
g(x) = x2 + 5
f(g(x)) = 2(x2 + 5) – 1
f(g(x)) = 2(x2 + 5) – 1 = 2x2 + 10 – 1
f(g(x) = 2x2 + 9
Given the function f(x) = 6x – 3 and g(x) = what is g(f(x))
Once again, we will colour the first function g(x) = blue, and the second function
f(x) = 6x – 3 red
We substitute the second function f(x) into the x position of the first function:
g(f(x)) = =

417
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Given the function f(x) = and g(x) = what is f(g(x))
Answer: We will colour the functions as previously advised, so you can see where each
function is applied, f(x) we will colour in Blue, and g(x) we will colour in Red
f(x) = the first function and g(x) = – 2 the second function.
We want to know, what is the output of f(g(x)) so we always apply the second
function first, and g(x) is the second function.
We substitute g(x) = – 2 into the x part of f(x)’s denominator:
f(g(x)) = we now have a fraction divided by a fraction.
If you read my math book ‘Numbers, Arithmetic and Fractions an Introduction’

part of my ‘introductory maths for beginner’s series’ you will find that when we have a
fraction divided by a fraction, we can apply the ‘invert and multiply’ rule, we can
consider the fraction to be as follows:
We invert the denominator and multiply it by the

f(g(x)) = numerator as follows:
f(g(x)) = and cancel
f(g(x)) = x

418
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Answer: This is a ‘variant’ of the composite function type question where we are given
the value of one of the input variables, in this case for f(x) we are informed x = 4
so, we will work out the output value of the second function f(x) first; we simply
substitute x = 4 into the f(x) function:
f(x) = 2x – 1 becomes f(4) = 2(4) – 1 = 7
Now we know f(4) = 7 we substitute x = 7 into the first function g(x)
g(x) = x2 + 5 becomes g(7) = (7)2 + 5 = 54 therefore g(f(4)) = 54
g(f(x)) = (2x – 1)2 + 5

Answer: As in the exercise above, we are informed for f(x) x = 5

so, we will work out the output value of the second function f(x) first; we simply
substitute x = 5 into the f(x) function:
f(x) = 3x – 1 becomes f(5) = 3(5) – 1 = 14
Now we know f(5) = 14 we substitute x = 14 into the first function g(x)
g(x) = x2 + 1 becomes g(14) = (14)2 + 1 = 197 therefore g(f(5)) = 197
g(f(x)) = (3x – 1)2 + 1
419
Answers to Inverse Function Exercises
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Answers to function exercises – Inverse functions

Given f(x) = 2x + 3 find the inverse of this function i.e. f -1(x) using a function
machine
Answer:
We solved this problem in example (175) on page 201, but we will now solve it using a
function machine.
Step 1: We write out f(x) = 2x + 3 as follows.

Input Output
2x
x x 2 +3 2x + 3
Step 2: We reverse each step in the above diagram to get the inverse function.
x–3
2 –3 x
Therefore, this is the same answer as we obtained on page 201.
Which method do you prefer, the mathematical method or the function machine?
420
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Given f(x) = find the inverse of this function i.e. f -1(x) using a function
machine
Answer:
We solved this problem in example (176) on page 202, but we will now solve it using a
function machine.
Step 1: We write out f(x) = as follows.
Input Output
9x
x x 9 5 + 32
Step 2: We reverse each step in the above diagram to get the inverse function.
5(x – 32) x – 32
9 x 5 – 32 x
Therefore, f -1(x) = this is the same answer as we obtained on page 202.
421
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-1
Given f(x) = 7x – 2 find f (x)
Answer:
Step 2: y = 7x – 2
We always want the x terms on the left-hand
Step 3: 7x – 2 = y
side so rearrange the function.
Step 4: 7x = y + 2
Step 5:
Finally, we replace step 5 with the inverse

function notation, and we replace y with x
Step 6:
as shown:

Given f(x) = x + 4 find f-1(x)
Answer:
Step 2: y = x + 4
Step 3: x + 4 = y
Step 4: x = y – 4
function notation, and we replace y with x
Step 5: f-1(x) = x – 4
as shown:
422
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-1
Given f(x) = 4x find f (x)
Answer:
Step 2: y = 4x
Step 3: 4x = y
Step 4: x =

Step 5: f-1(x) = function notation, and we replace y with x
as shown:

Given g(x) = 2x find g-1(x)
Answer:
Step 1: Let y = g(x)
Step 2: y = 2x
Step 3: 2x = y
Step 4: x =

Step 5: g-1(x) = function notation, and we replace y with x
as shown:
423
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Given g(x) = find g-1(x)

Answer:
Step 1: Let y = g(x)
Step 2: y =
Step 3: =y side so rearrange the function.
Step 4: x = 2y
Step 5: g-1(x) = 2x function notation, and we replace y with x
as shown:
Given f(x) = find f-1(x)

Answer:
Step 2: y =
Step 3: =y side so rearrange the function.
Step 4: x = 4y
Step 5: f-1(x) = 4x function notation, and we replace y with x
as shown:
424
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Given f(x) = find the inverse of this function i.e. f -1(x)
Answer:
Step 2: y =
Step 3: =y Multiplying both sides by 2 will eliminate the fraction
= 2y Squaring both sides will eliminate the square root
Step 4: 5x – 3 = (2y)2 Note: (2y)2 = 4y2
5x – 3 = 4y2
5x = 4y2 + 3
Step 5:
x as follows:
Step 6: f-1(x) =
425
Answers to factoring quadratic equation exercises
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Show how to factor x2 – 4 = 0 Return to exercise (228)
Answer:
We will first obtain the value of the ‘discriminant’ to see if this quadratic can be factored.
In this quadratic a = 1, b = 0, c = – 4
The discriminant D = b2 – 4ac = 02 – 4(1 x – 4) = 16 i.e. a perfect square, this

quadratic ‘can’ be factored.
We need 2 factors which when multiplied together result in c = – 4, and when added
together results in b = 0

2x2=4 2+2=4 addition to give 0 so this is not the correct
–2 x 2 = –4 –2 + 2 = 0 Yes, these factors produce the result we want.
We have found the two factors for this exercise, which are –2 and 2
We place the two factors in brackets as shown below.
The factors of x2 – 4 = 0 are (x + 2)(x – 2)
Return to exercise (228)
426
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Show how to factor x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 Return to exercise (229)
Answer:


–1 x 3 = –3 –1 + 3 = 2 Yes, these factors produce the result we want.
The factors of x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 are (x – 1)(x + 3)
427
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Show how to factor x2 – 9x – 10 = 0 Return to exercise (230)
In this quadratic a = 1, b = – 9, c = – 10
The discriminant D = b2 – 4ac = (– 9)2 – 4(1 x – 10) = 121 i.e. a perfect

square, this quadratic ‘can’ be factored.
together results in b = – 9

1 x 10 = 10 1 + 10 = 11 addition to give – 9 so this is not the correct
1 x –10 = –10 1 + –10 = –9 Yes, these factors produce the result we want.
The factors of x2 – 9x – 10 = 0 are (x + 1)(x – 10)
428
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Show how to factor x2 + 7x + 6 = 0 Return to exercise (231)
In this quadratic a = 1, b = 7, c = 6
The discriminant D = b2 – 4ac = 72 – 4(1 x 6) = 25 i.e. a perfect square, this

We need 2 factors which when multiplied together result in c = 6, and when added
1x6=6 1+6=7 We have found the factors straight away, we are
lucky this is an easy quadratic to factor.
We have found the two factors for this exercise, which are 1 and 6
The factors of x2 + 7x + 6 = 0 are (x + 1)(x + 6)
429
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Show how to factor x2 – 9 ≤ 0
To obtain the factors we can consider this inequality contains an equal sign rather than
the ‘less than or equal to’ operator, the quadratic becomes:
x2 – 9 = 0


3 x –3 = –9 3 + –3 = 0 Yes, these factors produce the result we want.
430
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Show how to factor x2 – 1 < 0
the ‘less than’ operator, the quadratic becomes:
x2 – 1 = 0


431
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Show how to factor x2 – 36 ≥ 0
the ‘greater than or equal to’ operator, the quadratic becomes:
x2 – 36 = 0

6 x 6 = 36 6 + 6 = 12 addition to give 0 so this is not the correct
We have found the two factors for this exercise, which are – 6 and 6
432
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Show how to factor 2x2 + x – 3 = 0

Whenever a quadratic has a coefficient of x2 greater than 1 i.e. where the first term is
2x2, 3x2, 4x2, etc, then we have to apply a different set of rules to those used for
simple factoring of the previous exercises.
We have to find the factors, where the product of the two inner terms when added to
the product of the two outer terms equals the value of the b term in this exercise the
number 1 since the b term is 1x (remember a product is the result of two or more
numbers multiplied together).
(2x + )(x + )
Next, we need to find the factors of the c term i.e. – 3 these are: 1 x –3 or –1 x 3

The outer terms produce 2 x –1 = –2
Adding the two results 3 + –2 = 1 Yes, this result equals 1 the value of the b term
The factors of 2x2 + x – 3 = 0 are (2x + 3)(x – 1)
433
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Show how to factor 3x2 – x – 2 = 0
In this quadratic a = 3, b = –1, c = – 2
The discriminant D = b2 – 4ac = (–1)2 – 4(3 x – 2) = 25 i.e. a perfect square,

this quadratic ‘can’ be factored.
We have to find the factors, where the product of the two inner terms when added to
the product of the two outer terms equals the value of the b term in this exercise the
number –1 since the b term is –1x (remember a product is the result of two or more
numbers multiplied together).
(3x + )(x + )
Next, we need to find the factors of the c term i.e. – 2 these are: 1 x –2 or –1 x 2

The outer terms produce 3 x –1 = –3
Adding the two results 2 + –3 = –1 Yes, this result equals –1 and b = –1
The factors of 3x2 – x – 2 = 0 are (3x + 2)(x – 1)
434
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If ever you are stumped trying to factor a quadratic equation with the coefficient of x2
greater than 1 i.e. where the first term is 2x2, 3x2, 4x2, etc when doing homework or
revision, and you have access to the internet there are a number of online web based
‘Factoring Calculators’ you can use. Check out my Facebook page for guidance on
the best internet calculators and solvers I have found whilst writing this math book
introductory series.
Below is an image from one particular internet calculator I like, which is nice and easy to
use, we will use it to obtain the factors to exercise (236) we have just solved on the
previous page.
We enter the quadratic equation into the entry field; note you need to use the ‘caret’
key e.g. ‘^’ to raise x to the power of 2, then click on ‘Calculate It!’ button
3x2 – x – 2 CALCULATE IT!
We are presented with the answer:
Solution
3x2 – x – 2 factors to (3x + 2)(x – 1)
435
Answers to Quadratic Equations
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Answers to solving quadratic equation exercises

2
Solve using the quadratic formulae 2y – 8y + 6 = 0
We check the discriminant D = b2 – 4ac = (–8)2 – 4(2 x 6) = 16 i.e. a perfect

square, this quadratic will have two real roots
The quadratic formulae is shown opposite:
Which becomes giving
Therefore and
The solutions or roots to this quadratic become x = 1 and x = 3
436
Answers to Cubic Exercises
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Answers to solving cubic equation exercises

Use the factor theorem to show (x + 3) is a factor of f(x) = x3 – 5x2 – 8x + 48
We learnt in chapter 43 ‘the factor theorem’ involves substituting numbers in place of x

in an equation to ‘test’ if the equation then equals zero. If the equation ‘does’ equal
zero then the substituted number is a root of the equation.
We are asked to show (x + 3) is a factor of f(x) we therefore make x + 3 = 0 and

solve for x
x + 3 = 0 therefore x = – 3
We now substitute – 3 in place of x in the function as shown below:
f(–3) = (–3)3 – 5(–3)2 – 8(–3) + 48 = 0
As we can see above, substituting – 3 in place of x in the function results in f(–3) = 0
This means that (x + 3) is a factor of f(x) = x3 – 5x2 – 8x + 48
437
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Show how to factor x3 + 9x2 + 27x + 27 = 0
Using the form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 then a = 1, b = 9, c = 27, d = 27
We will first obtain the discriminant to see what type of factors to expect.
The discriminant is given by x = b2c2 – 4ac3 – 4b3d – 27a2d2 + 18abcd
We obtain
x = (9)2(27)2 – 4(1)(27)3 – 4(9)3(27) – 27(1)2(27)2
+ 18(1)(9)(27)(27)
x = (81)(729) – 4(1)(19683) – 4(729)(27) – 27(1)(729)

+ 18(1)(9)(27)(27)
x=0
Since x = 0 then the equation has a repeated root and all it’s roots are real, remember
we learnt this on page 268.
Looking at the cubic equation, we see the numbers 9 and 27, so we need to find a
factor that will divide into both 9 and 27 and the number 3 seems a good candidate to
try out.
Let’s see if (x + 3)3 is the factor for this cubic expression
(x + 3)2 = (x + 3)(x + 3) = x2 + 3x + 3x + 9 = x2 + 6x + 9
(x + 3)(x2 + 6x + 9) = x3 + 6x2 + 9x + 3x2 + 18x + 27
(x + 3)3 = x3 + 9x2 + 27x + 27
Yes (x + 3)3 is the factor for this cubic since it produces the original expression.

438
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Exercise (240) Return to exercise (240)
Using an internet solver show how to factor 3x – 11x2 – 22x + 10 = 0
3
Using the form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0
Then a = 3, b = – 11, c = – 22, d = 10
We obtain
x = (-11)2(-22)2 – 4(3)(-22)3 – 4(-11)3(10) – 27(3)2(10)2
+ 18(3)(-11)(-22)(10)
x = 345960
Since x > 0 then the equation has three distinct real roots, however since the
discriminant x = 345960 is not a perfect square i.e. 345960 = 588.1836 this means
the roots will not be easy to find by simple factoring, we will have to use a Casio FX 991
calculator, an internet calculator, or graph the equation.
We will factor this cubic equation using an internet ‘Cubic Factor Solver’ shown below
is an image from such a solver. Check out my Facebook page for guidance on the best
internet calculators and solvers I have found whilst writing this math book introductory
series.
Enter the polynomial expression: 3x^3-11x^2-22x+10
FACTOR
Result: (x – 5)(3x2 + 4x – 2)

439
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Show how to factor 3x 3 – 4x + 5 = 0
In this example a = 3, b = 0, c = – 4, d = 5
We obtain
x = (0)2(-4)2 – 4(3)(-4)3 – 4(0)3(5) – 27(3)2(5)2
+ 18(3)(0)(-4)(5)
x = – 5307
The discriminant is a negative number, this means the cubic equation has one real root
and two non-real complex conjugate roots, this will not be easy to factor, but let’s give it
a go. Note you would not get a question like this in an exam, but it could be an
assignment type question.
We know we are going to end up with two bracketed terms and to get 3x 3 (our first
term) we have to have x in one bracket and 3x 2 in another as follows:
Question is what goes in the brackets next?
2
(x )(3x ) The number 1 is not going to be of much help since we
want the x2 term to cancel, so let’s try the number 2
When the number 2 multiplies by 3x2 we are going to

obtain 6x2 so, we need some number in the 2nd bracket
2
(x + 2)(3x ) which when multiplied by x will give us – 6x2 because
the x2 terms must cancel to zero, we have no x2 term in
our cubic equation
(x + 2)(3x2 – 6x ) The only term that will give this result is – 6x

e.g. x times – 6x = – 6x2
440
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Exercise (241 continued) Return to exercise (241)
We are getting there; now we need to find the constant term to go in the 2nd bracket
which will give us a result of – 4x when the two brackets are multiplied out.
Now we know that 2 multiplied by – 6x will give us
2
– 12x so we need some number to go in the 2nd bracket
(x + 2)(3x – 6x )
which when multiplied by x will give us 8x then
8x – 12x = – 4x the number is obviously 8
We are getting close now to having factorized this cubic

2
(x + 2)(3x – 6x + 8) equation, if you multiply out the two brackets you obtain
the following:
If you are not sure how we expanded the

3x3 – 6x2 + 8x + 6x2 – 12x + 16
brackets see the next page
Which becomes:
3x3 – 4x + 16
Now we want the factors to expand to our original cubic equation which was:
3x 3 – 4x + 5 = 0
We have to get the constant down from 16 to the number 5, so we write our factored
expression as follows:
3x 3 – 4x + 5 = (x + 2)(3x2 – 6x + 8) – 11
The factors are: (x + 2)(3x2 – 6x + 8) – 11
441
(Go to Contents)

Let’s see how (x + 2)(3x2 – 6x + 8) – 11 = 0 expands to 3x 3 – 4x + 5 = 0
Taking the x term in the first bracket and multiplying it by (3x2 – 6x + 8) gives:
x (3x2 – 6x + 8) = 3x3 – 6x2 + 8x
Taking the number 2 term in the first bracket and multiplying it by (3x2 – 6x + 8)
gives:
2 (3x2 – 6x + 8) = 6x2 – 12x + 16
Combining the two expansions we obtain:
(3x3 – 6x2 + 8x) + (6x2 – 12x + 16)
Which gives: 3x3 – 4x + 16
We want the constant in the original expression to equal the number 5 so we include a
– 11 term at the end of the expression:
3x3 – 4x + 16 – 11
Which gives: 3x3 – 4x + 5
442
(Go to Contents)

Show how to factor x3 + 8 = 0
In this exercise a = 1, b = 0, c = 0, d = 8
We obtain
x = (0)2(0)2 – 4(1)(0)3 – 4(0)3(8) – 27(1)2(8)2
+ 18(1)(0)(0)(8)
x = – 1728
Once again, the discriminant is a negative number, this means the cubic equation has
one real root and two non-real complex conjugate roots, and will not be easy to factor,
but we’ll give it a go.
We know we are going to end up with two bracketed terms and to get x 3 (our first
term) we have to have x in one bracket and x 2 in another as follows:
Question is what goes in the brackets next?
2
(x )(x ) The number 1 is not going to be of much help since we
want the x2 term to cancel, so let’s try the number 2
When the number 2 multiplies by x2 we are going to

obtain 2x2 so, we need some number in the 2nd bracket
(x + 2)(x2 ) which when multiplied by x will give us – 2x2 because
the x2 terms must cancel to zero, we have no x2 term in
our cubic equation
(x + 2)(x2 – 2x ) The only term that will give this result is – 2x

e.g. x times – 2x = – 2x2

443
(Go to Contents)

Once again, we are getting there; now we need to find the constant term to go in the
2nd bracket which will give us a result of 0x when the two brackets are multiplied out.
Now we know that 2 multiplied by – 2x will give us
2
– 4x so we need some number to go in the 2nd bracket
(x + 2)(x – 2x )
which when multiplied by x will give us 4x then
4x – 4x = 0x the number is obviously 4
We have now factorized this cubic equation, if you

(x + 2)(x2 – 2x + 4) multiply out the two brackets you obtain the following:
x3 – 2x2 + 4x + 2x2 – 4x + 8 The 2x2 terms cancel, the 4x terms cancel
Which becomes:
x3 + 8
We have factored x3 + 8 = (x + 2)(x2 – 2x + 4)
444
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Show how to factor x3 + x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
In this exercise a = 1, b = 1, c = 2, d = 2
We obtain
x = (1)2(2)2 – 4(1)(2)3 – 4(1)3(2) – 27(1)2(2)2
+ 18(1)(1)(2)(2)
x = – 72
Once again, the discriminant is a negative number, this means the cubic equation has
one real root and two non-real complex conjugate roots, and will not be easy to factor,
but we’ll give it a go.
We know we are going to end up with two bracketed terms and to get x 3 (our first
term) we have to have x in one bracket and x 2 in another as follows:
(x )(x2 ) Now what goes in the brackets next?

We’ll try the number 1 and see where that gets us
When the number 1 multiplies by x2 we are going to

2 obtain x2 which is what we want. Now, we need some
(x + 1)(x )
number in the 2nd bracket which when multiplied by x will
give us 2x because we have 2x in our original equation
(x + 1)(x2 + 2) The only term that will give this result is the number 2
e.g. x times 2 = 2x

445
(Go to Contents)

We have now factorized this cubic equation, if you multiply out the two brackets you
obtain the original cubic equation as follows:
(x + 1)(x2 + 2) = x3 + 2x + x2 + 2
Rewriting as: x3 + x2 + 2x + 2
446
(Go to Contents)
Now you have finished this book, please consider leaving feedback on Amazon; if you
liked this maths book let others know your opinions, remember there are many students
who still need help with their maths, and are seeking a good book to help them.
Recommendations from readers is one of the best ways to help other math students.
If there is any aspect of this book, you were unsatisfied with, or would like other topics
to be included then please contact me with your suggestions or recommendations.
Thank you for purchasing this book and helping me to support my family, wishing you
every success for the future.
Regards to all.
David Hodgson
Should you wish to contact the author Dave Hodgson with comments or suggestions
please email him at enquiries@britanniatraining.net
Alternatively send him a post to his Facebook page at

447
Chapter 58 Index
(Go to Contents)
acceleration, 210 greek alphabet, 49

algebra calculator, 44 hidden quadratics, 211, 212
ALPHA key, 57 identity, 159, 247
argument, 178 imaginary numbers, 209
binomial, 20 independent variable, 178
braces, 31 inequalities, 83
brackets, 31 input, 16, 178
codomain, 181 integer, 17
coefficients, 25 intercept, 208, 234
common denominator, 67 inverse function, 197, 201
common factor, 39 inverted parabola, 259
commutative, 206 irrational number, 52
completing the square, 210, 238 less than or equal to, 83
complex numbers, 209, 260 less than, 83
complex operator, 209 linear equations, 59
complex roots, 209, 215 lowest common denominator, 66, 67
composite functions, 196 many-to-one, 186
compound expression, 18 math IO mode, 56
compound inequalities, 91 modulus, 99
constants, 17 monomial, 18
cosx, 203 multiply out two brackets, 223
cubic discriminant, 273 multiplying brackets, 34
cubic equations, 268 multiplying three brackets, 37
decimal places, 58 number line, 86
dependent variable, 178 number machines, 16
discriminant, 212 omega, 49
discriminant summary, 213 one-to-many, 186
dividend, 102 output, 16, 178
divisor, 102 parabola, 185, 209
domain, 181 parentheses, 8, 31
factor, 42, 225 partial fractions, 154
factor theorem, 229, 437 perfect square, 212, 221, 229
factoring, 39, 210, 221 phi, 49
first power, 59 polynomial, 18, 19
function, 178 polynomial division, 102
function of a function, 196 polynomial fraction, 107
function rules, 181 quadratic equation, 36, 208, 211
functions as a sequence, 205 quadratic formula, 210, 256
galileo, 210 quadratic inequalities, 95
geometric progression, 206 range, 181
geometric sequences, 206 real distinct roots, 214
graphs of functions, 203 remainder, 107
greater than or equal to, 83 remainder theorem, 104
greater than, 83 repeated linear factor, 169, 403
448
Index
repeated root, 214, 237 square brackets, 31

root, 208, 224 surd, 52
sequences, 206 synthetic division, 105, 126
series, 206 term, 18
sets, 206 transposition of formula, 50
shifting a function, 190 trinomial, 20
significant figures, 57, 58 turning point, 241
simple expression, 18 unique output, 183
sinx, 203 variables, 15, 17
six basic rules of transposition, 60 vertex, 241, 254
solving equations, 59 vertical line test, 185
whole numbers, 17
449

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1

(Go to Contents) Introduction

For best viewing, you really want a display size of at least

What is also very important is to get yourself a good scientific calculator.

The older series uses the EXP key but

Engineering Mathematics sometimes called Applied Mathematics relates to solving

“There is no try, only do”

Throughout this ‘introductory series’ I will show a

Text highlighted in Blue are, Hyper-links, Examples, or Informative

Text highlighted in Pink show Exercises

Text highlighted in Green indicate Answers to Exercises

then the pi key

This book is dedicated to my wife Susan

And of course, to you the reader.

Wishing you all every success in your education.

Alternatively send him a post to his Facebook page at

The introductory maths books for beginner’s from school to college

• Book 1: Numbers, Arithmetic, and Fractions an Introduction

• Book 2: Calculator Use an Introduction

• Book 3: Transposition of Formulae an Introduction

• Book 4: Percentages and Ratios an Introduction

• Book 5: Indices, Logarithms and Exponential Functions an Introduction

• Book 6: Algebra, an Introduction

• Book 7: Sequences, Series, and Sets an Introduction

• Book 8: Geometry an Introduction

• Book 9: Area and Volume an Introduction

• Book 10: Trigonometry and Triangles an Introduction

• Book 11: Graphs an Introduction

• Book 12: Complex Numbers an Introduction

• Book 13: Calculus – Differentiation and Integration an Introduction

• Book 14: Statistics and Probability an Introduction

• Book 15: Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal Numbers an Introduction

• Book 16: Matrices an Introduction

The Legal Bit

This book is Copyright © and protected under UK and international law.

Chapter 1 An introduction to algebra ................................................................ 15

Chapter 1 An introduction to algebra

Algebra is a branch of mathematics where we use letters or symbols called ‘variables’

This answer is easy x = 8 because 8 – 5 = 3

The area of a rectangle can be calculated using the formula:

Area = Length x Width

Chapter 1 An introduction to algebra

This number machine requires us to multiply 5 by 2 e.g. 5 x 2 = 10

Sometimes a letter or ‘variable’ is used to represent a number as shown below:

This number machine requires us to perform subtraction e.g. x – 5 = 9

We place 14 in the input field as follows:

Chapter 1 An introduction to algebra

Sometimes when x is used as a variable, a period (.) is used to indicate multiplication;

Chapter 2 Definition of algebraic terms

When an expression contains only one term it is known as a ‘monomial’

These are all examples of compound expressions or polynomials:

Chapter 2 Definition of algebraic terms

A polynomial is a group of algebraic terms, with a varying number of powers, so for

5x 3 + 4x 2 – 7x + 6 is a polynomial in x of degree 3 because the x3 term makes it

7y 3 + 5y 2 + 9x – 4 is a polynomial in y of degree 3 and 2 respectively.

For an expression to be a polynomial, the index must be a positive integer or whole

9x 12 + 4x 5 + 7x 3 – 2x is a polynomial in x of degree 12, 5 and 3 respectively.

The following are NOT polynomials

5x 3 + 4x 2 + – 7x + 6 is NOT a polynomial, this is because is another way

5x -3 + 4x2 – 7x + 6 is NOT a polynomial, because the index in x -3 is negative.

5x 3 + – 7x + 6 is NOT a polynomial, because the index in x 2 is negative.

Remember is another way of writing 4x – 2