Ground Improvement techniques

Soil is the most complex naturally occurring material on the earth.

Soil not suitable to support the given load.

Deep foundations is expensive proposition.

Ground improvement techniques to increase bearing capacity and reduce

settlement.
Avoid the site by relocating the proposed structure at a site with
better soil conditions.
Adopt a foundation system that recognizes inadequacies of the
soil and transfers load to it in a manner that will not harm the
structure.
Adopt a foundation by bypassing poor soil and transfers the load
from the superstructure to better soil.
Improve or modify the properties of soil
What is to be improved
Bearing capacity
Settlement reduction and time of occurrence
Retarding seepage
Accelerating drainage
Avoid liquefaction
Stability of slopes
Mechanical modification

Hydraulic modification

Physical and chemical modification

Modification by inclusion and confinement

Commonly used methods
1. Pre-loading with or without sand drains
2. Soil replacement
3. In-Place densification a) Vibrofloatation
b) Compaction piles c) Simple stone columns,
vibrostone columns and d) Blasting
4. Soil stabilization
5. Grouting and injection methods
6. Soil reinforcement
7. Geosynthetics
Soil improvement techniques

Principle Techniques
Commonly used methods Other Possible methods
Consolidation 1. Preloading by surcharge (With 1. Electro Osmosis
or Without drainage) 2. Lowering Water levels
Compaction 1. Falling weights 1. Use of explosives
2. Vibrofloatation
3. Compaction piles (Sand piles
and lime piles)
Soil stabilisation 1. Replacement by good soil 1. Using additives like
2. Mechanical stabilisation cement, bitumen, lime etc
3. Lime piles 2. Calcinations

Soil reinforcement 1. Stone columns 1. Geofabrics as

2. Root piles reinforcement
3. Micropiles
Grouting, Injections 1. Lime slurry 1. Chemicals
2. Cement
 Type of soil and methods used

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

Pre-Loading
Vibrocompaction
Dynamic Compaction
Soil reinforcement Stone Columns
Blasting

Admixtures

Grouting Techniques

Compaction piles
The choice of a method of ground improvement for a particular
object will depend on the following factors.

● Type and degree of improvement required

● Type of soil , geological structure, seepage conditions
● cost
● Availability of equipment and materials and the quality of work
required
● Construction time available
● Possible damage to adjacent structures or pollution of ground water
resources
● Durability of material involved ( as related to the expected life of
structure for a given environmental and stress conditions)
● Toxicity or corrosivity of any chemical additives .
● Reliability of method of analysis and design.
● Feasibility of construction control and performance measurements
Mechanical Modifications
By external forces – Compaction, Stabilization and
Consolidation

Purpose of Compaction
To increase shear strength
To reduce permeability
To reduce compressibility
To reduce liquefaction potential
To control swelling and shrinkage
Methods of Compaction

Static compaction : Soil specimen of required density can be made by

compressing a known amount of soil into calibrated mould placed over a
universal type of testing machine.

Compressive force is steadily increased until a desired density is

observed.

It creates a soil particle orientation that may differ from that obtained
by other methods of compaction.

However compactive effort is not readily changeable in the field.

Kneading compaction: Soil structure resembles typically of fine grained

soils in the field such as sheep foot and tamping rollers.

Samples are placed in circular moulds about 127 mm high and 102 mm
diameter and then compacted by kneading 100 times at 2413 kPa.

In a miniature Harvard Compaction test a 25.3 mm diameter specimen is

produced by tamping with a calibrated spring loaded piston .

The piston cause shear failure which a characteristics in the kneading

operations.
Dynamic compaction: In laboratory soil passing thru 19mm sieve is
compacted in 3 layers each receiving 25 blows with a 2.7 kg rammer
dropping by 300mm.

Modified compaction compactive effort is increased to match the

densities required using the very heavy equipment deployed on airports.

1. Shallow surface compaction: Compaction by surface equipment is

achieved by static pressure or dynamic pressure caused by impact or
vibration.

Smooth steel rollers and pneumatic tired rollers: Traditional steel

rollers exert high static pressure which makes them most suitable for
granular soil.

In clay type they may have a ploughing effect which doesn’t cause
significant compaction.

Rubber tyred and pneumatic tyred rollers compact by the static weight
of the ballast and the kneading action of tyres.

Compactive effort depends upon gross weight wheel diameter wheel load
tire width and size and inflation pressure
Sheep foot rollers: These consists of large feet protruding from the
cylindrical steel shell of the roller.

Wetter and softer the soil larger is the contact area required for its
optimum compaction. Most suitable for cohesive soils.

Moisture control is made easier because of the pockmarked surface

during compaction. Steel rollers could be used to level off areas worked
by sheep foot or rubber tyred rollers.

Grid rollers: Drums are either covered or consist of a heavy steel grid.

This creates high contact pressure while preventing excessive shear

deformation which is responsible for plastic wave ahead of the roll.

Suitable for compaction of weathered rock, such as sand stone as they

break or rearrange gravel and cobble size particles.

Vibrating rollers: They are light and not much of use.

To achieve the effect as rammers and vibrating plates they have to be
considerably heavier.
The heavy vibrating drums of towed or self propelled vibratory rollers
are isolated from the frame by rubber shock absorbers.
Vibrations are caused by rotating weights.
Compactive effort is dependent on: Static wt, Frequency and
amplitude, roller speed, ratio between frame and drum mass drum
diameter.

Impact rollers: Impact rollers consist of a non- circular mass which is

towed along the ground.

As its centre rises and falls its mass exerts a high impact force causing
compaction of the soil.

As impact leaves the surface uneven it is recommended for subgrades

and earth fills rather than for surface works.
Applicability of compaction Equipment
HOW ENERGY EFFECTS SOIL COMPACTION?
Increasing compaction energy Lower OMC and higher dry density

Higher
Energy
Dry Density

In the field
increasing compaction energy =
increasing number of passes or reducing
lift depth

Water Content

In the lab
increasing compaction energy =
increasing number of blows
PNEUMATIC ROLLER

Effective for compacting clayey soil and silty soils

VIBRATORY ROLLER/PLATE

Effective for granular soil

Deep Compaction techniques

Pre-compression or pre- loading: A site is pre- loaded by means of a

surcharge or by lowering the ground water level, causing the ground to
consolidate.

After restoring original stress levels the future structures built on this
site settle less than those on the untreated ground.

It takes a longer time unless the drainage path is reduced.

Explosion: Explosives are detonated on the surface in an array of

boreholes, causing loose soil structure to become denser.

The final density may not be achieved immediately as the dissipation of

excess pore pressure generated may take some time.

Heavy tamping: A heavy large mass is dropped onto the ground surface
causing compaction and long term consolidation.
Vibration: Densification is achieved by a vibrating probe or pile
sometimes aided by water jets or pressurized air and the addition of
granular material, possibly with added cement agents.

Compaction grouting: Zero slump mortar is injected into the ground

under high pressure, displacing and compacting the surrounding soil.

Vibro- compaction and Vibro- replacement: vibrators are lowered into

the ground.

Compaction creates a compacted surface however replacement consists

of replacement by coarse grained material.

Principle of Soil Compaction

Moisture Content:
Affects the densification
Partially saturated soils exhibit apparent cohesion due to capillary
tension in pore water.
Loose dry soils show densification upon wetting due to surface tension
forces.
Empirical Relationships:
(moisture content)
Fine grained soils: The optimum water content increases and the maximum
dry density decreases with increasing plasticity of soils.
Wopt= Wp -5 at wopt = 10% and wp-2 at wopt= 30%

Coarse grained soils : depends upon the density as well as maximum and
minimum voids ratio.. OMC is estimated from Wp and percentage of fraction
< 0.4mm

Compactive effort:

Compaction requirements are expressed in terms of maximum density and

optimum moisture content.

It is observed that the increase in maximum dry density with compactive

effort is less pronounced for well graded, coarse grained soils than for fine
grained soils.

However if the water content is appreciably above the optimum value the
increase in compactive effort beyond Standard proctor will no longer assist
in obtaining a higher density.

Granular soils the results of standard and modified proctors test show less
difference than for cohesive soils.
Properties of compacted soil

Cohesive soil
Strength and density: Soil with initial moisture content can be moulded to
higher densities if the compactive effort is increased.

When the initial moisture content approaches or exceeds the optimum

moisture content for a particular compactive effort the strength may
fall.
Loss of strength with increasing densities is a phenomenon referred as
over compaction or overstress.

The decrease in stability with increasing dry density has been attributed
to the high pore pressure induced by compaction.

It is the formation of the dispersed structure which reduces the

strength of clay.

For highly plastic clay the CBR after soaking may be found within a
specific range of initial water content and dry densities.

For less plastic soils maximum soaked CBR may be obtained simply by
compacting the soil to the highest practicable density at water content
close to the optimum for the particular compactive effort.
Stress strain behaviour: ( equal densities and standard and modified
max dry densities) the dry sample shows a high peak strength and a
small strain at failure.
The wet specimen shows a lower strength and higher deformation at
failure when kneading rather than static compaction was used.

Volume change: An increase in external loading or change in saturation

can cause an increase in effective stress.
Clayey soils under low stresses may swell.
Compressibility: It depends upon density and initial moisture content and
may change from soil to soil due to grain size distribution and
mineralogical characteristics of fines.
A soil compacted dry optimum shows less settlement than a soil
compacted wet of optimum.
If a soil is saturated after getting subjected to a significant
compressive load , additional settlement may occur.
Swelling: montmorillionite is prone to swelling.

Plasticity index, activity and shrinkage limit are the useful indicators of
a possible swelling and shrinkage problems.

Shrinkage: higher the density and lower the moisture content less will
be the shrinkage in dry environment.
Compaction of soil cement below the optimum moisture content minimizes
cracking after 28 days of curing.

Permeability: Permeability of silty clay can be reduced by a factor of

100 if it is compacted wet of optimum rather than dry.

The variable affecting the permeability of compacted clay are void ratio,
degree o saturation and its microstructure.

For a given void ratio permeability is much lower for high degrees of
preferential orientation of particles.

Compaction at higher water content and kneading mode of compaction

are known to increase particle parallelism .
Cohesionless soil

Relative density or density index: Relative density DR - ratio of actual

density to the max density

• DR = (emax - e0)/(emax - emin) x 100%

• emax = void ratio in loosest condition

• emin = void ratio in densest condition
• e0 = void ratio in natural state

DR is a good indication of possible increases in density or compaction, if

load is applied to soil.

Poorly graded soils have density between 0.5 to 1

well graded between 1.5 to 1.8
Shear strength and density:

internal friction angle in such soils depend upon density.

Friction angle of sand may change from 30 to 40 degress if the relative

density is varied from 0 to 100 %.

Grain size and shape also affects the shear strength and stress strain
distribution.

At low confining pressure dense sands dilate and exhibit a brittle type
stress strain curve.

The peak value of strength recorded as the peak friction angle can be
considered higher than the residual value corresponding to large strain.

Residual shear strength is referred as critical strength.

Loose sand sheared at the same low confining pressure may show a
decrease in volume , a low stress strain modulus and no pronounced peak.

At high confining pressure sands and other cohesioless soils are likely to
show more plastic behavior rather than brittle characterized by high
failure strain.
Compaction control tests

I] Shallow compaction control tests

Direct density and water content determination
Shallow penetration test
i)Proctor penetrometer
ii)Plate load tests
iii) Impact tests

II] Deep surface compaction control tests

i) Deep penetration tests
ii)Compressibility estimates from penetration tests
iii) Pressuremeter tests
iv) Dialameter tests
v) Shear wave velocity tests
Dynamic compaction

1. Method consists of applying controlled pattern of drops of heavy

weights on a grid layout.
2. First a high energy followed by low energy impacts called ironing are
carried out.
3. phases
4. After each pass the depressions are made up by a bulldozer
5. 80-120Kn wt dropped from a ht of 10 to 15m dropped 8 to 12 times.
Densification 4-8 m below the gd level.
6. Influence extends up to the depth
Depth in metre = (WH) 1/2/2

W= Weight of drop in tons

H= height of drop in metres
Preliminary evaluation

Assessing the soil type:

Properties , thickness and the extent of weak ground must be known .
Determined by SPT , CPT or PMT.
The information on the placement time of deposit and the information on
the geological origin of the soils.
Base on this soil may be rated as either favorable or un favorable or
intermediate for dynamic compaction.

Assessing the site restraints:

To chk if the ground vibrations or lateral ground deformations could
have effect on adjacent properties.

Determining the design requirement:

If reduction in settlement is desired a settlement estimate should be
made before and after dynamic compaction which then should be
compared with the requirements of the new embankment or facility.
If settlement is still larger than the new facility can tolerate, an
alternative form of site improvement or support should be considered.

Estimating the Cost:

Costs for dynamic compaction should be made.
Categorizing the soil types

Site investigation:
Water table needs to be understood.
Type of tests also needs to be selected as per the formation types or
soil types. Laboratory tests needs to be under taken like water content,
grain size distribution and Attenberg limit specially for fine grained
types.
During dynamic compaction excessive pore water pressure gets
developed and thus needs to be monitored.
Re-filled site data also is important in understanding the usage of the
method.

Description of Soil categories:

Dynamic compaction is undertaken at the prevailing water content and
thus for densification to be effective deposit should be permeable so
the excess pore pressure developed could be dissipated thus allowing soil
particles to move quickly into a denser packing.

The most favourable soil deposit for dynamic compaction would be those
where the permeability of soil is high and drainage is good.
Favorable soil deposit- Zone 1:
Degree of saturation low, permeability of soil mass is high and drainage
is good.
If these deposits are situated above the water table, densification is
immediate as the soil particles are forced into a denser state of packing.

Intermediate Soil deposits- Zone -2

The quality of intermediate soil deposit is in between favourable soils
and unfavourable soil deposits. Silts, clayey silts and sandy silts fall into
this category.
Sufficient time shall be given for drainage of water in such deposits.
Permeability of the order 10-5 to 10-8 m/s

Unfavourable soil depost- Zone 3

Improvement cannot be undertaken unless water content of the deposit
is lowered unsuitable for clayey soils.
Permeability less than 10-8 to 10-9 m/s
Assessing site restraints:

Ground vibration: should be not large enough to disturb the safety of

existing structures.
Structural damage does not take place unless particle velocity exceeds
50mm/sec.
If dynamic compaction is necessary to an exiting structure ground
vibrations can be minimized by digging a trench to a depth of 3m between
the point of impact and the structure concerned.

Lateral ground displacement: Should be considered not to have

permanent damage to structures.

High water table: High pore pressure.

Presence of hard or soft layer: Needs replacement as these will absorb

energy and will not allow the energy dissipation to lower zones.
Preloading

● Increases the bearing capacity

● Reduces the compressibility of weak ground

Achieved by placing temporary surcharge on the ground. Surcharge

generally more than the expected bearing capacity.
In cohesion less soil and gravel lowering water table.
Most effective for soft cohesive ground.

The process may be speed up by vertical sand drains.

Vertical drains are installed in order to accelerate settlement and gain in
strength of soft cohesive soil.
Vertical drains accelerate primary consolidation only.
As significant water movement is associated with it. Secondary
consolidation causes only very small amount of water to drain from soil;
Secondary settlement is not speeded up by vertical drains.
Only relatively impermeable soil <3x10-7 m2/s benefit from vertical
drains.
Soils which are more permeable will consolidate under surcharge.
Vertical drains are effective where a clay deposit contain many horizontal
sand or silt lenses.
Sand Drains
The time necessary for the required settlement can be decreased by the
use of sand drains but the decision to install sand drains at speed up
consolidation should be based on strong field evidence and field test
rather than calculations based on parameters obtained from laboratory
tests.
Drainage system used to hasten consolidation can be following
Ordinary sand drains
Sand wick drains
Plastic geotextiles/Band drains

Improvements
1. They reinforce the soft ground in which they are installed and helps
to support the fill.
2. Sand drains also act as sand piles
3. Though they replace only 1 to2 % of the volume of the soil, the overall
improvement in bearing capacity may be more than 10%.
Methods of Preloading vertical drainage:

Cylindrical sand drains:

Sand drains consisted simply of boreholes felled with sand.
The holes may be formed by driving, jetting and/or augering. Its
diameter is 200 to 450mm and would be spaced 1.5 to 6m apart.
A large diameter sand, in a fine grained soil, enables rapid consolidation
of surrounding material and also provide vertical compressive
reinforcement.

Geosynthetic drains or wick drains:

These are prefabricated used for acceleration consolidation of soft
saturated compressible soils under load.
Wick drains are band shaped products that consist of a geotextile
jacket surrounding a plastic core.
They permit pore water in the soil to seep into the drain for collection
and transmittal up and down the length of the core.
Cost of preloading.
Cost will vary form site to site . But as rough guidelines foll. % may be
taken.
1. Provision of sand drains ------------- 15%
2. Provision of horizontal drainage----------- 15%
3. Cost of fill------------ 50%
4. Cost of stabilizing berms --------------- 15%
5. Instrumentation ------------------ 3 to 5%
Advantages:
Easy and Rapid installation
Mode of uniform material, easily stored and transported tensile
strength of the strips helps to preserve containing low costs .

Properties of Prefabricated Vertical Drains

Permittivity of filter
Transmissivity of filter
Discharge capacity of drain
Discharge factor
Apartments opening size
D85 of soils
Discharge capacity
Soil retention ability
1. The method consists of placing surface loads such as sand fills on the
area to be improved before construction.
2. It may also consists of controlled loading a structure itself (like an oil
tank) after its construction and before it is put to service.
3. Preloading is effective in silty clays and organic deposits.

Aim
1. To eliminate all settlements that otherwise can take place after
construction
2. To improve shear strength of soil by decreasing its water content and
increasing the density.
3. The intensity of preloading should be such that it should eliminate all
the primary settlement and also very large part of the secondary
settlement that can take place in the actual structure.
4. In a pre compressed soil, it should be higher than the pre-
consolidation pressure of the soil to be preloaded.
5. In most cases preloading surcharge will be more than the estimated
weight of the structure to be built at the site so that further
secondary compression can be avoided.
The settlement with time should always be monitored in actual practice.
Shear strength tests before and after preloading is needed to evaluate
whether the required shear strength has been attained by preloading.

Requirement for success are

1. Availability of space. to be taken up for pre loading operations should
be always more than the outside perimeter of the proposed
structure.
2. Availability of fill material. Although pre loading can be effected also
by water weight or by lowering of water table, heaping of granular fill
( so that it does not turn into mud when it rains) is the most desirable
method.
Reports from various case and recommendations

1. Time taken for completion in most cases of preloading is 3 to 8 months

2. The height of preload heap used is generally 3 to 8 m, to be placed
above the plan of the structure to be built.
3. The settlement can be 0.3m to 1.0m depending on the type of soil and
loading.
4. The dimensions (L x B x H) should be large enough for the effect of
vertical stresses to be felt over the total thickness of the more
compressible soils.
Vertical and Radial consolidation

When vertical drains are installed in a closely spaced grid pattern, they
significantly reduce the drainage path.

If a 20m soft clay deposit undergoing one dimensional consolidation. The

drainage path is 10m.

When sand drains are installed in the deposit at a spacing of 4m, the
drainage path reduces to 2m.

The direction of water becomes predominantly radial into the vertical

drains, the vertical flows of course still takes place.

If the coeffcient of consolidation in the two directions is the same, a

reduction of drainage path to one fifth the value means that the time of
consolidation to any average degree of consolidation reduces to a little
less than 1/25 0f the original time.

By choosing appropriate spacing of the drains one can ensure 90%

consolidation occurs after the application of surcharge load in a few
months rather than in few years
Average Degree of Consolidation vs Time factor
Consolidation with radial flow- variation of average degree of consolidation with time
factor
The average degree of consolidation due to the combines effect of
vertical and radial flow, Ut is determined as follows
(1-Ut)= (1-Ur)(1-U)
U is the average degree of consolidation on account of vertical flow and
its variation with time factor
Soil Stabilisation
Process of improving the engg properties of soil and making it more
stable
Required when the soil available for construction is not suitable for the
intended purpose
It is used to reduce permeability and compressibility of the soil mass in
earth structure and increase the shear strength
Increase the bearing capacity of foundation soils
Mechanical Modifications

Soil replacement for soil improvement

1. Excavation of full soil and replacing it with a better soil compacted to
its full density can also be used for improving the bearing capacity.
2. Region of high stress in a shallow foundation is only 1 to 1.5m its
breadth and this part can be replaced by selected good soil.
3. Used for construction of light buildings.
Methods of modification
Alter water content
Soil replacement
Mix with additives
Inclusion of reinforcement
 Process of modification and their influence on soil

Method Influence on Soil Property Mechanism

Alteration of water Strength increase, Densification of soil
content compressibility decreases
Soil Replacement Properties of new soil New soil
replace those of Old soil
Mix with additives Strength increases Cementation of soil
a) 2% to 20%Cement significantly in coarse grained grains
soils and to a lesser extent in
fine grained soils

b) 2 to 6% lime Plasticity of Clay decreases, Cations of lime attracted

hence swelling and shrinking to negative charge of clay
decreases particles thus reducing
affinity to water
c) 4 to 12% Bentonite Permeability decreases Bentonite enters
significantly in coarse grained void space of
soils soil
d) 3 to 7% Bitumen Cohesion increases in coarse Coating of soil
grained soils , reduces affinity grains
to water in clays
Inclusion of Bearing capacity increases , Tensile force in
reinforcement settlement decreases reinforcement
resists movement
of soil grains
Thermal Plasticity of organic clays Removal of
decreases organic content,
change in
mineralogy
Replacing with proper compaction of the excavated soil after
adjusting its water content is useful when marginal increase in
bearing capacity or reduction in compressibility of soils is
required.

Replacing with layer of sand interspersed in between properly

compacted excavated soil improves drainage of the soil and such
improvement is useful in areas where water table during some
seasons is high or rainfall during monsoon is heavy.

Replacing with new soil is useful when good quality soil is available
very near the site and when properties of the new soil result in
significant economy in the foundation of the superstructure.

Replacing with soil using cement as additive is useful when good

quality soil in not available nearby and a higher strength subgrade
is required for road construction. The improved properties
modified soil results in reduced thickness of subbase and base
course.
Replacing with soil using lime as additives is useful for reducing
the swell shrink behavior of high plasticity clays and this
techniques has been effectively used to stabilise subgrades of
black cotton soil below roads and rail tracks.

Replacing with soil using bentonite as additive is useful for

constructing impermeable barriers at the base of landfllls.

Replacing with soil using layers of geogrids is useful for reducing

differential settlement at the base of large diameter storage
tanks or at the base of embankments on soft soils.

Replacing with excavated soil after it has been thermally treated

is useful when the soil is peaty and where good quality material is
not available at small distance from the site.
The design of stabilised soil depends upon

Selection of stabiliser
Amount to be applied
Method of application
Extent of soil to be stabilised
Finally the required performance of the stabiliser.
 Mechanical stabilisation
Process of improving the properties of soil by changing its gradation
Two or more types of soils are mixed to obtain a composite material
which is superior to any of its components
To obtain the desired mix either coarse particles are added or fine
particles are removed.
Also called as granular stabilisation

Cement stabilisation
Mixing soil with Portland cement and water to attain a strong material
Normal soil cement
Plastic soil cement
Cement modified soil
Chemical stabilisation
In this the setting and curing time can be controlled .
Various chemicals used are
Calcium chloride
Sodium silicate
Sodium chloride

Thermal stabilisation
Heating
Cooling
Soil reinforcement
Foll. techniques fall under this head
1. Root piles
2. Micro piles
3. Reinforced earth and geotextiles
Root piles
1. A network of root piles is called reticulated root piles
2. Root piles are piles of smaller diameter with capacity of only 30 to 40
tons and required for works like underpinning.

Micropiles
1. Piles not exceeding 250mm are called micropiles.
2. These are an improvement of root piles for larger capacity of the
order of 100t to be obtained from a 170mm micropile.
3. These are pressure grouted piles in which instead of the steel bat
used in root piles, a steel pipe is used in the hole.
Grouting and Injection

Definition
It is defined as the injection of fluidized materials into voids of
the ground or spaces between the ground and adjacent
structures generally through boreholes and under pressure.

Categories of Grouting:
● Penetration grouting (intrusion, permeation)
● Displacement grouting.
● Compaction grouting (including slab-jacking )
● Grouting of voids
● Jet grouting (replacement)
●Special grouting applications and techniques, including electro
grouting.
Penetration grouting

Process of filling joints or fractures in rock or pore spaces in soil with a

grout without disturbing the formation.
It refers to the replacement of water in voids between soil, particles
with a grout fluid at low injection pressure so as to prevent fracturing.
Intrusion grouting is the intrusion of highly flow able particle grouts into
cracks, voids and expanded fractures.

Displacement grouting:
It is the injection of grout into a formation in such a manner as to move
into the formation, it may be controlled, as in compaction grouting or
uncontrolled.
As in high pressure soil or rock grouting which leads to splitting of the
ground, also called hydrofracture.
Compaction grouting:
It is a very stiff (say 25-mm slump) mortar is injected into loose soils,
forming grout bulbs which displace. and densify the surrounding ground,
without penetrating the soil, pores.

With slightly more fluid grout, tick fissures may form in place of bulbs
referred to as squeeze grouting.
Jet grouting:
It is a technique where high –speed water jets emanating from a drill bit
cut into alluvial soils: as the drill but is withdrawn grout is pumped
through horizontal nozzles and mixes with or displaces the soil.

The original foundation material is thus replaced with a stronger and/or

more impermeable grout-soil mixture.

Jet grouting may be used to form cut off walls, form a deep foundation.

Electro grouting:
Promoting electro chemical hardening during electro- osmosis by adding
chemicals , such as sodium silicate or calcium carbide at the anode.

Under the influence of the electric field, these chemicals permeate the
ground , flowing in the direction of the cathode , while the anode
becomes a grout injection pipe.
Grout Materials:
1. Suspensions:
Small particles of solids are distributed in a liquid dispersion medium.
Example: cement and clay in water

2. Emulsions:
A two phase system containing minute (colloidal) droplets of liquid in a
disperse phase.
Example : bitumen and water.
Foams created by emulsifying a gas into the grout material, which could
be cement or an organic chemical. Foaming agents increase surface
tension; assist in forming bubbles by agitation.

3. Solutions:
Liquid homogeneous molecular mixtures of two or more substances.
Example: sodium silicate, organic resins, and a wide variety of other
so called chemical grouts.
Grouting with cement:
Soil and rock properties can be modified by sealing the voids and cracks
using the grouts.
Grouts made of flowable mixtures of solid and water are called suspended
solid grouts.

Micro fine cement: These were introduced as an alternative to chemical

grouts for their toxicity content.
These basically consists of fine materials like slag .
Jet grouting
Uses high velocity fluid jets to cut into soil masses.

Three systems are in use

Single jet
Two jet and
Three jet

All these require that the jet pipe be placed at the bottom of the depth to
be treated.
Depths of 150 feet have been treated using the techniques.

Chemical grouting
Introduction of sodium silicate and aluminum sulphate .
Properties of chemical grout
Permanence
Penetrability
Strength
Gel time control
Sensitivity
Toxicity.
Soil improvement by densification of soils.
Methods are
1. Vibrofloatation for cohesionless soils
2. Heavy tamping with falling weight for all types of soils
3. Compaction piles for cohesionless soils
4. Stone columns for clayey soils
5. Controlled blasting.
Compaction piles and sand piles for densification
Compaction piles are piles driven solely for the purpose of densifying sand
deposit.
Densifying results due to twin effects of displacement of materials and
consequent increase in density and the effect of vibration during driving.
Simplest method of installation is to drive a casing with a detachable shoe
into the soil and backfill the resulting hole with granular material like sand
or gravel.
For large diameter piles sand and gravel in the ratio of 1:1 can be used.
These piles are spaced 2.5 to 6 times the pile diameter apart.
In the ground a relative density up to 70% can be obtained in the pile by
this method.
Vibrofloatation
1. Applicable to cohesionless soils of high permeability, especially useful
to compact loose silt or sea deposits liable to collapse or liquefy under
vibratory or earthquake loads.
2. Consists of inserting a special vibrator , with a water jet which goes
down by its own weight.
3. As compaction due to vibration proceeds, additional o cohesionless soil
is added which is pushed down by the vibration.
4. This method allows ground to be compacted fully to the depth
necessary to carry a shallow foundation.
5. The bearing capacity improvement of this soil should be checked by
cone penetrometer tests before and after the operation.
6. Cavity created at depth of 15 to 35 m and zone denser at lateral
distance of 1.0 to 1.5m. Results in columns of dense sand dia 2.0 to 3.0
m.
Stone columns.
A stone column derives its strength from the foll. three sources.
1. Strength of stone column itself
2. Strength of the surrounding original soil on which also the load is
applied.
3. The surcharge effect if the foundation has a surcharge.
4. These do not eliminate much of settlement.
5. Depth not less than six times diameter is required for stone columns
to be active

Stone columns are usually laid in a 600 triangular grid and the spacing
of these stone columns can be varied from 1.5 to 2.5 m.
It is also very important that the treatment by stone columns should
be extended beyond the loaded area by at least 2m all around for
continuity effect.
As in all structures ,there is an increase of contact stresses at edges
so that the spacing at edges should also be reduced.
Blasting
Blasting is generally used in granular soils.
It s more effective in submerged sands than sands above water table.
Diameter of settled surface is in order of 5 to 10m
5 to 40kn dynamite charge blasted at a grid spacing of 4 to 8m.
 Insitu densification of Sands

Method Uniformity Out put Cost Main Situation

of rate limitations most suited
densificatio for
n
Compaction- uniform moderate high Pipes Densification
displacement difficult to down to
piles drive beyond depth of 10
25m depth to 20m
Impact Max at mid High Moderat Impact can Densification
compaction- depth e affect safety down to
heavy of adjacent depth of 5 to
tamping structures 10m
Method Uniformity Out put Cost Main Situation most
of rate limitations suited for
densification
Vibrofloatati uniform moderate high Not Densification
on- effective down to depth
vibrocompac when fines of 10to 35
tion exceed 20%
Explosions Small loose Very high Low Affect safety Densification of
pockets may of adjacent large and
remain structures remote areas
GEOTEXTILES

Synthetic geotextiles
Geogrids
Geonets
Geotextiles
Geomembranes
Geopipe
Geocomposites

Natural geotextiles
Coir
Jute
The surface of the road should be stable and non - yielding to allow
the heavy wheel loads of road traffic to move with least possible
rolling resistance.

The road surface should also be even along the longitudinal profile to
enable the fast vehicles to move safely and comfortably at the design
speed.

The earth road may not be able to fulfill any of the above
requirements, especially during the varying conditions of traffic loads
and the weather.

At high moisture contents the soil becomes weaker, soft and starts
yielding under heavy wheel loads thus increasing the tractive
resistance.

The unevenness and undulations of the surface along the longitudinal

profile of the road causes vertical oscillations in the fast moving
automobiles, increasing the fuel consumption and the wear of the
vehicle components, resulting in a considerable increase in the vehicle
operation cost.
In order to provide a stable and even surface for the traffic, the road
way is provided with a suitably designed pavement structure.

Thus a pavement consisting of few layers of pavement materials is

constructed over a soil sub grade to service a carriageway.

In order to stabilize the road surface it reinforced. Out of various

reinforcing materials geosynthetics are those which have partially
invaded the Civil Engineering industry world over and rapidly at which
the related product are being developed and used is nothing short of
amazing.
Types of reinforcement:
A very wide range of materials are in use as reinforcing
cements in soil structures. The most commonly used types of materials
are described below.
1) Bamboo reinforcements:
2) Metal reinforcement:
3) Fiber glass:
4) Geosynthetics:
GEOSYNTHETICS

polypropylene,
polythene, nylon,
P.V.C. and
other synthetic materials. And also natural materials.

They have enough strength properties making them

suitable for use as reinforcements in earth reinforcing
structures and also are durable with a long life.
Some of the main advantages of geosynthetics are:

They are resistant to all chemical attacks naturally

occurring in soils particularly to alkalies and acids.

They are found to be stable over a large temperature

range viz. - 60 0 c to +100 0 c. However the strength is
known to reduce at sustained high temperature.

They are durable in conditions exposed to prolonged

sunlight and wet conditions.

They are resistant to organic attacks like bacteria fungi

and not attracted to termites.

Synthetic fabric mats are known to support vegetation like

grass and expand their growth making them ideally suitable
in slope protection problems.
They contain sufficient black carbon giving them adequate
protection during out door storage prior to use.

They are light in weight and are also available in convenient

prefabricated sizes and shapes. They are available as nets
or mats and also in square, rectangular or tabular gabion
sections which can be conveniently placed in the required
position by cranes and mechanically filled.

The Geosynthetics as reinforcement materials are also

more economical as compared to conventional steel strips.
A design for reinforced earth with polymer strips as
reinforcements with bricks and stabilized soil blocks for
the facing have shown a cost saving up to 50 percent.
APPLICATIONS OF GEOSYNTHETICS

Construction of road / rail embankments over marshes, swamps, peat

soils or comparatively poor type of soils.

Geosynthetic retaining wall.

Foundation for rail / road and buildings.

Building of parking lots, storage facilities etc in poor soil conditions.

Containment of soils that would spread laterally if not reinforced.

Embankments and dams.

Slope protection works.

In erosion control works like shore and beach protection works as a

boundary material beneath stone layer or gabions, banks subjected
to water erosion or river bank slope protection works.
FUNCTIONS OF GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetics perform primary and secondary functions in geotechnical
design. These functions become design criteria in specific construction
applications and are important to identify and rank to achieve the
highest performing most economical design.
1.Separation
2.Filtration
3.Drainage
4.Reinforcement
5.Protection
6. Waterproofing
7. Fluid Transmission
8. Solid Barrier
9. Container
10. Tensioned Membrane
11. Tie
Separation:

The separation function refers to the separation of two dissimilar soils.

The primary function of the geosynthetics is to prevent intermixing of the
two soils throughout the life of the structure.

Geosynthetics are commonly used for separation when used beneath

roadway pavement sections.

Roadway pavements are basically structures for taking the high contact
pressures from the vehicle tires and reducing that pressure through the
depth of the pavement to a level that can be supported by the underlying
soil.

Pressure is dissipated down through the various layers of materials within

the pavement.

Over time, vehicle load pressure causes subgrade soils to migrate into the
aggregate base of the pavement section.
Contamination of the aggregate base by the sub grade results in the
reduction of the effective base thickness to less than originally designed.

Reduction of the base thickness results in a decrease in the load-carrying

capacity of the aggregate base and a reduction in the pavement life.

Geosynthetics prevent the sub grade materials from migrating into the
aggregate base, thus increasing pavement life.
 (Without Geotextile)

(With Geotextile)
Filtration / Drainage:

A geosynthetic acts as a filter when it allows liquid to pass

normal to its own plane, while preventing most soil particles from being
carried by the liquid current two cases are possible.

1) A geosynthetic placed across a flow of liquid carrying fine

particles, stops most of the particles while allowing water to pass through.

2) A geosynthetic placed in contact with soil, allows water seeping

from soil pass through, while preventing any movement of particles.

Filtration is one of the functions most widely performed by geosynthetics

The filtration function has two concurrent objectives: to retain the

particles of the filtered soil, while permitting water to pass through the
plane of the geosynthetics from the filtered soil. These two parallel roles
are the key to filtration design.
In both the filtration and separation functions, water is permitted to pass
through the geosynthetics.

Occasionally, some confusion arises between the separation and filtration

functions in this regard.

A distinction may be drawn between the two with respect to the quantity
of water involved and the degree to which it influences geosynthetic
selection.

In the filtration function, the volume of water moving through the fabric is
a key design element specifically addressed in the design and selection of
the geosynthetic.

It must be able to convey a certain quantity of water across the plane of

the fabric through-out its design life to prevent the buildup of water
pressure.
This is typically not the case with a geosynthetic used for separation.

While water may pass in either direction across the plane of the
geosynthetic, it is not typically an element of design as the quantities of
water are relatively small, even in those cases of high groundwater and
saturated subgrades.
Reinforcement:

In the reinforcement function, the geotextile is subjected to a sustained

tensile force or load.

Soil and rock materials are noted for their ability to withstand
compressive forces and their relative low capacity for sustained tensile
forces.

In much the same way that tensile forces are taken up by steel in a
reinforced concrete beam, the geotextile supports tensile forces that
cannot be carried by the soil in a soil-geotextile system.

Geotextiles in a reinforced levee constructed over soft soils, the

geotextile layers are placed across potential rotational failure planes to
carry the tensile forces that cannot be carried by an unreinforced soil
mass.
Fabrics are used in road construction with locally available aggregate such
as a crushed stone, quarry or shot rock, sand, gravel, or sea shells to
develop a structural layer.

In reinforcement, fabric improves the performance of the aggregate-

fabric-soil (AFS) system under repetitive vehicular loading from
mechanisms including restraint on the aggregate and sub grade layer,
membrane effect, friction developed at the fabric interfaces that creates
a boundary layer, and local reinforcement.

Two types of restraint should occur in the AFS system. The first is
related to the reverse curve of the fabric outside the wheel path and the
downward pressure on the soil that results.

This effect increases the bearing capacity of the soil.

A second type of restraint effect occurs when the aggregate
particles at the soil-aggregate interface move from under the
loaded area but are restrained or given a tensile reinforcement
because of the presence of the fabric.

The strength and modulus of aggregate material benefit from this

increased confinement.

The increased aggregate modulus decreases the compressive

strength on the soil under the wheel load.
As the roadway undergoes large deformation the fabric is stretched and
develops tensile stress, the magnitude of which depends on fabric strain
and fabric modulus. The net effect is a reduction under the wheel load and
an increase outside of the wheel path.

In order to develop fabric-induced stress, substantial vertical

deformations, proper geometry, and fabric anchorage are required.
Prestressing the fabric to reduce the system deformation to get the
fabric in substantial tension is suggested. Fabrics should develop high
friction-adhesion.

Concentrated stresses from vehicular loading can cause a punching at the

points of contact between the aggregate and sub grade.

Geogrids and Geotextiles change the way the base course performs under
load by providing separation, stabilization and reinforcement. Base courses
can fail because the fill material moves laterally, away from the load.
This results in rutting and eventually cracking of the road surface.
Through their open grid structure and high tensile modulus, geogrids
interact with and confine base course materials, creating a stronger
composite base structure, resisting lateral spreading of the fill layer and
improving the structural performance of the base course.

The structural strength provided by geogrids offers the use of a thinner

base course, while maintaining or improving the performance of
conventionally designed structures.

Roadways can be designed to extend pavement service life, reduce

pavement thickness, or a combination of both.
Protection:

A geosynthetic acts as a protecting material when it distributes

stresses and strains transmitted to the protected material. Two cases are
possible.

Surface protection: A geosynthetic placed on the surface on the soil

prevents its surface from being damaged by such actions as weather, light
traffic.

Interface protection: A geosynthetic placed between two materials

prevents one of the materials from being damaged by concentrated stress
is applied by the other materials.
Water Proofing:

Geo-membranes are impervious sheets, used in road construction as water

proofing agents to prevent cracks in existing Asphalt pavements.

A hot mix overlay is placed on the fabric spread on the prepared surface.

Geo-membranes also break the capillary continuity and prevent migration

of moisture
Solid Barrier:

Geosynthetics acts as a solid barrier when it prevents solid from

moving or stops moving loads. An example: a cliff faces protection.

Container:

Geosynthetics acts as a container when it is used to contain

material such as sands, rocks, & fresh concrete.

An example: use of geo-synthetics to form a concrete matter used as slope

protection.
Transmission

In the transmission function, liquids or gases are carried (or transmitted)

within the plane of the geosynthetics itself.

This is distinctly different from the filtration function which involves flow
across the plane of the geosynthetics.

This function is often associated with geosynthetics composites,

particularly those that incorporate a drainage net or a permeable core
bonded on one or both sides by a geosynthetics.

Fluid enters the composite through the geosynthetics and is carried in the
channels of the core to a desired location in the application.

geosynthetics-drainage core composite can provide drainage adjacent to

the face of a retaining wall.
Composite geotextile material allows water flow within the plane of the
material, rather than across it, such as behind a retaining wall.
TYPES OF GEOSYNTHETICS

Geotextiles

Geogrid

Geomembranes

Geocomposite

Geocell
Functional requirements
All geosynthethetics have to fulfill certain minimum requirements relating
to endurance and degradation so that they do not undergo damage during
installation and also continue to perform satisfactorily for their designed
life.

In addition they must have the desired properties to satisfy their primary
function.

The properties that are important for satisfactory performance of

different functions are summarised in table along with the type of
geosynthetics that can be used for the different functions.
Functional requirement of Geosynthetics
Separtaors:
Geotextiles are well suited because they are porous and strong enough to
prevent mixing of soils. The tensile strength of geotextiles lies in the
range of 50 to 400kN/m with elongation failure of 10 to 100% or more.

Woven geotextiles usually exhibit higher strength and lower elongation in

comparison to non- Woven geotextiles and are thus often preferred as
separators.
In certain situations , they are used in combination with non woven
geotextiles or geogrids to enhance puncture resistance or strength
respectively.
Filters:

Both woven and non- woven geotextiles are used since they exhibit the
range of cross plane permeability required for free passage of water and
have pore size distribution small enough to retain the fine particles of soil.
Typically, their permeability lies in the range of 10-5 to 10 m/sec and their
95% pore size, 095, lies between 0.02 to 2.00mm .
This implies that such geotextiles can allow passage of water similar to
silts and sands and retain soil particles much finer than their pore sizes.
It may be noted that cross plane permeability is often expressed as
permittivity which is equal to permeability divided by the thickness of the
geosynthetics and thus has units sec-1 .
Geotextiles have permittivity in the range of 10-2 to 10-3 sec-1.
Drains:
Amongst geotextiles , nonwoven geotextiles with large thickness have
higher in plane permeability than woven geotextile and therefore make
effective drains.
In- plane permeability is usually expressed in terms of transmissivity that
equals permeability multiplied by thickness and therefore has the unit of
m2/sec.
For requirement of very high in plane flows, even thick non- wovens are
inadequate and adopt geonets sandwiched between geotextiles .
For even higher flows, geocomposites sheet drains such as corrugated
polymeric sheets sandwiched between geotextiles are used.
Typical range of in plane permeablities of non woven geotextiles are 10-5
to 10-2 m/sec ( Transmissivity 10-9 to 10-5 m2/sec).
The transmissivity of geonets varies between 10-5 to 10-3 m2/sec and for
geocomposites sheet drains it is even higher, in the range of 10-4 to 10-2
m2/sec.
Reinforcements:
Geogrids are often used because they have sufficient strength upto
200kN/m, low elongation at failure of 5 to 25 percent and better soil
geogrid interfacial shearing resistance than other geosynthetics arising
from interlocking of soil grains within the openings of the geogrid.
Low elongation type of woven geotextiles are also used as reinforcements
in soils.
Barriers.
The permeability of geomembranes is very low and they thus make ideal
barriers for liquids and vapours.

It is not easy to measure their permeability to water but for water vapour
transmission, their permeability lies in the range of 10-12 to 10 -15 m/sec
compared to 10 -9 m/s for water permeability of clays.

They can be joined by thermal welding. The welded seams are as impervious
as the parent material and have a tensile strength which is 80% or more
than that of the present material.

Geomembranes have tensile strength in the range of 10 to 50 kN/m. HDPE

geomembranes can withstand elongation as high 200% or more in one
direction thus making them suitable in situations where the base subsoil
may show high settlement .

Geomembranes usually have a smooth surfaces and thus have a tendency to

slip along steep side slopes. They, therefore have to be anchored at the
top of the slope. For special situations , geomembranes are given a
textured finish to increase their shearing resistance along the interface
with soil.
Erosion controllers:
meshes and nets made of jute and coir function satisfactorily to
temporarily control erosion.

For permanent measures, special geogrids, geomatresses and geocellular

systems are used.

Protectors:

Thick non woven geotextiles perform well as protective geosynthetics when

laid over geomembranes or woven goetextiles to prevent damage from
overlying gravel stone etc.

Some geosynthetics can perform more than one function simultaneously

when placed in soil for eg a non woven geotextile when used as drain behind
a retaining wall or on the down stream of a core , acts both as filter in the
cross plane direction and a drain in the in-plane direction.
Similarly a geomembrane when placed at the base of a waste dump acts as
a barrier to flow off contaminated water into the soil as well as a
separator that prevents mixing of the particles of waste ( or sand drain
particles) with the soil underneath.

There are also situations in which a single geosynthetic is not adequate for
a single function and a multiple geosynthetics or geocomposites are more
effective. Some geo composites that are used often include

1) Geotextile , geogrid composites: in which the geogrid enhances the

strength of geotextiles

2) Geotextile- geonet coposites: in which the geonet enhances the in-

plane permeability of the geotextile

3) Geomembrane- geotextile composites ; in which the non woven

geotextiles enhances the puncture resistance of the geomembrane, and

4) geomembrane- clay composites: in which the clay enhances the

imperviousness of the system
Parameters that indicate the properties of Geosynthetics
Range of Values for Some properties of Geosynthetics
Case study
IMPROVEMENT AND STRENGTHENING OF ROAD NAGAR KARMALA -
TAMBHURNI, SH-41 MAHARASHTRA

SH-41, Nagar Karmala-Tambhurni-Pandharpur-Bijapur in Maharashtra is an

important highway link serving movement of industrial and agricultural
produce.

The affected road section (km 130/0 to km 136/0) passes along the bank
of a vast reservoir of Ujaini dam and the region is typical Black Cotton soil
area.

At many places the adjoining Bagyat land (Sugarcane fields) is at higher

elevation than the road foundation.

In the year 1996 the PWD officials organized inspection of a road stretch
to evaluate causes of frequently deteriorating road pavement despite
regular maintenance efforts.
The Problem

The sugarcane crops are there throughout the year and generally irrigated
at all times.

Therefore the land adjoining the state highway gets inundated frequently
and results into rise in groundwater level.

The buoyant hydrostatic ingress of groundwater table causes alternate

swelling and shrinkage of the sub grade black cotton soil resulting into
erratic deformation pattern of the supporting sub grade and subsequently
failure of the base courses of the road crust.

At places the existing road pavement was found severely damaged (km
131/475 to km 131/875) and has become a major traffic hazard to the
commuters.
Large potholes, sunken portions and undulating road surfaces were common
features over the affected road stretch.

The road camber was found almost non-existent often resulting into
flooding of the road during the monsoon.

The causes of the problem were attributed mainly to heavy growth of the
traffic in the past few years, overloading of the vehicles, black cotton soil
area and over and above the absence of functional roadside drains.
Remedial Measure

Subsequent to evaluation of the actual site problems it was decided that

the remedial measure should address to improve upon drainage pattern of
the subsoil reducing buoyant pressure at the base of the road crust,
strengthening the pavement through effective sealing and bonding of the
pavement layers to stop 'reflective cracking and reduce the stresses over
the subgrade soil and also provide adequate camber in the road pavement
suitably.

To cater for the above-mentioned problems, application of geosynthetic

techniques in improving upon performance of roads was recommended for
adoption.
Rehabilitation solution adopted comprised 75 mm thick BM course over the
existing deteriorated pavement with a biaxial geogrid reinforcing layer,
followed by DBM of 50 mm thick overlain by a paving grade geotextile
(Polyfelt PGM 14).

Paving grade fabric was overlain with a wearing course of 40 mm thick

ashaltic concrete.

Provision of longitudinal subsurface drains on both sides of the road and

adequate camber in the road pavement in the correction and levelling
courses.

Longitudinal Subsurface Drains

The longitudinal subsurface drains on both sides of the drain were needed
as catch water drain for subsurface water flow seeping out from the
sugarcane fields at higher elevations.
The longitudinal subsurface drains have been laid in gradient below the
surface drain at elevation lower than the road base.

Functional requirement of the subsurface water drain has been to collect

subsurface water flowing laterally towards the road base and at the same
time discharging the collected water to a suitable outfall.

The outfall locations identified in this case were existing cross-drainage

structures along the road.

Filter grade non-woven geotextile (Polyfelt TS) wrapped around granular

fill thus facilitated free flow of subsurface water across the geotextile
plane and retaining the integrity of the surrounding soil by preventing
migration of soil fines into the granular fill.
As a result long-term performance of the subsurface drainage is ensured.

The subsurface drain adopted effectively dissipates the seepage water

pressure arising due to artisan water flow in the long-term and keeps the
road base generally in dry condition.

The surface drain along the road was maintained as unlined drain with
pitching of laterite boulders at the base of the drain.

Typical road cross-section showing details of geosynthetics application in

pavement
 Longitudinal surface drain

Laterite boulders

Compact stone fill

Geotextile filter

Longitudinal subsurface drain

Dimension details of longitudinal subsurface drain In black

cotton soil area for SH-41, Maharashtra (km 131/475 to km
131/875)
Strengthening of Road Structure

Proper adhesion between different pavement layers is an essential

criterion to ensure its load carrying capacity, stability and durability of
the road.

Use of paving grade geotextile ensures presence of a defined quantity of

bituminous tack coat as a bonding agent for the pavement layers.

Bitumen impregnated paving fabric permanently prevents intrusion of

water and oxygen into the road structure.

Infiltration of surface water into the road crust weakens the shear
strength of the base layer and over a period of time surface cracks and
deformations occur under dynamic loading due to traffic.

Also the shear resistance between the two layers must be enough to
prevent yielding of the bond due to shear stresses caused by braking or
turning maneuvers and temperature stress.
In view of the functions required to fulfill by the paving grade fabric it is
important to select a proper type of material that has been used
successfully.

Polyfelt PGM 14 is needle punched continuous filament non-woven

geotextile tested comprehensively in the laboratory and in the field
application for hot asphalt concrete application.

Paving grade fabric (Polyfelt PGM 14) thus was recommended and used for
alleviation of reoccurrence of damages in the new overlay.

The quantity of tack coat (pure bitumen) recommended in this case was
1.05 kg/m2.

The main function targeted to achieve by the paving grade fabric (Polyfelt
PGM 14) was sealing, bonding and stress relieving functions.

The performance of the road stretch treated with Polyfelt PGM 14 has
improved significantly since then and the department could save cost of
regular maintenance that was inevitable quite often before the treatment.
KM 7 OF SH-78, MALHARPET - PANDHARPUR ROAD IN MAHARASHTRA
Site Location

Km 7 of SH-78, Malharpet-Pandharpur stretch in Satara district in

Maharashtra state is a black cotton soil area.

The road has been constructed on black cotton soil without adequate
drainage facilities. In about 200 m stretch of this road agriculture fields
on both sides of the road are at higher elevation and quite close to the
road.
The agriculture fields are sugarcane crops those are irrigated throughout
the year.

The Problem
PWD Maharashtra arranged to investigate on reason for reoccurrences of
regular damaged road condition in 200 m stretch and to evolve a
rehabilitation measure to improvise the performance of the road pavement.
The road had developed severe cracks, differential settlement and the
surface has undulations and bumps much beyond acceptable limits causing
perennial nuisance to the commuters.

During the inspection it was concluded that presence of stagnant water in

the fields in close proximity to the road and high water table in the region
are considered main causes of problem of poor performance of the road
stretch.

It was also noted that existing longitudinal drains were all silted up and
during rains water used to get accumulated over the affected road
stretch.

Fluctuating water content of foundation soil of the road induces shrinkage

and swelling pressure at the road base that in turn destabilizes the road
base.

As a result the road gets damaged frequently under repetitive traffic

loadings despite conventional maintenance efforts undertaken by the
department.
Improvement / Rehabilitation Program

In view of the black cotton soil area and other boundary conditions of the
affected road stretch, it was evident that poor drainage pattern prevailing
at the site need be improvised to rehabilitate the road performance.

Also the need to strengthen the road crust was required to cater for
increase in traffic intensity and loads over a period of time.

To improvise upon the drainage pattern, existing longitudinal drains were

made deeper with suitable gradient and maintaining the base of the drains
below the road crust.

Sides and the base of the drains were lined by pitching with locally
available laterite boulder to ensure faster drainage of water through them
and stability of drains in long-term performance.
Subsurface cross-drains were constructed at intervals of 10m center-to-
center spacing on both sides of the road and connected to the longitudinal
drains.

Dimension and other details of such drains are shown in Fig.

The subsurface thus provided were to enhance upon drainage pattern of

road foundation soil that was black cotton soil in this case.

The bottom levels of these drains were designed to be laid below base.
course of the road.

The subsurface drains were designed with crushed stone aggregates

wrapped around with a filter grade non-woven geotextile (Polyfelt TS).

Needle punched non-woven geotextiles are proven to superior in terms to

withstand severe dynamic installations and compaction stresses and
filtration characteristics of the geotextile is maintained in the long term.
After installation of the drains in 1997, several field observations were
made to record the performance of such drains and it has been concluded
that the subsurface drains are working well in terms of improving the
performance of road pavements in black cotton areas. Prior to laying the
new overlay of AC (50 mm thick), a biaxial geogrid was laid to strengthen
the road crust.

After the rehabilitation program taken up in 1997, it is noted that

performance of the road stretch has improved significantly and the
subsurface drains installed using Polyfelt filter grade non-woven geotextile
(TS) are working in satisfactory condition.

Cleaning up maintenance of the longitudinal open drains is also important

for effective performance of such rehabilitation measures.
SEPARATION / FILTERATION AND PAVING GRADE GEOTEXTILE
APPLICATIONS IN NH-2 PROJECTS

Separation and Drainage

Under the four / six laning, strengthening and improvement program of

national highway projects of Golden Quadrilateral, NH-2 (Delhi - Kolkata)
segment of the highway presently under up gradation adopts extensively
usage of non-woven geotextiles (Polyfelt TS 50) for separation and
filtration and paving grade geotextile as an impervious membrane and
SAMI (stress absorbing membrane interlayer MoRT&H).

Specification for separation and drainage functions of geotextile has been

recommended whereby Polyfelt TS 50 fulfills all the technical
requirements as per Specifications of NHAI and IRC Special Publication
59 (2002): Guidelines for use of geotextiles in road pavements and
associated works and MoRT&H: Specifications for road and bridge Works
(2001).
In separation / filtration application, the use of geotextile is to prevent
mixing of sub-grade soil and aggregate cover material (sub-base/base
courses etc.).

Separation and drainage geotextile thus recommended for adoption at the

sub-base sub-grade interface is aimed to maintain the effective thickness
and drainage characteristics of granular base layers of the pavement in
the long-term performance of the road.

Wherever the sub-grade is wet and pumping of soil fines is likely to occur
under dynamic traffic loading, application of geotextile effectively
mitigates pumping phenomenon and in the process drainage properties of
the sub-base course and integrity of the sub-grade soil is maintained that
in turn caters to improve upon serviceability of the roadways over an
extended period of time.
Paving Fabric

Under the four/six laning and up-gradation program of NH-2,

strengthening of existing roads of is recommended to adopt paving grade
geotextile (e.g., Polyfelt PGM 14). These applications are at various stages
of use on different packages of the projects.

A range of parameters determine the effect of paving grade geotextiles

on durability of bituminous road surfaces and their incorporation in asphalt
construction, such as type of geotextile, type of asphalt concrete,
impregnation, surface structure and overall construction.

The principal factors contributing to a longer road life consists in sealing

function performed by the bitumen-impregnated paving geotextile Polyfelt
PGM 14, the considerably improved evenness of bonding, and the resulting
enhanced resistance to flexural fatigue of the resurfaced asphalt concrete
layer.
The functional interrelationship between crack formations, crack
propagation and influencing parameters will prolong the road life.

Bitumen impregnated geotextile thus recommended (e.g., Polyfelt PGM 14)

is to prevent permanently the penetration of surface water and oxygen
into the road structure.

The infiltration of surface water weakens the shear strength of the base
layers and over a period of time under traffic stresses will lead to surface
deformation, the formation of ruts and loss of bonding.

The penetration of oxygen results in aging of the surface course and

subsequently to cracking due to brittleness.

The shear strength at the interface between the old and new road
surfaces must be high enough to prevent shear yielding through stress
caused by braking or turning maneuvers.
The adhesion of asphalt layers and hence the assurance that the layers are
bonded properly represents a significant factor in ensuring load-bearing
capacity, stability under load and durability of an asphalt construction.

CONCLUSIONS
Application of geosynthetic solutions for pavements is a proven technology
and adopted extensively to reduce maintenance cycles and extending the
life of the pavements.

It is important to consider boundary conditions (climate, subgrade,

groundwater table, traffic load etc.) of the road pavement to arrive at
optimum solutions.

In black cotton soil areas, performance of road pavements can be improved

by adopting state-of-the-art subsurface drainage systems with
geosynthetic techniques.

In strengthening and rehabilitation works of existing road pavements,

application of paving grade geotextiles improves performance of asphalt
overlays by way of effective sealing, adequate adhesion of asphalt layers
and stress relieving interlayer (reduced flexural fatigue).
Reinforced or mechanically stabilized earth
The essential components in the mechanism of MSE is the friction mobilized at the
soil reinforcement interfaces to prevent the relative motion of soil and
reinforcement.
The reinforcement restrain the lateral deformation of the reinforced earth mass
providing an apparent cohesion proportional to the density and the tensile
resistance of the reinforcement.
The maximum tensile force in the reinforcement occurs at some distance away
from the wall and it depends on the type of the structure and the loading
conditions.
The line of maximum tensile force divides the reinforced earth into the following
two zones.
An active zone behind the facing where the shear forces are directed outward
giving rise to an increase of tensile forces in the reinforcements.
A resistant zone, where the shear stresses are mobilised to prevent the sliding of
the reinforcement which is directed towards the free end of the reinforcement
inside the embankment.
Configuration consists of the three following basic components
1. The earth fill (usually selected granular materials with less than 15%
passing sieve no .200)
2. Soil reinforcement (this is at present in the form of metal strips,
geotextiles or wire grid fastened to the facing unit and extending into
the earth backfill for sufficient distance. Special end anchorage can
also be provided to decrease the length of anchorage length needed)
3. Facing unit (usually made of metal or concrete blocks made to maintain
an aesthetic appearance of the structure and prevent sol erosion)
Other uses of MSE
Used to improve bearing capacity of foundation
Used to improve the strength of a low earth dam

Soil Reinforcement for MSE should be selected with care.

Selection should be made after study of their strength, creep and
durability characteristics.
Material used are metallic reinforcement like galvanized steel and
stainless steel, plastics both fabrics and non fabrics
Goregaon Mulund Link Road Junction ( Year of completion : Oct
1999)
Soil Chemistry
• Coarse grained - Feldspar and Quartz
• Fine grained – Kaolinite, Montmorrilionite and Illite

• Clay Mineralogy is science dealing with structure of

clay. minerals on microscopic and molecular and
atomic scale.
• Soil structure is geometric arrangement of soil
particles in a soil mass.
• Engg properties of soil depends on the soil structure.
• Forces predominant in soils

• Coarse grained – Gravitational

• Fine grained- Bonding or surface .

• Surface forces predominant and important as the

particle size decreases
Basic Structure of Clay Minerals
Tetrahedral unit
Octahedral unit
 O= -2
O

Si= +4
Si
O= 3x -2 = -6

Total= -4 (negative
charge)

O= 4x-2 = -8

Si= 4x +4= 16

O= 6 x -2= -12

Total= -4 (negative
charge)
OH= 3x-1

Al= +3

OH= 3x -1

Total= -3

OH= 6x-1

Al= 4x+3

OH= 6x -1

Total= zero
Isomorphous Substitution

Basic Minerals

1. Kaolinte

2. Montmorillinite

3. Illite
Structure of kaolinite
Structure of Illite
Soil Structure

Single Grained Flocculated

Honey Combed Dispersed

Skeleton Coarse grained

Soil Mechanics

Soil is always under pressure. The combined pressure of the weight of a

soil and any applied load is called total stress.

The pressure carried by the soil particles in contact with each other is
called
effective stress. The pressure of the water in the voids is called pore-
water pressure.

Effective Stress = Total Stress – Pore-Water Pressure

σ′ = σ – u
where:
σ′ is effective stress,
σ is total stress, and
u is pore-water pressure.
Consolidation of Soil

when a load is applied to a saturated soil, the soil particles cannot move
closer together, since water fills the voids between them.

Instead, the load is transferred to the pore-water. This creates excess

pore-water pressure and causes the water to flow into soil where pore-
water pressure is lower.

As the water flows out of the voids, the soil particles are able to
consolidate, to move closer together.

Consolidation occurs rapidly at first, because there is a high pressure-

gradient between the loaded soil and the non-loaded soil.

As the pressure-gradient decreases, consolidation slows. The rate at which

excess pore-water pressure dissipates and the soil consolidates depends on
the permeability of the soil.
In less permeable soils such as clays, dissipation of the excess pore-water
pressure is much slower, and consolidation can take many months or even
years.

As consolidation occurs, the volume occupied by the soil decreases and

settlement occurs.

Construction can begin when the degree of settlement has reached an

acceptable level.
Shear Strength of Soil

τ f = c′ + σ′ tan φ ( After Coulomb )

Where:
τ f is the shear stress at failure,
c′ is the cohesive strength of the soil,
σ′ is the effective stress at the shear
surface,
φ is the angle of internal friction.

σ′ = σ – u
Where:
σ′ is effective stress,
σ is total stress, and
u is pore-water pressure.
Control of Filling Operations

Engineers place “fill” to raise the ground to a higher level or to speed the
consolidation of the soil (temporary surcharges).

Projects involving fill include land reclamation and the construction of dams
and embankments.

Dumping and compacting tons of fill increases the load on the foundation
soil. The load is immediately transferred to the pore-water in the soil.

The increased pore-water pressure reduces the effective stress in the

soil, and thus its shear strength.

If fill is placed too quickly, without allowing time for excess pore-water
pressures to dissipate, the increased load on the weakened soil may cause
failure.
Before construction starts, the project engineer determines the shear
strength of the foundation soil and establishes a safe pore-water pressure.

The engineer then slows or halts placement of fill to maintain pore-water

pressure at safe levels.
Slope Stability

Man-made slopes include cuttings and embankments for highways or

railroads, earth dams, river levees, dikes, landscaping, canals, waterways,
and excavations.

Slope failure occurs when the equilibrium of the slope is disturbed enough
to overcome the shear-strength of the soil or rock.

Factors affecting the stability of a slope are its stratigraphy, soil

strength, and seepage.

An in-flow of water affects the equilibrium of the slope in two ways. It

increases shear forces by adding mass and it decreases shear strength by
raising pore-water pressure.
Lateral Earth Pressure
Retaining walls are designed to support soil masses that cannot support
themselves.

Active pressure on a retaining wall increases with pore-pressure and the

depth of the soil being retained. Passive pressure increases with the depth
of the soil on the other side of the wall.

If the water level behind the wall can be lowered, active pressure on the
wall will be reduced and a lighter, less expensive wall can be built.

If the water level cannot be lowered because the resulting settlement

would damage adjacent buildings, a heavier, more expensive wall must be
built.

Before construction of the wall, pore-water pressures are monitored to

determine the existing water level and the permeability of the soil.

With permeable soils, water can be directed to a sump and pumped out. In
other soils, more elaborate dewatering systems must be devised.

After construction of the wall, pore-water pressures are monitored to

Typical Analysis The object of the analysis is to quantify active and passive
pressures so that a structure can be designed to withstand any imbalance
between
the two pressures.

Typically, the analysis begins with dry conditions.

Dry conditions In dry conditions, the total vertical stress is equal to the
height of the soil times the density of the soil:

σV = γ d h.

active horizontal stress

passive horizontal stress

Wet Conditions
In wet conditions, the level of the water table enters into the calculation.
Total stress = effective stress + pore-water pressure.

Also, the saturated soil below the water table has a different density than
the dry soil above the water table.
Uplift Pressure and Buoyancy
Water pressure exerts an uplift force on the underside of a structure
whose base sits below the water table. If the uplift force is greater than
the weight of the structure, the structure will float.
W = weight of structure
A = total anchor force
h = height of water table above base of structure
γ w = density of water
u = h γ w = uplift water pressure

Uplift pressure increases with pore-water pressure. Monitoring pore-water

pressure during the design stage can help in assessing the need for
anchors to counter buoyancy.

Seepage under a concrete gravity dam can create uplift pressures that are
destabilizing.

Monitoring pore-water pressures under the dam provides input to stability

calculations and may indicate the potential for failure and the need for
remedial action.
Soil Improvement
Avoid the site by relocating the proposed structure at a site with better
soil conditions.
Adopt a foundation system that recognizes inadequacies of the soil and
transfers load to it in a manner that will not harm the structure.
Adopt a foundation by bypassing poor soil and transfers the load from the
superstructure to better soil.
Improve or modify the properties of soil
What is to be improved
Bearing capacity
Settlement reduction and time of occurrence
Retarding seepage
Accelerating drainage
Avoid liquefaction
Stability of slopes