MEAT AND

SEAFOOD
IDENTIFICATION
AND
FABRICATION

WOOSONG CULINARY ACADEMY

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SANITATION IN THE BUTCHERY 8

PREVENTING CROSS-CONTAMINATION OF FOODS 8

HAND WASHING PROCEDURES 9
THREE-BAY SINK SANITATION PROCEDURES 10
LARGE & SMALL EQUIPMENT SANITATION PROCEDURES 10

HOBART MEAT GRINDER AND VACUUM MACHINE ASSEMBLY 11

INTRODUCTION TO SEAFOOD IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION 13

CLASSIFICATION OF FISH 14
IMPORTANCE OF FISH IN OUR DIET 14
ACTIVITY LEVELS OF FISH 15
EVALUATING FRESHNESS (FRESHNESS CHECK) 15
STORAGE 16
HANDLING OF FINFISH 16
ANATOMY OF FIN FISH 17
COMMON FIN ANATOMY 17
MARKET FORMS OF FISH 19
KEY TERMS FOR FISH 20
FILLETING ROUND FISH 21
TOOLS AND STATION SET-UP 21
UP AND OVER FILLETING METHOD 22
STRAIGHT METHOD 23
FILLETING FLAT FISH (QUARTER FILLETS) 24

CRUSTACEAN 26

STORAGE 26
SHRIMP 26
SHRIMP PURCHASING TERMINOLOGY 26
FABRICATING SHRIMP 26
FABRICATING SHRIMP (CONTINUED) 27
LOBSTER 28
SIZES OF AMERICAN LOBSTERS (PURCHASING TERMINOLOGY) 28
FABRICATING LOBSTER (SPLITTING A LOBSTER) 29

MOLLUSK ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

RECEIVING AND STORAGE 30

OYSTER 31
4 MAIN VARIETIES OF OYSTER 31
QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS 31
CHECKING FOR FRESHNESS 31
SERVING OYSTERS 31
PREPARING OYSTERS IN THE HALF SHELL 32

CEPHALOPODS ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

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COMMON CEPHALOPODS 33
FABRICATING CALAMARI SQUID 34
STUDY QUESTIONS 35

INTRODUCTION TO MEAT IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION 37

THE TERM “MEAT” 37

PROCESSED MEATS 37
BASIC SPICES OF MEAT 37
MUSCLE COMPOSITION (LEAN MUSCLE TISSUE) 37
MEAT INSPECTION 37
QUALITY GRADING 38
YIELD GRADING 38
QUALITY GRADES OF MEAT AND POULTRY 38
IMPORTANT QUALITY SIGNS IN MEAT: 38
MEAT STORAGE 39
MEAT HANDLING 39
AGING MEAT 39
AGING METHODS: 40
MARBLING 40
KEY TERMS 41

INTRODUCTION TO BEEF IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION 43

BEEF QUALITY GRADES 44

BEEF QUALITY GRADES (CONTINUED) 44
USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF BEEF 44
USDA PRIMAL CUTS BEEF CHART 45
CLASSIFICATION OF THE BEEF FAMILY 45
USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF BEEF (EXPLAINED) 46
FABRICATING BEEF TENDERLOIN 47
STUDY QUESTIONS 48

INTRODUCTION TO LAMB IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION 49

LAMB QUALITY GRADES 50

USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF LAMB 50
USDA PRIMAL CUTS LAMB CHART 50
USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF LAMB (EXPLAINED) 51
LAMB CUTS AND THEIR USES: 51
PRIMAL CUTS OF LAMB 52
FABRICATED CUTS PRODUCED FROM THE SHOULDER 53
FABRICATED CUTS PRODUCED FROM THE RACK 54
PREPARING LAMB LOIN ROAST 55
PREPARING LEG OF LAMB FOR ROASTING 56
STUDY QUESTIONS 57

INTRODUCTION TO PORK IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION 58

PORK QUALITY GRADES 58

USDA PRIMAL CUTS PORK 58

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USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF PORK CHART 59
USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF PORK (EXPLAINED) 59
FABRICATION PROCEDURES FOR PORK 60
PROCEDURES IN TYING PORK ROAST 61
FABRICATING PROCEDURES FOR PORK CHOPS 62
STUDY QUESTIONS 62

INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION 63

USDA QUALITY GRADES FOR POULTRY 64

USDA CHICKEN CHART 64
POULTRY, MARKET FORMS, AND CLASSIFICATION 65
MARKET FORMS OF POULTRY ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
IMPORTANCE IN THE DIET 65
CLASSIFICATION OF WHITE AND DARK MEAT POULTRY 65
QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS 65
STORAGE 66
TOOLS NEEDED FOR FABRICATING POULTRY 66
TRUSSING POULTRY 66
TRUSSING POULTRY (CONTINUED) 67
HALFING A CHICKEN FOR GRILLING OR ROASTING 68
STUDY QUESTIONS 68

BUTCHERY/CHARCUTERIE 69

HISTORY 69
CURED MEATS 70
RAW CURED PRODUCTS 70
COOKED CURED PRODUCTS 70
SAUSAGES 71
FULLY COOKED SAUSAGES 71
RAW SAUSAGES 71
COOKED SAUSAGES 72
SAUSAGE MAKING 72
EQUIPMENT 73
PROCEDURE 73
SELECTING INGREDIENTS 73
GRINDING AND MIXING 73
STUFFING 74
THERMAL PROCESSING 74
PROCEDURES FOR SMOKING POLISH SAUSAGE: 74
PROCEDURE FOR SMOKING SUMMER SAUSAGE: 75
PROCEDURE FOR MAKING COOKED SAUSAGE: 75
FOOD SAFETY GUIDELINES 75
STUDY QUESTIONS 75

STUDENT LABORATORY FABRICATION CHART 76

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Course Name:
Meat and Seafood Identification and Fabrication

Learning Objectives:
Upon reading assignments, lecture materials, and observing demonstrations by
completion of this course, students should be able to:

 Define the term “meat” and “seafood” and their uses.

 Know the composition of meat and bones.

 Identify basic meat & seafood species with preparation methods.

 Know primal, sub-primal, and fabricated cuts from beef, pork, and lamb.

 Know USDA quality grades of beef, pork, lamb, and poultry.

 Explain proper storage criteria of meat, poultry, and seafood.

 Perform basic meat fabrication techniques to create roast, separate muscle, and
perform basic fabrication methods for seafood.

 Trimming and trussing meat and poultry.

 Know the meat grinder setup and grinding methods of meats.

 Vacuum packing, weighing, and labeling all fabricated meats and seafood.

 Describe and implement proper sanitation techniques and proper HACCP procedures
for handling meats, poultry, and seafood in a kitchen setting.

 Complete costing of meat portions using a butcher’s yield test.

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Evaluation

Upon completing the Meat Fabrication and Identification course, you will be graded
according to the following:

Method of Evaluation Criteria Grade Mix

Daily Performance Knowledge 20%
Assigned reading and home research
Equipment
Principles and concepts
Terminology

Skills
Knife skills/knife sharpening and use of steel
Listening and comprehension
Organization and timing
Safety

Professionalism
Attendance
Uniform code
Mise en place (Put in place/ Having everything
ready)
Teamwork/ Interpersonal Communication
Sanitation

Fabrication Skills 10%

Skill Performance Basic fabrication fundamentals
Storage and refrigeration temperatures

Knowledge 10%
Identification Knowledge Species identification
Freshness check
Specifications
Written Exams Knowledge 60%
Assigned reading
Sanitation
Equipment
PowerPoint
Terminology
Meat preparation

Total 100%

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Tardiness/Absence
Students are expected to arrive on time in clean and fully dressed uniforms and toque
ready for class each day. Students are expected to have stations set up and Mise en place
upon arrival to class. Students not present at role call will be considered tardy. Tardiness
will result in point deduction of 30% of daily performance points accumulated during the
three-week block. If students are tardy one hour, it’s considered an absence of class for
one day.

Tardy = 30% loss of points for the day

3rd Tardy = 1 Absence
3rd Absence = Course failure

Reading Assignments
Woosong Culinary Academy Practical Handbook
 Seafood Identification and Fabrication
 Meat Identification and Fabrication

Audiovisual Laboratory and Facilities

 Demonstration Room: 11th floor of the Woosong Tower
 Woosong Culinary Arts Center
 Woosong Tower 10th, 11th, and 12th floor classrooms
th
 Butchery Laboratory 12 floor of the Woosong Tower

Video Laboratory
 Sanitation is Not an Option. It’s Mandatory.
 Knife Care and Sharpening
 Seafood Fabrication
 Fish Fabrication
 Shellfish and Crustacean Fabrication
 Poultry Fabrication

PowerPoint Presentations
 Introduction to Seafood Identification and Fabrication
 Introduction to Meat Identification and Fabrication

Note: PowerPoint presentations will be given everyday prior to practicals.

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SANITATION IN THE BUTCHERY
Sanitation is important when it comes to raw and uncooked food products. As a future
food service professional, sanitation starts as soon as you get up in the morning. The
basic routine of taking a shower, brushing your teeth, trimming your fingernails, and
cleaning your ears will lower and minimize the risk of transferring bacteria to raw,
uncooked, and cooked foods at the workplace. Upon arriving to the butchery, students are
required to wash their hands using soap and warm water, as this will lower the number of
bacteria on the hands and on food products. It is important to wash hands after using the
restroom, blowing and handling hair, eggs, animals, dirty equipment, and different raw
meats. This will lower the number of bacteria to a safe level. You cannot see or smell
bacteria, which is why it’s important to practice the necessary sanitation procedures to
ensure that all fresh meats fabricated in the butchery laboratory are safe and un-
adulterated.

PREVENTING CROSS-CONTAMINATION OF FOODS

 Store raw meats separate from cooked foods or produce at all times.
 Never store raw meats above cooked foods or produce.
 Clean and sanitize cutting boards with a 200 ppm chlorine bleach solution after
cutting raw meats and before cutting cooked meats and produce.
 Clean and sanitize all utensils after handling raw meats and before handling
cooked meats and produce.
 Keep raw meats separate from cooked meats during grilling.
 Wash hands before and after handling raw meats.

The butchery facility tools and equipment are to be kept clean and sanitized ready for
use. Your chef instructor will give you information, safety instructions, and show proper
cleaning methods for each machine.

Color-coded cutting boards are to be used in the butchery at all times, as this will
prevent cross contamination. Please refer to the table below.

Red Board Meats

Blue Board Fish
Yellow Board Poultry
Green Board Vegetables
White Board All purpose

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Floors and sinks in the laboratory are to be kept clean at all times. The sink and drain
should be clean of waste. If equipment is used, clean and wash immediately to allow
others to use it and to avoid messiness. Floors should be swept, scrubbed, and kept free of
food, waste, and liquids to prevent slips or falls and rodent outbreaks.

Trash and recycled goods in the butchery are to be taken out every four hours; waste
containers are to be washed with soap, bleach, and water. Waste containers are to have
double liners at all times.

HAND WASHING PROCEDURES

1. General Procedure
Lather hands with soap and warm water for a minimum of 15 to 20 seconds.
Rinse hands with warm water for 20-30 seconds.
Wipe hands dry with paper towels and dispose.

2. Restroom Procedure
Lather hands with soap and warm water for a minimum of 20 seconds.
Scrub under fingernails and between fingers.
Rinse hands with warm water.
Lather hands with soap and warm water for a minimum of 15 to 20 seconds.
Rinse hands with warm water 20 to 30 seconds.
Wipe hands with paper towels and dispose.

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THREE-BAY SINK SANITATION PROCEDURES
1. Wash, rinse, and sanitize the sinks and the sideboards.

2. Pre-wash items before placing them in the sink.

3. Wash in the first sink with soap and a water temperature of no less than 49°C
(120°F).

4. Rinse in the second sink using clear water at no less than 49°C (120°F).

5. Sanitize in the third sink for at least one minute with a water temperature between
24°C (75°F) to 49°C (120°F).

6. Air dry.

When the soap disappears in the first sink, or when soapsuds remain in the second sink,
or water temperature cools, it is necessary to drain the sink or sinks and refill them

LARGE & SMALL EQUIPMENT SANITATION PROCEDURES

1. Scrape any foods off the item to be washed.

2. Scrub item with soap and water (water temperature should be no less than 49°C
(120°F).
Note: Use gloves if necessary.

3. Rinse item with clear water at no less than 49°C (120°F).

4. Wipe the item with sanitizing solution.

5. Air dry on drying rack.

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HOBART MEAT GRINDER AND VACUUM MACHINE ASSEMBLY

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NOTE: All cleaning instructions for heavy equipment will be shown by your Chef
Instructor.

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INTRODUCTION TO SEAFOOD IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION
Fish and seafood on a high scale play an important role in the culinary arena. As
future foodservice professionals, you will learn the basic principles of receiving,
identifying, fabricating, and storage methods for fish and seafood in a limited
production setting. This course, Seafood Identification and Fabrication, will be
introduced through lectures, audiovisual presentations, and hands on work
experience in a real production kitchen.

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 CHAPTER 1

CLASSIFICATION OF FISH

Zoological Classification

 Cartilaginous (non-bony) fish:

The cartilaginous fish comprise of about 500 species, including the sharks and rays.
 Bony fish:
About 95% of all species of fish belong to this class. The largest of these are tuna,
which can grow up to 2 meters long and weigh up to 300 kg.

Classification by Origin

 Freshwater fish
 Saltwater fish

Classification by Fat Content

 Oily fish: High activity fish that have high amounts of oil embedded in their flesh,
which give a darker colored flesh. Example: salmon and blue fin tuna.
 Lean fish: Medium to low activity fish that contain little amounts of oil in their flesh,
which give a lighter colored flesh. Example: halibut and Dover sole.

Classification by Skeletal Types

 Round fish: Have a backbone at the top and swim up right with two fillets on each
side. Round fish can be filleted using an up and over method or straight method.
 Flatfish: Have a backbone that runs through the center of the fish with two upper and
two lower fillets or two full fillets.
 Note: Flatfish start out as round fish, but adapt to their environment and feeding
needs. As the fish matures, it turns onto its side, forms brown pigmentation, and both
eyes migrate to one side becoming a flatfish.

IMPORTANCE OF FISH IN OUR DIET

Fish are low in fat and have a loose cell structure. Myotomes are muscle fibers in fish
shorter than meat’s, which are more tender and easier to digest.
Myocommata is connective tissue between muscles fibers in fish, which are thinner,
stronger, and more flexible while the fish is still alive. Cooking breaks down the
Myocommata, which make it very fragile and easier to digest.

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Nutritional Content of Finfish Muscle blocks called Myotomes are separated
by connective tissue called myosepta.

Protein 15% to 23%

Fat 0.8% to 2% and up to 16%
Carbohydrate 1%
Water 75%
Mineral 1% to 1.5%

Vitamins in fish include vitamins A, D, E, Thiamin (B1), Riboflavin (B2), and Niacin (B3).
Minerals include iron, calcium, selenium, iodine, and zinc.

ACTIVITY LEVELS OF FISH

Low activity fish - Low oil content with light colored flesh.
Medium activity fish - Slightly higher oil content than low activity fish with ivory or
darker colored flesh.
High activity fish - Highest oil content with dark colored flesh.

NOTE: Nutritional content can be slightly different form type and activity level of
certain fish.

EVALUATING FRESHNESS IN FINFISH

 Skin should be shiny, have good natural color, and not faded. It should be moist to
touch. Slime should be clear.
 Eyes should be full and bulging, shiny and clear; it should not be broken, cloudy, or
sunken in.
 Gills should be bright red and sweet smelling; it should not be muddy and gray.
 Flesh should respond to pressure when pressed with fingertips.
 Overall smell should resemble a cucumber or fresh sea air; it should not be offensive.
 Belly should be cleanly gutted and fresh smelling; any blood residue should be bright
red.
 Viscera in whole fish should be well rounded; a fish that has been dead for some time
will have lost their obvious contours.
 Portion cuts should have a clean-cut appearance with no leathery traces of yellowing
or browning around the edges.

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STORAGE FOR FINFISH
Fish are highly perishable protein and need to be handled with care. To keep a fish in
prime condition, remove the viscera (internal organs of a fish) and drain out as much
blood as possible; this will eliminate a large source of bacteria. This procedure, followed
by properly icing the fish, will prolong and ensure quality and freshness.

Note: The digestive enzymes in most fish are extremely powerful; the “gastric juices”
quickly attack the walls of the body cavity if the fish is not dressed immediately.

Fresh fish should be kept on ice in perforated draining pans under the correct
refrigeration temperature of -1°C to 1°C (30°F to 34°F). Iced fish must be checked daily
to ensure melted ice is replaced and accumulated water is discarded.

Round Fish: Ice should be placed inside the visceral cavity, the fish should simulate an
upright swimming position to prevent water accumulation, and ice should be below and
on top of the fish covering the fish completely.

Flat Fish: The same method is used as the round fish but the flat fish is kept in a 60
degree angle with its pigmented side facing up to prevent water accumulation.

Fish Fillets: Fillets should be kept on stainless steel perforated pans or in plastic
containers lined with parchment paper, covered with plastic wrap, and placed on shaved
ice. This procedure will ensure proper circulation and temperatures are kept and keep
fillets in prime condition.

STORAGE TEMPERATURES
Smoked Fish: 1°C to 2°C (34°F to 36°F)

Caviar: -1°C to 1°C (30°F to 34°F) buried and covered in ice.

Mollusk: 4°C to 6°C (39°F to 43°F) placed in a gastronome covered with a moist cloth.

Crustacean: 6°C to 10°C (43°F to 50°F) placed in a perforated gastronome to allow

circulation and covered with seaweed or a moist cloth. Crustaceans can also be kept in an
aerated tank with correct pH water.

HANDLING OF FINFISH
Fish are delicate and need to be handled as little and carefully as possible. Whole fish and
fish fillets must be handled with both hands, similar to cradling, to prevent the flesh from
breaking.

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ANATOMY OF FINFISH

COMMON FIN ANATOMY

 Dorsal fin – Located on the upper region of the fish.
 Anal fin - Located on the rear lower region of the fish.
 Pectoral fin – Located slightly under the gill plate.
 Pelvic fin – Located on the lower front region of the fish.
 Caudal fin – Tail fin (rear of the fish).
 Adipose fin– Located between the dorsal and caudal fins.

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Common Fin Anatomy

Round Fish: Fish with eyes on both sides of the head.

Caudal fin Backbone Dorsal fin

Gill plate

Tailbone Intra-muscular bones

Visceral cavity Pectoral fin
Anal fin
Pelvic fin

Flatfish: Eyes on one side of the head (Pigmented side).

Caudal fin Backbone Dorsal fin

Gill plate

Anal fin
Pectoral fin

Pelvic fin
Intramuscular bones Visceral cavity

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MARKET FORMS OF FISH

Whole or round fish -

As caught: body is intact.

Drawn fish - Viscera

(Internal organs) are removed.

Pan-dressed - Viscera and gills are

removed; the fish is then scaled and
fins and tail are trimmed; head can
be left on if desired.

Steaks - Cross-section slice with a

small section of backbone attached;
Usually prepared with larger round
fish as well as some large flat fish.

Fillets - The outsides of the fish

are removed, intact, boneless, or
semi-boneless.

Butterflied fillet - A pan-dressed fish

(boneless) cut in the shape of an open
book or butterfly. The back attaches
the two sides of the fish.

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KEY TERMS FOR FISH
Aquaculture: Growing fish in ponds, ocean farms, or weirs. Examples: salmon, trout, and
halibut.
Anadromous: Fish that leave salt water to spawn in fresh water. Example: salmon.
Catadromous: Fish that leave fresh water to spawn in salt water. Example: river eels.
Barbel: Threadlike, sometimes ragged attachments of various sizes on the jaws of bottom fish. A
whisker-like organ near the mouth found in some fish. For example: carp and catfish.
Cephalopod: A class of mollusk that includes octopus, squid, and cuttlefish. It’s the most
biologically advanced of all mollusks. All cephalopods share two common characteristics:
tentacles attached to the head and ink sacks are used to evade their predators.
Crustacean: One of two classifications of shellfish, crustaceans have elongated bodies and
jointed soft (crust like) shells. They include barnacles, crab, crayfish, lobster, prawn, and shrimp.
Mollusk: The second classification of shellfish, the other being crustacean, mollusk are
invertebrates with soft bodies covered by a shell of one or more pieces.
Gastropod: Often referred to as a univalve, a gastropod can be any of several mollusks with a
single univalve shell and single muscle. Among the more common gastropods are the abalone,
snail, and whelk.
Invertebrate: Animals with no backbone.
Fillet: A boneless side of fish (skin optional).
Score: To make a shallow cut usually in a diamond pattern on surfaces of meat or fish. This is
done for flavor absorption and for even cooking.
Escalope: A French term for a very thin, flattened piece of meat or fish; a tender escalope
requires a few seconds of sautéing on both sides.
Goujon: A French word for finger size cuts of fish usually for coating and frying.
Goujonette: Smaller size than a goujon.
Tranche: A 45-degree bias slice from a fish fillet.
Molting: When crustaceans shed their shell for growth. The shell then calcifies.
Myotomes: Muscle fibers found in fish.
Myocommata: Connective tissue found between muscles fibers in fish, which are thinner,
stronger, and more flexible while fish are still alive.
Pave’: A “tile” or square cut of even thickness cut from a fillet.
Paupiette: A small rolled fillet usually stuffed from a quarter fillet of a flat fish.
Viscera: The internal organs of a fish.

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FILLETING ROUND FISH

Round fish are filleted two ways:

 Straight method
 Up and over method

Straight method – Intended for fish that have soft rib cages like salmon and trout.
Up and over method – Intended for fish that have hard rib cages like cod and snapper.

Up and Over Fabrication Procedures for Round Fish (Red snapper)

Fresh fish, alive, or dead are available on the market. In the case of live fish, it is
important to know the basic knowledge of how to kill a fish fast and as painless as
possible, and fabricate the product for further use.

Killing and Dressing a Fish

The first step in killing a live fish is with using a hard object like a wooden fish bat or
sharpening steel. With a moist towel cover the fish’s head and eyes. Hit the fish hard over
the head to kill the fish instantly if done correctly. Starting from the anal cavity cut in a
straight line to the head and be sure not to damage the fish’s organs. The digestive
enzymes in most fish are extremely powerful and the “gastric juices” quickly attack the
walls of the body cavity. This also eliminates bacterial contamination. Under cold
running water, remove the fish organs and rinse the fish well from any blood. In a clean
sink, scale the fish using the backside of a knife working your way from the tail end to
the head. Be sure you check your work by rubbing you hand over the fish to make sure
all the scales have been removed.

TOOLS AND STATION SET-UP

 Honing steel
 Chef’s knife
 Filleting knife
 Boning knife
 Fish scale remover
 Side towel
 Blue cutting board

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UP AND OVER FILLETING METHOD

Scale and remove the viscera from the fish.

Using a flexible fillet knife, begin to cut down
to the backbone behind the gills leaving the
head intact. Turn the knife toward the tail;
parallel to the backbone and begin a clean cut
following down the whole length of the fish.

Starting from the back of the head, use the

fish’s rib bones as a guide by gently using
smooth strokes with your knife along the fish's
bones. When you have reached the backbone
of the fish, be sure not to damage any flesh,
this takes a little time and practice.

Continue to cut along the rib bones until the

whole side of the fillet is released. Turn the
fish over and repeat the same process. If you
are using a fish with low levels of oil, reserve
bones for fish stock or fish fumet. If desired,
skin may be removed from the fillet.

Your fish fillets should be boneless. Check your work by rubbing your fingers along the
center of the fillet. If there are any pin bones, remove by using needle nose pliers or fish
tweezers. Be sure not to bend the fillets for they are delicate. Use both hands to prevent
the flesh from breaking.

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STRAIGHT METHOD

When using the straight filleting method, it is necessary you have a knife longer than the
width of the fish. You should be able to see the tip of the knife when filleting. This will
avoid injury to you and create a nice product.
1. Place the salmon on a clean cutting surface close to the edge. Using a chef’s knife, make a
bias cut towards the gill plate until you hit the backbone of the salmon.
2. Using a smaller knife, turn the knife towards the tail and begin cutting about 12cm. Remove
the smaller knife and replace it again with your chef’s knife. Cut along the backbone holding
the belly with your forefingers to prevent any damage.
3. Keep your eyes focused on the point of the knife to manage progress.
4. When you have cut the length of the belly cavity, reposition your hand so that the knife is
behind your hand and free the one side of the salmon, repeat the same process on the
remaining side.
5. Now that the one side of the salmon is freed, you will need to remove rib bones.
6. Using a flexible filleting knife, position the knife so that it’s behind the rib bones and cutting
in one direction removing the bones.

1 2

3 4

5 6

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Straight Method (Continued)

7. Once the rib bones have been removed, trim any excess belly and any fins that still reside on
the salmon half.
8. Using a pin bone remover, begin to remove the inter-muscular bones from the salmon. These
are called pin-bones.
9. Now you have achieved a boneless salmon fillet, the skin of the salmon may be removed if
desired or left on for texture on a dish.

7 8

FILLETING FLAT FISH INTO FULL FILLETS

FILLETING METHODS FOR FLAT FISH

 Two full fillets

 Four quarter fillets
 Smaller flat fish can be pan-dressed
 Larger flatfish can be cut into steaks

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Place the flatfish on a clean cutting board and hold firmly. Remove the head by using a chef’s
knife pressing firmly making a diagonal cut on the opposite side of the gill plate. Pull the head
away from the body and remove the viscera. Rinse the fish under cold water removing any blood
and viscera from the cavity of the fish. With the dark side of the fish facing upward, use a sharp
knife to make a clean cut along the backbone from head to tail.

Turning the knife slightly at an angle, use the pin bones as a guide to smoothly cut along the rib
bones cutting over the backbone freeing the fillet from the fish. Remove the opposite fillets using
this same method.

SKINNING FILLETS

Place the fish on a clean cutting board with the skin side down. Using a towel, grip the skin
tightly with the other hand moving in a sawing motion cutting the skin clean from the flesh,
starting from the tail. Cut between the flesh and the skin angling the knife down toward the skin.

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CRUSTACEANS
Crustaceans are one of two classifications of shellfish; crustaceans have exoskeletons and
jointed legs with a soft (crust-like) shell. Crustaceans need to molt because as a crustacean grows,
its exoskeleton does not. Molting is a process in which a crustacean’s shell turns soft to allow for
growth and a new shell to form by calcification. The basic groups of crustaceans are lobster,
crayfish, crab, and shrimp.

STORAGE
6°C to 10°C (43°F to 50°F) placed in a perforated gastronome to allow breathing and
circulation, cover with seaweed or moist cloth. Crustaceans can also be kept in an aerated
tank with pH correct water.

SHRIMP
Shrimp are usually categorized by color:

 White (Herbivore)
 Brown (Omnivore)
 Pink (Omnivore)
 Black tiger (Omnivore)

SHRIMP PURCHASING TERMINOLOGY

 Green- Shell on, uncooked, and head on or headless.

 PUD- Peeled and undeveined.
 P+D- Peeled and deveined.
 PDQ- Peeled, deveined, and quickly frozen.
 IQF- Individually quickly frozen; can be any of the above forms.

FABRICATING SHRIMP
There are different methods for fabricating shrimp depending on the cooking style and
method you choose to use. The first step is to check for freshness. Smell and appearance
are also key in determining if the shrimp is fresh. The smell of fresh shrimp or fresh
frozen shrimp should resemble fresh sea air. The shell should be full of color, clear, and
should not have any whitish spots that are caused by freezer burn.

26
FABRICATING SHRIMP (CONTINUED)
Peeling and deveining shrimp are basic preparation methods. The tail portion of the
shrimp is often left on for presentation though it is said it is better to remove to avoid
injury to the customer.

 Grip the shrimp tail between your thumb and forefinger. Using your other hand, hold the
shrimp, gripping the legs and the edge of the shell.
 Begin pulling the shell away from the shrimp's body leaving the first joint intact with the
tail.
 Using a paring knife, make a shallow cut down the backside of the whole length of the
shrimp exposing the vein or digestive track. Under cold running water, remove the vein.
If the vein is not removed, it will cause bitterness to the shrimp.

Note: Deveining shrimp can also be done by using a bamboo skewer by placing the tip of
the skewer vertically through the bottom part of the shell to the tail; pull and release the shell
from the flesh.

1 2 3

4 5 6

27
LOBSTER

There are several species of lobster. Lobsters belong to the phylum Arthropoda. They are
classified in the subphylum Crustacea. All lobster live in the salty waters of the ocean.

Of 30 or so species of clawed lobsters in the world, the American lobster most closely
resembles its European cousin, Homarus gammarus, though the western Atlantic lobsters
have more robust tearing and crushing claws. In France, this lobster is called homard; in
Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, it is called a hummer.

Lobsters are invertebrates; they do not have an internal skeleton to give their body
support and shape. Lobsters have an exoskeleton; an exoskeleton is a hard outer covering.
The exoskeleton does not grow with the lobster. As the lobster grows, the lobster will
molt or shed its shell for growth and then the new shell calcifies. During molting, the
lobster has very little protection, so it is vulnerable to predators and must hide. Most
lobsters will stay hidden during molting.

Lobsters have a great sense of smell. Since they do not have a nose, they must use their
antennae to pick up odors. Their sense of smell is what lobster fisherman use to lure
lobsters into traps. Lobsters are also very curious animals so lobster fisherman are always
setting up traps in new areas and designing new lobster traps.

Maine is the largest provider of American lobsters for local and export markets.

Note: Not all lobsters have a crusher claw on the same side. Those having it on the right
are considered "right-handed" and the others are "left-handed."

SIZES OF AMERICAN LOBSTERS (PURCHASING TERMS)

 Chicken- 1 lb. or less.

 Quarters- 1 to 1 ¼ lb.
 Primes- 1 ½ to 1 ¾ lbs. (Most common size).
 Culls- only have one claw lost by aggressive behavior, less expensive.

Note: Lobsters are harvested in the fall. Lobsters should be received alive and used as
quickly as possible. Lobsters consume themselves if kept for an extended period of time.

Spiny Lobsters

Spiny lobster, Panulirus Argus, is clawless and found in more southerly waters. It is a
distant relative of the American lobster. Sometimes called crayfish, crawfish, rock
lobster, or langouste. This lobster has a spine-studded shell and long antennae but no
large front claws. Instead, the heavily armored antennae can inflict a tearing wound when
the lobster thrashes them like a whip against an opponent.

28
FABRICATING LOBSTER (SPLITTING A LOBSTER)
Place the live lobster on a
cutting board piercing its head
with the point of a chef’s knife.
This should kill the lobster
instantly making the lobster
easier to work with.

With a smooth stroke pushing

firmly, cut through the under
shell toward the anterior portion
of the lobster then toward the
posterior portion of the lobster.

Using your hands carefully

crack the lobster in half, this
procedure might require a little
force. Crack the claws of the
lobster using the back of your
chef’s knife.

Remove the sand sack located at

the head of the lobster along
with the intestinal track, which
is located at the posterior, and
abdomen area on the lobster.

The roe, which are the eggs of

the female lobster, is noticeable
by its dark green appearance. If
you are baking your lobster, it’s
best to leave the roe. The roe is
full of flavor and normally used
for making sauces.

29
MOLLUSKS
Mollusks are grouped into two categories:

Gastropods
 Univalves- Snails, Conch, and Abalone (Single shelled)
 Bivalves- Clams, Oysters, Scallops, and Mussels (Two shells joined by a hinge)

Cephalopods
 Squid, Cuttlefish
 Octopus

All gastropod bivalves sold commercially must be tagged by law in accordance with the
National Shellfish Sanitation Program; these tags state the origin, date of harvest,
producer, and other important information needed to trace a specific source of shellfish in
case of a health emergency, and these tags are to be kept for 60 days.

RECEIVING AND STORAGE FOR MOLLUSK

All live mollusk bivalves when received must be in the original bag/box and have tags; if
tags are not present, it is best to refuse the shipment. If receiving mollusks without the
shell, they must be packed in a sealed container and dated, packed in ice, the container
must be opened, and product must be inspected for freshness and proper temperature.

Mollusk should be kept refrigerated at 4˚C to 6˚C (39˚F to 43˚F).

Bivalves should be kept in the original bag or placed in a gastronome pan with a damp
towel to cover. Scallops should be weighed down to prevent the shellfish from opening
and drying out.

Cephalopods should be cleaned and kept in a sealed container labeled, covered, and
packed in flaked ice.

Blue mussel Squid

Bivalve Cephalopod

Gastropod Bivalves

30
OYSTER
4 MAIN VARIETIES OF OYSTERS

 Atlantic - Smooth lipped (Blue Point and Apalachicola).

 Pacific – Smaller and jagged lipped (Olympia).
 European Flat - Wider and flatter shell (Belon).
 Japanese (Kumamoto) - Small, deep, and jagged shell.

Oysters are a culinary delight. The most common way to serve oysters are opened in the
half shell. Fresh oysters should be served on a bed of crushed ice.

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

Raw oysters should be eaten while they are still alive. Oysters should be tightly closed, full
bodied, and briny. They should fill the whole shell which should contain a small amount of ocean
water. They are sold by size. Classification varies depending on variety and where the oyster is
farmed.

CHECKING FOR FRESHNESS

Press the shell together to observe any motion that indicates if the oyster is alive. If the shell
doesn’t springs back after pressing a few times, it means the oyster is dead and should be
discarded.
Spoiled oyster has a displeasing and offensive smell usually detected after the oyster has been
opened. The liquid of the oyster should be clear, not milky. Oysters should always be cleaned by
using a scrubber under cold running water and kept in refrigeration covered with a damp towel
until needed.

SERVING OYSTERS
Classical service: Oysters are served with a lemon wedge, chili sauce, horseradish, or a traditional
classic mignonette.

Atlantic oyster Kumomoto oyster

Pacific oyster

Olympia oyster

European Flat oyster

31
PREPARING OYSTERS IN THE HALF SHELL

Rinse the oyster using a brush under

cold running water. Check your work
to make sure all the mud and any
sand is rinsed off.

Hold the oyster firmly with the hinge

part of the shell in the palm of your
hand.

Note: By using a towel to hold the

oyster, the hands will be protected.

Run the oyster knife around the lip of

the shell in a circular motion up
against the under side of the shell.

Push the blade of the oyster knife

using a little force between the shells
near the hinge, this can require a
little force; be sure not to damage
any flesh and shell.

When you have reached the muscle,

cut it releasing both sides of the
shell.

Open the oyster clearing any broken shells or mud that might be around the edges. Using your
oyster knife, flip the oyster on the opposite side and it’s ready to serve. Keep oysters refrigerated
until ready to serve.

32
CEPHALOPODS
Cephalopod (meaning "head-foot") are regarded as one of the most intelligent of the
invertebrates and have well developed senses and large brains. Cephalopods are found in
all the world’s oceans at all depths. All cephalopods inhabit all marine environments,
with no freshwater cephalopod species. Cephalopods are strictly carnivorous and possess
a hard beak used for defense and eating their prey. Most species of cephalopod hunt for
prey while some species scavenge for food.

The basic cephalopod body consists of a body, head, and foot. A muscular bag called the
mantle contains the cephalopod’s organs. The mantle has assumed many of the protective
functions served by a shell in other mollusks. The cephalopod’s head contains the brain
and sense organs. The foot, consisting of grasping appendages called tentacles, number: 8
in octopuses and 10 in squids. Cephalopods usually have three hearts. Two hearts pump
blood to the gills and one central heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body. Cephalopod
blood is blue because it binds oxygen using a blue and copper containing protein called
hemocyanin. Human blood is red because the oxygen-binding protein hemoglobin
contains iron.

COMMON CEPHALOPODS

 Squid, Cuttlefish
 Octopus

33
FABRICATING CALAMARI SQUID

Firmly grasp the squid head and tentacles and

pull to remove the gut from inside the squid.

Cut the tentacles away below the eyes and

discard the internal organs. Wash the tentacles
well under cold water to remove the small shell
pieces in the suckers.

Pull firmly to remove the ‘quill’ (transparent

cartilage) from inside the body.

Remove the skin by holding the body firmly

with one hand. With the other hand pull the skin
firmly to remove – pulling at the caudal fin is
the best place to start.

The body can be left whole, cut into rings, or

scored into square cuts. Cooking methods may
include all dry and moist heat cooking methods.

34
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain the differences between an anadromous and aatadromous fish?

2. Name five fins found on finfish.

3. When purchasing fish, list six market forms commonly available.

4. What are eight signs to evaluate when checking for freshness in finfish?

5. What are two styles of filleting methods used for round fish?

6. What are the proper storage procedure for round and flatfish?

7. Why are activity levels important when measuring the amount of fat in fish?

8. What finfish bones are good for stock and why?

9. What does the term molting?

10. What is the correct refrigeration temperature and storage procedure for crustaceans?

11. Mollusks are grouped into two categories; list both categories and give examples.

12. What are bivalve mollusks?

13. What are the four main types of oysters?

14. Why, by law, must you keep tags for mollusks for 60 to 90 days?

15. What are the most common cephalopods used in the culinary arena?

16. What is the average portion weight for finfish?

17. What are cartilaginous fish? Give some examples.

18. What are Myotomes? Explain.

19. List four vitamins found in fish.

20. Why do you think fish play an important roll in the human diet?

35
 MEAT
IDENTIFICATION
AND
FABRICATION

WOOSONG CULINARY ACADEMY

36
 INTRODUCTION TO MEAT IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION

THE TERM “MEAT”

Meat is defined as parts of animals fit for human consumption. This includes muscles with the
attached tissues, fat, and variety of meats (Offal).
PROCESSED MEATS
Meat and meat products that have been preserved through a process of salting, smoking, drying,
roasting, cooking, or canning. Sausages, bacon, canned meats, and meat marinades are few
examples. All food products derived from meat are subject to government regulations.
Inspection mark on processed products

BASIC SPECIES OF MEAT

 BEEF / VEAL
 PORK / HOG
 LAMB
 POULTRY
 GAME (Hunted)

MUSCLE COMPOSITION (LEAN MUSCLE TISSUE)

 72% Water
 20% Protein
 7% Fat
 1% Minerals Individual fibers & fiber bundles Blood vessel Connective tissue

MEAT INSPECTION
Meat inspections are subject to federal (USDA), state, and local inspections to maintain the
quality and safety and to ensure all sanitary laws and regulations are followed.
Meat inspections are to ensure that all meats and cured meats have met the federal inspection
requirements for wholesomeness. Inspections occur by the (USDA) United States Department of
Agriculture before, during, and after the animal is slaughtered. (Antemortem and Postmortem)
Inspected meats and carcasses that meet federal inspection standards are marked with a stamp of
approval by the USDA, which identifies the slaughter plant of origin and meat fabricating plant
for further cuts. The USDA federal inspection stamps are found on Primal cuts, processed meats,
and canned, and vacuumed value cuts of meat. Offal’s (variety meats) are also subject to
government inspections.
Example inspection stamp

37
QUALITY GRADING
Quality grading is a voluntary system in which meat plants pay to have its meat graded. This
judges the palatability of meat that you may purchase. The age of the animal, bone, fat content,
marbling, and color are all key points in choosing quality meat grades.
Example quality grade stamp

YIELD GRADING
Yield grading is a voluntary system, which measures the amount of salable meat and fat to bone.
This system is numbered 1-5, 1 holding the leanest and 5 holding high amounts of fat; Numbers
2-3 are good for specs on meat items. Beef and lamb carcasses are commonly yield graded.

Example yield grade stamp

QUALITY GRADES OF MEAT AND POULTRY

Beef Veal Lamb Pork Poultry

 Prime  Prime  Prime  1  A

 Choice  Choice  Choice  2  B
 Select  Good  Good  3  C
 Standard  Standard  Utility  4
 Commercial  Utility  Cull  Utility
 Utility
 Cutter
 Canner

IMPORTANT QUALITY SIGNS WHEN CHOOSING MEAT:

 Color: Should be light red; light color indicates more tenderness and flavorful cuts of meat.
Dark cuts of meat indicate course muscle fibers, which are the result of tough meats.
 Fat: Firm, white, glossy, smooth feel, not rough or yellow, which indicates an older animal.
 Bone: Show signs of age; more marrow and cartilage indicates a younger animal.
 Marbling: Evenly distributed fat throughout the lean muscle tissue.

38
MEAT STORAGE

Meat products are highly perishable and must be handled as little as possible. Maintaining quality
during storage depends on personal hygiene of the chef and the sanitary conditions of the
operation.

Meat and meat products must be kept refrigerated at all times up until ready to use. The meat
refrigeration should be kept at a temperature of 0°C to 2°C (32°F to 35°F) with humidity of about
82 to 85%. If the air is too dry, the meat will shrink and lose volume; if the air is too moist, lime
will cover the meat and spoil it.

Meat should be stored and separated by type and placed on sheet pans always below cooked
items, which will prevent cross-contamination to occur. Vacuum packed meats should be kept on
sheet trays with one single layer; never stacked or layered to ensure proper refrigeration and
circulation of the meat product.

Because meat has a high moisture content, all meat will shrink even under ideal storage
conditions. For this reason, meat is quickly portioned and vacuum packed (Cryovac) until needed.
This method has proven to be successful for veal and beef but has not significantly extended the
shelf life of pork. Vacuum packing must be combined with refrigeration to protect meat from
spoiling. All packaged meats should be properly labeled with the date, meat contents, and weight.
Vacuum packing is recommended when freezing meat, as this will prevent freezer burn.

MEAT HANDLING
Refrigeration should be constant to safeguard all meat and meat products. Meat should be
handled as little as possible with bare, dry hands and never with wet hands as this will cause lime
to form on the meat’s surface and cause rapid spoilage.

AGING MEAT
When animals are slaughtered, their muscles are soft and flabby. Within 6-24 hours, rigor mortis
sets in causing the muscles to contract and stiffen. Rigor mortis dissipates in 48-72 hours while
under refrigeration. All meats should be allowed to age or rest long enough for rigor mortis to
dissipate.

39
AGING METHODS: Wet Aging - Dry Aging

Aging causes the muscle fibers of meat to become tender; the meat is therefore more easily
digestible and will contain more flavors. Enzyme activity starts as soon as the animal has been
slaughtered. Enzymes break down glycogen to simple sugars and convert them into lactic acid.
Lactic acid enhances flavor in meat and reduces bacterial growth.

Wet Aging
The process of vacuuming sub-primal cuts of meat, usually from the sedentary muscles of a beef
carcass, up to 10 days. The palatability is similar to dry aging but taste and texture can differ in
some aspect. Meats that have been wet aged may taste somewhat bloodier than from dry aged
meats which have a more firm texture and savory flavor.

Dry Aging
The process begins with premium choice loins (sedentary muscles), hung in a climate and
humidity controlled room. The beef is aged for a minimum of 21 days. During this process, a
crust forms on the outside of the loin, very similar to the texture of dried beef. This layer of dried
crust is trimmed away, leaving steaks that are superior in tenderness and flavor. During the dry
aging process, the juices are absorbed into the meat, enhancing the flavor and making the meat
very tender.

MARBLING
Marbling is the small white streaks of fat located within lean muscle tissue. The fat is deposited
unevenly throughout the muscles in the beef, with more appearing towards the neck and less
towards the tail. This is why the rib eye, which comes from the front quarter of the beef, has more
marbling than round steak, which comes from the round.

There are three USDA quality grades of beef available at the retail level: Prime, Choice, and
Select. These grades are based on marbling with Prime having more marbling than Choice, which
has more marbling than Select.

IMPORTANCE OF MARBLING

Marbling is used to indicate expected palatability or eating satisfaction of meat. Research

indicates that marbling has a very positive effect on the eating quality of some cuts; particularly
the loin cuts such as the rib eye and T-bone. Higher levels of marbling correlate to better flavor
and juiciness. You can cook well-marbled beef to a higher degree of doneness and still maintain
moisture.

40
KEY TERMS
Antemortem: Before death.

Barding: Tying thin slices of bacon, such as bacon or pork fatback, over meat or poultry that
have little or no natural fat covering them in order to keep moisture during a roasting or braising
process.

Brine: Water, containing salt and seasonings, used for curing meats. Dry, wet, and injections are
most common forms of brining.

Carcass: A slaughtered and eviscerated animal.

Cartilage: White, soft, and undeveloped bone.

Chateaubriand: Beef cut from the thick portion of the tenderloin.

Chine Bone: Split vertebral column (backbone).

Collagen: A protein found in connective tissue. Collagen breaks down into gelatin or water when
cooked in moist heat.

Connective Tissue: Tissue which supports and binds other tissues in the lean meat of a carcass.

Cured: Meat products infused with salt and spices to enhance flavor, color, and preserve the
product for long shelf life.

Dress: To trim or otherwise prepare an animal carcass for consumption.

Dry Aging: To hand fine quality grade beef in a temperature and humidity controlled room for
aproximatly 21 days until the meat forms a crust. The crust is then trimmed away. The result is
tender and flavorfull meat.

Elastin: A protein found in connective tissues, particularly ligaments and tendons; it often
appears as a white or silver covering on meats known as silver skin.

Emincé: Thinly sliced meat intended for à la minute dishes.

Eviscerate: Removal of internal organs from an animal.

Fabricated Cuts: The individual portion cuts from a sub-primal cut, portioned and ready to
serve.

Featherbones: Bone protruding from the backbone between the neck and the loin muscle of an
animal.

Larding: Inserting thin slices of fat, such as pork fatback, into low-fat meats to keep moisture
during cooking.

41
Marbling: Fat found within lean muscle tissue; In other words, meat with intramuscular fat.

Medallion: A small, round scallop of meat.

Muscle: Animal tissue consisting of bundles of cells of fibers that can contract or expand; they
are that portions of the carcass which are usually consumed. (Meat)

Myoglobin: Pigment found in meat that gives it its red color.

Offal’s: Internal edible organs of an animal.

Primal Cut: Primary divisions of muscle, bone, and connective tissue produced by the initial
butchering of a carcass. Primal cut are rarely cooked; they are usually reduced into sub-primal.

Protein: A nutrient that are important building blocks of the body and fuel sources. Foods of
animal origin are the best source high-quality, complete protein because they contain 8 essential
amino acids in the proportions necessary to build, maintain, and repair the body tissues and
strengthen its defense mechanism against infection and disease.

Postmortem: After death

Rind: Skin of pork.

Escalope: Thin cuts of meat used for sauté; sometimes flattened or pounded.

Subcutaneous Fat: This is the fat layer between the hide and muscles, also known as exterior fat.

Silver Skin: A tough connective tissue that surrounds certain muscles.

Sinew: Tendonous ends that connect muscle to bone.

Sub-primal Cuts: The basic cuts of meat produced from each primal cut. Sub-primal cuts can be
cooked whole if desired or divided into further fabricated parts.

Tenderloin: A very tender cut of meat from the loin of the hind quarter.

Tendon: A string-like part of the body, which joins a muscle on to a bone.

Tournedos: A cut from the tenderloin at its third thickness, just after the fillet steak.

Truss: To tie meat and poultry into a compact shape with butchers twine before cooking.

Wet Aging: The process of vacuuming sub-primal cuts of meat, usually from the sedentary
muscles of a beef carcass, up to 10 days.

42
 INTRODUCTION TO BEEF IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION
This chapter will guide you to the basic concepts of fabricating beef in a limited production
setting. You will learn hands-on how to fabricate sub-primal cuts of beef into portioned fabricated
retail cuts.

Beef

The domestication of cattle for food dates to about 6500 B.C. in the Middle East. Cattle were not
native to America, but brought to the New World on ships by European colonists. Americans
weren't big eaters of fresh beef until about 1870, due to the enormous growth of the cattle
industry in the West. The introduction of cattle cars and refrigerated cars on the railroad
facilitated distribution of the beef.

43
BEEF QUALITY GRADES

Meat inspection is mandatory; quality grading is a voluntary system. Meat plants pay to have
meat graded. USDA graded beef sold at retail levels are Prime, Choice, and Select. Lower grades
(Standard, Commercial, Utility, Cutter, and Canner) are mainly ground or used in processed meat
products.

USDA Prime beef has fatter marbling, so it is the most tender and flavorful. However, it is higher
in fat content. Most graded beef sold in supermarkets is USDA Choice or USDA Select. The
protein, vitamin, and mineral content of beef are similar regardless of the grade.

BEEF QUALITY GRADES

 Prime
 Choice
 Select
 Standard
 Commercial
 Utility
 Cutter
 Canner

USDA FOUR STANDARD PRIMAL CUTS OF BEEF

 Chuck
 Rib
 Loin
 Round

44
 USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF BEEF CHART

The short loin and sirloin together are called the “Long Loin” which include the ribs and are
known as sedentary muscles. Sedentary muscles are located along the backside of the beef that
indicate fine muscle fibers. Fine muscles indicate tender meat. The chuck, brisket, shank, short
plate, flank, and round are known as “motion muscles” which are the exercised muscles of the
beef that contain course muscle fibers and tougher meat.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE BEEF FAMILY

Calf: Known as veal, is the baby of a cow family. Its tender meat is highly priced.

Bullock: A young bull that has been castrated.

Heifer: Young cows or cows before their first calving also known as veal.

Bull: Is the male animal of the cow family.

Steer: Is a bull that has been castrated. Steers are principally raised for their meat.

Cow: Female animal of the cow family which is raised for production of milk and reproduction.

45
USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF BEEF
Forequarter

Chuck:
The chuck contains portions of the backbones, featherbones, blade bone, and front leg
bone and contains 5 rib bones on each side. Sub-primal cuts include square cut chuck
roast, shoulder clod, plate, brisket, and fore shank.

Rib:
This primal cut includes rib No. 6-12 as well as portions of the backbone and
featherbones. When further fabricated, the rib produces short ribs, prime rib roast, bone
in or boneless rib eye steaks. The rib contains the highest percentage of marbling
compared to the rest of the beef carcass. Recommended cooking methods include all dry
heat cooking methods.

Hindquarter

Loin:
The loin contains rib No. 13 and portions of the backbone. This small primal cut can
yield several sub-primal and fabricated cuts, which are amongst the most tender, popular,
and most expensive cuts such as: strip loin, tenderloin, T-bone, porterhouse, and NY
steaks. Recommended cooking methods include dry heat cooking methods. Sub-primal
cuts include sirloin bone in or boneless, tenderloin, flank steak, strip loin bone in or
boneless, and short loin.

Round:
The round contains portions of the pelvic bone, leg bone, and hind shank bones on each
side. Sub-primal cuts include the shank, heel, knuckle, top round, eye round, and bottom
round. Cooking methods may include dry and moist heat cooking.

46
FABRICATING BEEF TENDERLOIN

Carefully cut the top layer of fat, using your boning knife and discard. Using your hand and
fingers, rub down the natural seams, clearing the chain muscle; using the hand and knife does
establishes procedure. Begin to cut the tenderloin following the natural seams, removing the
chain muscle.

After the removal of all visible fat along the tenderloin, the connective tissue on the surface of the
tenderloin called silver skin (Collagen) must be removed. Silver skin appears as a whitish-silver,
tough covering surrounding individual muscles. Silver skin must be removed on all dry cooked
meats.

Remove all visible silver skin.

Diagram of beef tenderloin

47
STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What is the proper storage and refrigeration temperature of beef and meat
products?

2. What are the three retail grades of beef?

3. What are important principals for aging meats?

4. What are four prospectives you look for when choosing quality meats?

5. What is the difference between wet aging and dry aging meats?

6. What are the retail grades for lamb?

7. What are the retail grades for pork?

8. What sub-primal cuts are attained from the beef loin?

9. What are processed meats?

10. Name the 4 primal cuts of beef?

11. What are the sedentary muscles on a beef carcass?

12. What is marbling and why is it important when cooking meats?

13. What is the composition of lean muscle tissue?

14. Which fabricated cut can be attained from the beef sub-primal short loin?

15. What are the three sections of the beef tenderloin?

16. Name the sub-primal cuts from the beef primal chuck.

17. Name sub-primal cuts from the beef primal round.

18. How do you determine the beef forequarter from the hindquarter?

19. What meat products do you find Federal USDA inspection stamps on?

20. What is the purpose for yield grading?

48
 INTRODUCTION TO LAMB IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION

Lamb

Lamb meat is the meat of sheep slaughtered when they are less than 12 months old.
Spring lamb is young lamb that has not been fed grass or grains. Because lamb is
slaughtered at such an early age, their meat is almost always tender. Mutton is the term of
lamb older than 12 months and has a distinctive and strong flavor from that of sheep. In
many countries, fresh lamb is domestically produced and imported from major lamb
producers in the U.S.A., Australia, New Zealand, Scotland, England, and France.

49
LAMB QUALITY GRADES

 Prime
 Choice
 Good
 Utility
 Cull

USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF LAMB

 Shoulder
 Rack
 Loin
 Leg

USDA PRIMAL CUTS LAMB CHART

50
USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF LAMB

Forequarter

The Shoulder: The shoulder includes five rib bones on each side, the neck bones, blade
bones, and portions of the arm bone. Sub-primal cuts include the fore shank, neck, Square
cut chuck boneless. Recommended cooking methods; all dry heat.
The Rack: The rack includes eight ribs bones on each side and a portion of the
backbone. Sub-primal cuts include the rack (split and with chine removed) and the breast.

Hindquarter

The Loin: The loin includes rib No. 13 on each side and backbone on each side. Sub-
primal cuts include split trimmed loin, boneless loin (eye muscle), and tenderloin.

The Leg: The leg includes portions of the back, pelvic bone, leg bone, and the hind
shank and lower shank bones on each side. Sub-primal cuts include the heel, knuckle, eye
round, bottom round, sirloin, and top round.

LAMB CUTS AND THEIR USES:

Leg  First quality: Rare roasts, lamb steak, and boneless leg for a la minute
dishes. Second quality: Stews or braised lamb.

Saddle  Rare roasts

Loin  A la minute dishes (chops), rare roasts
Rib  A la minute dishes (rib chops), rare roasts
Tenderloin  A la minute dishes, rare roasts

Shoulder  Roasts and stews

Breast  Stews, grilled, or pan fried specialty
Neck  Stews

51
PRIMAL CUTS OF LAMB

7,
6

Double Shoulder Breast ribs (Denver style)

Double Rack Double Loin

Double Leg Leg (Pelvic bone removed)

52
FABRICATED CUTS PRODUCED FROM THE SHOULDER
Using a meat or ban saw split the shoulder in half. Remove the neck and reserve, along
with the rib and backbone leaving the front leg bones. After the bones are removed, front
leg bone chops of about (2 cm) thickness are produced, leaving no more than (6mm) of
fat. (See picture below).

The shoulder when boneless can be cut into cubes for stew meat, or if tied, is used as
shoulder roast.

Lamb shoulder, boneless Lamb shoulder, boneless and tied

The lamb foreshank is removed by a cut

from the shoulder exposing the arm bone
and removed from the brisket by a cut
through the natural seam. The foreshank
should be cut above the knee.

53
FABRICATED CUTS PRODUCED FROM THE RACK

The lamb rack is the most popular cut. Using

a meat or ban saw cut the ribs measuring
from the eye to about 7.5 cm.

Turn the rack over; use a boning knife to cut

along both sides of the featherbones until
both the meat and bone are separated.

Turning the rack over using a meat saw in an

angle, cut between the ribs and chine bone.
Cut until the ribs and meat are fully
separated.

Using a boning knife and one hand, pull the

fat layer and cut along the natural seam to
remove the cover.

Make a perpendicular cut through the fat, 2-5

cm from the eye trimming away all the fat on
both sides of the rack. Make a cut between the
rib bones scraping the meat and fat off by
using the blade of your boning knife. The ribs
should be clean and have a smooth
appearance.

Trim the rack leaving a fair amount of fat for

flavor and to protect the meat during cooking.
If desired, the rack can be cut up into lamb
chops.

54
 PREPARING LAMB LOIN ROAST
To prepare a lamb loin roast, follow the same procedure as in step one and two of the
lamb rack procedure. The next step is to remove the backbone (chine bone). Using a
boning knife cut down the backbone between the tenderloin and vertebrae separating
them, but leaving them intact.

Carefully remove the backbone leaving

the whole loin intact. Reserve the
backbone for stock.

Turn the loin so the fat side is facing

up. Trim the loin leaving a fair amount
of fat about 1/4 of an inch (6mm).

Roll the flank flaps from each side of

the boneless lamb loin fairly tight. Tie
the loin roast with butcher’s twine,
demonstrated by your Chef Instructor.
Now the lamb loin is ready for
roasting.
roasting.

55
PREPARING LEG OF LAMB FOR ROASTING
The first step of preparing a lamb leg is to remove the pelvic bone (H-bone). Using a
boning knife, cut around the pelvic bone and release the pelvic bone from the ball joint
socket. Remove the bone completely. Trim away any connective tissue and fat. Remove
the shank portion of the lamb leg, using the blade of your boning knife; scrape the bone
of any meat cleaning the bone. Flip the top round covering the ball socket of the leg bone
and tie with butchers twine. This makes the lamb cook evenly.

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

10

56
STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What are the four primal cuts of lamb?

2. Which primal two cuts make up a forequarter?

3. When preparing a leg of lamb for roasting which bones need to be removed?

4. How many rib bones are there in a rack of lamb on each side?

5. List all bones located in the primal cut shoulder?

6. List all bone located in the primal cut leg?

7. List five quality grades of lamb?

8. Name two sub-primal cuts produced from the lamb primal, the rack.

9. Name two sub-primal cuts produced from the lamb primal, loin.

10. Name two sub-primal cuts produced from the lamb primal, leg.

57
 INTRODUCTION TO PORK IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION

Pork is the meat from hogs. Hogs are usually butchered before reaching the age of 12
months. Pork is leaner and healthier due to advances in animal husbandry and is
generally very tender with a delicate flavor.

PORK QUALITY GRADES

 1
 2
 3
 4
 Utility

USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF PORK

 Boston butt
 Shoulder
 Loin
 Belly
 Fresh ham

58
USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF PORK CHART

Loin
Boston butt/Picnic ham

Fresh ham

Belly/Spar ribs

Shoulder

USDA PRIMAL CUTS OF PORK

Boston butt: The Boston butt when smoked is called cottage/picnic ham; this primal cut
has a high percentage of bones to meat. Fabricated cuts include the neck, blade chops,
shoulder steaks, and roast.
Loin: The loin includes portions of the blade bone on the shoulder end and the hipbone
on the hip end as well as ribs. The loin produces loin roast, tenderloin, baby back ribs,
boneless, or bone-in pork loin chops, and rib chops.
Leg: This primal cut includes portions of the hipbone, leg bone, and hind foot bones. The
leg produces knuckles; shank and ham roast (bone in or boneless).
Shoulder: The shoulder includes portions of the front leg bone and fore shank bones; this
primal cut produces foreshank, shoulder chops, and roast.
Belly: This primal cut produces bacon and spareribs.

59
FABRICATION PROCEDURES FOR PORK

There are a few sub-primal and fabricated cuts produced from the pork loin. Sub-primal
cuts include: pork tenderloin, boneless loin, center cut, and baby back ribs. The fabricated
cuts produced from the pork loin are boneless loin chops, center cut pork chops, and
tenderloin medallions. If you choose, you may remove the baby back ribs and you are left
with a boneless pork loin after removing the backbone, blade bone, and chine bones.
Fabricated Choice of cuts might include boneless loin chops, loin roast, and escalope. In
this section, you will learn how to fabricate pork loin, pork tenderloin, portioning, and
trussing. Your Chef Instructor will demonstrate the proper procedures in de-boning and
fabricating pork shoulder, Boston butt, cuts produced from the pork loin, preparing and
tying a loin roast, and trimming pork tenderloin.

Place the pork loin rib side up on a

clean cutting board. Using your
boning knife, remove the tenderloin
located on the sirloin end of the loin,
which is on the opposite side from the
ribs.

Turning the loin around on the rib end,

grip your boning knife with the point
facing down, and begin removing the
ribs. Cut as close to the bone as
possible using the ribs as a guide until
the loin and ribs are completely
separated.
On the shoulder end of the loin located
on the rib side, remove the blade bone
by using the point of your boning
knife. Stay as close to the bone as
possible preventing any unnecessary
waste, this may take some time.

On the ham end of the loin, remove

portions of the hipbone following the
same procedures as the blade bone.

The pork loin should be fully de-

boned and should have portions of the
blade bone, hipbone, the full rack of
ribs, and tenderloin. Reserve the ribs
and tenderloin for another use. The
pork loin is ready for roasting or
further fabrication.

60
PROCEDURES IN TYING PORK ROAST

There are many theories on why it is

important to tie meat or poultry before
roasting. The facts are that meat or
poultry will keep its form and will cook
more evenly if tied. The first step is to
cut the loin in half or portion desired.
Trim the loin leaving a fair amount of
fat; this is for flavor and to keep the
loin from drying out during roasting.
Using butcher’s twine, make a double
knot.

Make a loop with the butcher’s twine

sliding it over the roast 1 inch and 2.5
cm from the first knot. Continue the
same procedure through the whole
length of the loin roast and be sure to
leave a 2.5 cm gap between each knot.

Turn the roast on the opposite side with

the string still attached. Leave enough
string to wrap it lengthwise around the
roast. Wrap the butcher’s twine firmly
under each loop shown on the opposite
side. Follow this procedure throughout
the whole length of the loin.

Turn the roast back over, tie off where

you made your first loop. Your loin is
ready for roasting.

61
FABRICATING PROCEDURES FOR CENTER CUT PORK CHOPS

Starting with a whole pork loin, separate the sirloin end from the rib end by using a sharp
cleaver or boning knife. Make a straight cut down with your knife against the 1st rib on
the sirloin end; remove the sirloin and reserve for roast or boneless chops. Trim the pork
loin rack leaving a fair amount of fat to retain moisture during cooking. Placing your
knife against the right side of the rib bone make a straight cut down, using the rib bones
as a guide.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Name the 5 primal cuts of pork.
2. What is the Boston butt called after being cured and smoked?
3. What sub-primal cuts are attained from the loin?
4. What muscles are located in the pork fresh ham?
5. What fabricated cuts are achieved from the pork center cut?

62
 INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY IDENTIFICATION AND FABRICATION

Poultry

Poultry is a domestic fowl farmed for both its meat and its eggs. As a descendant of wild
fowl, poultry have lived in the jungles of primeval Asia centuries ago. Poultry, in
particular the chicken, emerged as the most popular type of meat being used in recipes
around the world. In this chapter, you will learn fabrication techniques for a variety of
poultry. Fabrication procedures applied are applicable to all species of the poultry family.
However, this chapter will focus on the chicken because it is the most commonly used
poultry.

The word ‘poultry’ refers to commercially available and domestically raised white and
dark meat fowl. Chicken, turkey, duck, goose, guinea fowl, pigeon, and Rock Cornish
game hen are the types commonly available on the market.

63
USDA QUALITY GRADES FOR POULTRY
 A
 B Example inspection stamp
 C

DETERMINING USDA A GRADES FOR POULTRY

 Conformation: Poultry has a clean appearance and nice shape.
 Flesh: Poultry has a well-developed covering of flesh.
 Fat covering: Poultry has an even layer of fat throughout the carcass and breast area.
 De-feathering: Poultry has a clean appearance and free of pinfeathers.
 Bones: Poultry is free from broken bones and bruising.

Grades B and C poultry are usually used in further-processed products where the poultry
meat is cut up, chopped, or ground up. If sold in retail, they are usually not grade identified.

CHICKEN CHART

Wing

Breast

Breast bone (Keel) Thigh

Drum stick

64
 POULTRY, MARKET FORMS, AND CLASSIFICATION
Chicken Turkey Duck Goose Guinea fowl
 Poussin 500g /little over 1 lb.  Young hen  Broiler or  Gosling  680g / 1 ½
 Broiler 680g / 1 ½ to 2 lbs. 3.63 to 9.98 kg / 8 fryer 2.72 to 4.53 / 6 to lbs. and
 Fryer 1.13 to 1.59 kg / 2 ½ to 3 ½ to 22 lbs. 910 to 1.81 kg / 10 lbs. smaller.
lbs.  Yearling turkey 2 to 4 lbs.
 Roaster 1.59 to 2.3 kg / 3 ½ to 5 lbs. 4.53 to13.6 kg / 10  Roaster
 Stewing hen 1.59 to 2.72 kg / 3 ½ to to 30 lbs. 1.81 to 2.72 kg /
6 lbs. 4 to 6 lbs.
 Capon 2.3 to 3.63 kg / 5 to 8 lbs.

Drumsticks Drumsticks Legs Legs Legs

Thighs Thighs Breasts Breasts Boneless,
Breast Breasts Smoked breasts Smoked breasts skinless
Wings Smoked breasts Liver Liver breasts
Whole legs Boneless breasts
Boneless breast Breast cutlets
Breast cutlet Rolled roasts
Tenderloin Turkey ham
Liver Liver

IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY IN OUR DIET

Poultry meat, especially the white meat of young birds, is easy to digest. Generally, poultry meat
is low in fat (duck, goose, and boiling fowl are exceptions). The skin is high in fat. Poultry meat
is high in protein, minerals (iron, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium), and vitamin A and
vitamin B-complex.

CLASSIFICATION OF WHITE AND DARK MEAT POULTRY

 White meat poultry: chicken, Rock Cornish game hen, and turkey.
 Dark meat poultry: guinea fowl, duck, goose, and pigeon.

The difference between white and dark meat poultry is a result of the blood content and the
coloring of the meat. Coloring changes with age; younger fowl have lighter meat than older fowl
(leg and thigh have darker meat than breasts).

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS
Young poultry has less connective tissue and fine muscle fibers than that from older fowl. Good
quality poultry should be plump and have bold flesh with a broad breast and small amount of
evenly distributed fat.
Note: Poultry meat should be fully cooked to the internal temperature of 74°C (165°F) to limit
the danger of salmonella contamination.

65
STORAGE
Refrigerate fresh poultry at 1°C to 3°C (34°F to 37°F) at a relative humidity of 70 to
75%. Under such conditions, poultry can be stored for up to seven days. Poultry must be
immediately drawn when killed.
Frozen poultry should be stored at -18°C to -22°C. Thaw frozen poultry in the
refrigerator on racks with drip pans beneath. Dripped liquid should be discarded carefully
to prevent salmonella contamination. Refrigeration should never be interrupted when
storing poultry.

TOOLS NEEDED FOR FABRICATING POULTRY

 Poultry shears
 Boning knife
 Chefs knife / French knife
 Honing steel
 Butchers twine
 Poultry board (Yellow)

TRUSSING POULTRY
Trussing poultry is an important and basic preparation; this procedure will keep the bird moist,
cook evenly, and keep a uniform shape during the roasting process. There are many methods in
trussing poultry; in this section you will learn a quick and easy way to truss a chicken ready for
roasting.

66
TRUSSING POULTRY
Trussing poultry is basic; this method of procedure will keep the bird moist, cook it evenly, and
keep it a nice shape during the roasting process. There are many methods of trussing poultry; in
this section you will learn a quick and easy way to truss a chicken ready for roasting.

1. Remove the neck of the chicken by using poultry shears or chef’s knife. Cut and remove the
wing by cutting between the 2nd and 3rd joints. Follow the same procedure on the opposite side. 2.
Cut a piece of butchers twine about 75 cm long. Using your hands, push the skin of the chicken
towards the neck so the skin covers the breast and neck opening. 3. Slide the butchers twine under
the tail and bring the string straight up. Cross the string bringing it over the chicken’s legs. Bring
the butcher’s twine up forming and ‘x’, crossing over and under the first leg joint of the chicken.
4. Pull the butcher’s twine firmly, making a compact shape. Pull the twine tightly under both legs
and around under the shoulder bone. Make several loops with the string to prevent slipping and
tie knot. Your chicken is ready for roasting. You may rub the chicken with olive oil and spices
before roasting.

67
HALVING A CHICKEN FOR GRILLING OR BROILING

This procedure is done to prepare a chicken for broiling or grilling. 1. Place the chicken breast
side down on a clean cutting surface. Grip the tail with your thumb and forefinger, pulling the
chicken up. 2. Using a sharp boning knife, cut along the backbone by pushing firmly down and
pulling the tail. Place the chicken flat on the cutting board, using a chef’s knife, cut through the
ribs releasing the backbone from the chicken. 3. Using your fingers, carefully follow the outline
of the breastbone (Keel bone), separating the meat from bone. 4. Cut the collagen membrane and
gently pull the breastbone releasing it from the bird. 5. Using a chef’s knife, cut the bird in half
separating it in two halves.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Classify poultry by color.
2. Name three types of white meat in poultry?
3. Name three types of dark meat in poultry?
4. What are the quality characteristics of poultry?
5. What is the proper storage temperature and humidity for poultry?

68
BUTCHERY AND CHARCUTERIE

A BRIEF HISTORY
The origin of meat processing is lost in antiquity but probably began when mankind learned that
salt was an effective preservative. The first reported importation of salted meat was in the first
century from Gaul and the Romans may have been the first to trade charcuterie for they had laws
that controlled the makings of pork joints. They also had the earliest butcher shops where
carcasses were hanged and dressed. In London, the earliest butchers have been recorded to
975AD, when the butchers used to meet regularly at the Butcher’s Hall located in various parts of
the city. The French have also had record of controlling their production of charcuterie. They
traded traditional cooked or salted and dried meats, which varied from region to region. Sausage
making evolved as an effort to economize and preserve meat that could not be consumed fresh at
slaughter. In sausage making, quality standards are maintained while using most parts of the
animal carcass.

Good sausage makers are as discriminating about what goes into sausage as winemakers are
about selecting grapes. Early sausage makers found that a wide range of raw ingredients could be
used. The primary ingredients of sausage were the parts of the animal carcasses that could not be
used in other ways. Today, many primal parts are used in the production of sausage; however, the
less tender cuts, organ meats, and even blood can be made deliciously when ground, spiced, and
cased. The procedure of stuffing meat into casings remains basically the same today, but sausage
recipes have been greatly refined and sausage making has become a highly respected culinary art.
Any product can be made from a wide range of raw materials exposed to rather extreme
conditions of temperatures and time schedules and be consumer acceptable.

Sausage grew in popularity quickly and brought fame and fortune to many sausage makers and
various cities. Today, more than 250 varieties are sold and many of these can be traced back to
the town and country of origin. Sausage is a convenient food available in a great number of
varieties and flavors.

The contemporary role of sausage fits conveniently into our modern lifestyles as an elegant
appetizer for entertaining as well as the main course in "quick-and-easy" meals. Furthermore,
sausages are a relatively safe product to consume because of the added effects of salt, pH, curing,
drying and cooking to preserve the product and eliminate harmful bacteria.

Sausages are an excellent source of high quality protein containing all the essential amino acids in
appropriate amounts necessary for growth, maintenance, and repair of body tissue. Sausage also
provides significant amounts of vitamins and minerals.

69
Cured Meats

In the past, curing was an essential means of protecting meats from spoilage. Today curing is
more prized for the variety it provides in meats than for its means of preservation. Curing
removes moisture from the meat, which helps to preserve it. The pickling salts also stabilize the
red color in the muscle. Butchers call this process rubefacient.

In dry curing, the meat is rubbed with a mixture of dry salt and spices. A natural brine forms after
a short time.

In brine curing, salt and spices are dissolved in liquid, and the meat is submerged in the solution.

In quick curing, brine made with salt and spices is injected into the meat or veins. Some hams are
massaged after the injections to distribute the brine more evenly in the muscles. The protein
dissolves, holds the parts of formed hams together when cooked, and keeps the slices from
braking.

Many products are not only salted but also smoked to improve further preservation. In cold
smoking, temperatures should not exceed 25°C (77°F). An example is bacon. In hot smoking,
temperatures should be about 70°C to 80°C (158°F to 176°F). An example is cooked sausages. A
number of cured and smoked products are listed below.

RAW CURED PRODUCTS

Product Meat Ingredients Preparation
Dry-cured and very slowly air-
Parma ham Whole pork leg
dried in Italy
Coppa Pork neck Dry-cured, air-dried
Bacon – Speck Pork breast, loin, shoulder Dry-cured, cold-smoked
Beef, hind quarter cuts, ex.) bottom Dry-cured, very slowly air-dried
Buendner fleisch
round, top round in Switzerland

Smoked beef – Mostboeckly Beef, hind quarter cuts Dry-cured, cold smoked, air-dried

COOKED CURED PRODUCTS

Product Meat Ingredients Preparation
Injection-cured, poached, and
Molded hams Pork leg pieces
possibly smoked
Injection-cured, poached, and
Shoulder ham Pork shoulder
possibly smoked
Brined or injection-cured, smoked,
Ham Whole hind leg
and poached
Breakfast bacon Pork breast Brine or injection-cured, smoked
Ham hocks Pork hocks Brine-cured, cooked

70
SAUSAGES

Sausages are divided into three groups: fully cooked, partially cooked, and raw. Most spoil easily,
with the exception of some cured sausages. It is absolutely essential to keep them refrigerated at
all times. The surface of cut sausages discolors quickly. Seal the cut with plastic wrap. Most
sausages have a relative high fat and salt content.

FULLY COOKED SAUSAGES

Sausages can be made from beef, veal, pork, lamb, poultry, wild game, or from any combination
of these meats, with the addition of back fat, rinds, ice, salt, pickling salts, and spices. The meats
are ground, mixed well, forced into casings, and portioned. Most fully cooked sausages are
smoked and practically all are cooked before they are sold. They are chilled in cold water to
prevent shrinkage. All fully cooked sausages should be refrigerated at 6°C (42.8°F).
Smoked fully cooked sausages include cervelat, Vienna (Frankfurter), and others. Vacuum
packed, they keep for about ten days. Packed to be frozen, they can be stored for eight weeks.
Un-smoked sausages include veal bratwurst, chipolatas, and Weisswurst. Because they spoil more
rapidly than smoked sausages, they can be kept no longer than five days refrigerated and up to
eight weeks frozen.
Raw sausages include links, green sausages, Appenzeller, and raw bratwurst. They are highly
perishable because they have been neither cooked nor smoked. They should be cooked within two
days and cooked before they are frozen.
Aufschnitt (cold cut) is a type of specialty sausage that is not stuffed into hog or sheep casings but
in special large casings and poached or baked in forms. They must be refrigerated and used as
quickly as un-smoked sausages.

RAW SAUSAGES
To make raw sausages, beef or pork is ground with back fat to the desired consistency. Then,
pickling salt and spices are added and mixed well. In contrast to poached sausages, no ice is
added. These sausages must be dried to be palatable; some are also smoked to hasten the process.
The drying process can take several weeks, during which the sausage generally loses about one
third of its weight. This type of sausage should never be frozen.
Smoked or dry sausages, for example, salami, pepperoni, and beef jerky, can be kept un-
refrigerated for a few weeks but should be stored at 10°C to 12°C (50°F to 53.6°F).
Cured sausages spreads, for example, Mettwurst and Teewurst, contain large amounts of fat and
must be kept refrigerated at all times.

71
COOKED SAUSAGES
Many cooked sausages are very similar to terrines. Some ingredients may be either cooked or
sautéed before being mixed with other ingredients. Variety meats are often used for this type of
sausage, for example pork liver for liver sausage. The mixture is usually ground very finely and is
stuffed into an artificial or natural casing or into a dish and poached.
Headcheese and similar products are made from cooked meats and mixed with aspic, placed into
an artificial casing, and chilled.
Black (blood) sausages, liverwurst, headcheeses, terrines, and other aspic specialties are all
categorized as cooked sausages. They are highly perishable and must be kept refrigerated at 1° to
2°C (33.8°F to 35.6°F) and should be used immediately.

SAUSAGE MAKING
Sausage making has become a unique blend of old practices and new scientific, highly
mechanized processes. Traditionally, sausage was formed into a symmetrical shape, but it now
can be found in a variety of shapes and sizes to meet consumers' needs. Many sausage products
are vacuum packed with freshness dated and 100% edible.

72
EQUIPMENT
Sausages require a grinder, chopper (blitz) or Gunter, stuffer, a good meat thermometer, and some
general kitchen equipment such as a steam kettle to poach the sausages and a smoker to make
excellent sausage.

PROCEDURE
Sausage making is a continuous sequence of events. Each step in the proper sequence is important
to a successful operation.
It is not practical to consider each step separately or to assign more importance to one phase or
operation, but for convenience and illustration, we can break sausage production down into four
basic processes: selecting ingredients, grinding and mixing, stuffing, and thermal processing.

SELECTING INGREDIENTS
The finished product is only as good as the ingredients it contains. Meat should be fresh, high
quality, have the proper lean-to-fat ratio, and have good binding qualities. The meat should be
clean and not contaminated with bacteria or other microorganisms. In other words, meat used in
sausage production should be as safe as any meat you would prepare in your kitchen. Selecting
spices and seasonings and combining them in proper amounts is important. They must
complement each other to create a satisfying product.

Cure, an essential part of some formulations, is sodium nitrite (usually 6%) on a salt base. It
usually can be purchased at a local locker plant. Sodium nitrite is essential to inhibit production
and growth of the deadly toxin produced by the microorganism Clostridium botulinum. It also
gives the characteristic cured color to a sausage product and improves flavor. Commercial
products such as Freeze Em Pickle, Tender Quick, and Saltpeter can be found in markets and at
drugstores. If these are used, be sure to follow directions on the packages.

GRINDING AND MIXING

For safety and best emulsifying result, keep the temperature of the meat as cold as possible during
grinding and mixing. The usual procedure is to grind the various meats coarsely and then add the
rest of the ingredients, mixing thoroughly.

Slurry is made of the spices and salt using two cups of water. (Water is added to dissolve the
curing ingredients, to facilitate the mixing, and to give the products their characteristic texture
and taste.)

The product is then ground again to the desired consistency. Mixing should be done before the
final grind. Grinding improves the uniformity of the product by distributing the ingredients and
making the particles the same size. Unless you have special equipment, it is desirable to work
with small batches (up to 25 lbs.) 11.34 kg, so the cure and seasoning can be more evenly
distributed. If you don't have a grinder, buy ground meats, add the seasonings, and mix
thoroughly by hand.

73
STUFFING
It is not necessary to stuff fresh sausage meat. It can be left in bulk form or made into patties.
Placing the ground ingredients in some type of forming device to give them shape and hold them
together for thermal processing however makes up most sausage. The casing materials may be
natural or manufactured. Natural casings are the gastrointestinal tracts of cattle, sheep, and hogs.
Generally, hog casings are the most suitable for home use and work quite well for Polish and
breakfast-type sausages. They are digestible and are very permeable to moisture and smoke.

All casings preserved in salt must be soaked in lukewarm water for at least 30 minutes before use.
Flush each casing under cold water, running cold water through the casing. This removes excess
salt from the casing. Unused casings can be drained, covered with salt, and frozen.

Fibrous casings are more suitable for summer sausage and similar products because of their
greater strength and the variety of sizes available. They are permeable to smoke and moisture and
can easily be removed from the finished product. These casings should be soaked before use in
27°C to 38°C (81°F to 100 °F) water for at least 30 minutes, but not for more than four hours
before use. If the casings are not pre-stuck, they should be punctured with a knifepoint or pin to
eliminate air and fat pockets in the finished sausage.

Collagen casings contain the attributes of both natural and fibrous casings. They have been
developed primarily for use in products such as fresh pork sausage and pepperoni sticks. They are
uniform in size, relatively strong, and easy to handle. These casings also are used for the
manufacturing of dry sausages because they are permeable and will shrink.
For cooked products that are generally water-cooked like (braunschweiger), plastic casings
impermeable to water are used.

THERMAL PROCESSING
Sausage is smoked and heated in order to pasteurize it, extend its shelf life, to impart a smoky
flavor, and improve its appearance. Smoking and heating also fixes the color and causes protein
to move to the surface of the sausage so it will hold its shape when the casing is removed.
A few products, such as Mettwurst, are smoked with a minimum of heating and a designed to be
cooked at the time of consumption. Others, such as liver sausage, are cooked but not smoked.

PROCEDURES FOR SMOKING POLISH SAUSAGE:

After stuffing in hog casings (pre-flushed), let hang and dry. Smoke at 49°C (120°F) for one hour,
66°C (150°F) for one more hours, then at 77°C (170.6°F) for two hours or until an internal
temperature of 60°C (140°F) is reached. Remove from smokehouse and spray with hot water for
15 to 30 seconds. Follow with a cold shower or dip in a slush tank until internal temperature
reaches 38°C (100°F). Let dry for one to two hours. Place in a cooler.

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PROCEDURE FOR SMOKING SUMMER SAUSAGE:
After stuffing in casings, smoke at 60°C (140°F) for one hour, 71°C (160°F) for one more
hours, then at 82°C (180°F) for two hours or until the internal temperatures reach 68°C
(155°F). Remove from the smokehouse and follow the same procedure as for Polish
sausage.

PROCEDURE FOR MAKING COOKED SAUSAGE:

After stuffing the ground ingredients into an impermeable casing, put the sausage into a pan of
water. Heat water to 77°C (170°F) and hold it there until the sausage reaches 68°C (155°F). A
thermometer is essential for obtaining proper temperature. The water should not boil, as this will
ruin the product. If you are making a sausage product using cooked meat, be sure the meat was
cooked with low heat.

FOOD SAFETY GUIDELINES

Bacteria can spread throughout a work area and contaminate equipment and work surfaces. To
reduce your risk of food borne illness you should:

 Wash your hands for at least 20 seconds with soap and water before beginning to work and
after changing tasks or after doing anything that could contaminate your hands such as
sneezing or using the bathroom.
 Start with clean equipment and clean equipment thoroughly after using. Be sure all surfaces
that come into contact with meat are clean.
 Sanitize surfaces with a solution of 1-tablespoon chlorine bleach per gallon of water. Allow
to air dry.
 If using frozen meat in sausage formulations, thaw it in a cooler on the lowest shelf to avoid
dripping of juices on ready-to-eat foods. Keep raw meat separate from other foods.
 Marinate raw meat in the refrigerator.
 Keep meat as cold as possible (40 °F or lower) during processing.
 If dehydrating meat, don't rely on the dial settings. Measure the temperature of the dehydrator
with a calibrated thermometer.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Name the three categories sausages are divided into.
2. Which nutrients are sausages rich in?
3. What are the proper refrigeration temperatures for the different sausage categories?
4. What are cured meats?
5. Name three types of raw cured products.
6. Name the three types of cooked cured products.
7. Name 2 kinds of each sausage category.
8. What equipment is to be used when making sausages?

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Student laboratory meat production chart for 3-week block

Each student entering the Meat and Seafood Identification & Fabrication course will
learn hands on training using quality fish, seafood, meats, and poultry products in a
limited production setting.

1 FRESH SALMON 4 student

WEEK ONE

1 LIVE TROUT 2 student

1 LIVE HALIBUT 2 student
1 FRESH SQUID 1 student
10 FROZEN SHRIMP 1 student
500 g FRESH MUSSELS 1 student

WHOLE PORK DEMO

WEEK TWO

1 PORK LOIN 4 student

1 BEEF TENDERLOIN 4 student
1 BEEF SIRLOIN
1 BEEF FLANK 4 student
4 student
WEEK THREE

3 FRESH CHICKEN 1 student

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