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INDEX
NAME OF THE CHAPTER PAGE NO.

1. DEVELOPMENT 4 – 07

2. SECTORS OF INDIAN ECONOMY 08 - 12

3. MONEY AND CREDIT 13 - 18

4. GLOBALISATION SND THE INDIAN ECONOMY 19 - 23

5. CONSUMER RIGHTS 24 - 28

6. RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 29 - 40

7. FOREST AND WILDLIFE 41 - 47

8. WATER RESOURCES 48 - 51

9. AGRICULTURE 52 – 59

10. MINERALS & ENERGY RESOURCES 60 - 68

11. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 69 – 76

12. LIFE LINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 77 - 85

13. POWER SHARING 86 - 89

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14. FEDERALISM 90 - 97

15. DEMOCRACY AND DIVERSITY 98 - 100

16. GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE 101 – 105

17. POPULAR STRUGGLES AND MOVEMENTS 106 - 108

18. POLITICAL PARTIES 109 - 114

19. OUTCOMES OF DEMOCRACY 115 - 119

20. CHALLENGES TO DEMOCRACY 120 - 122

21. WORK, LIFE AND LEISURE 123 - 131

22. AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION 132 - 137

23. PRINT CULTURE AND MODERN WORLD 138 - 147

24. NOVELS, SOCIETY AND HISTORY 148 – 155

25. THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE 156 - 168

26. THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT IN INDO – CHINA 169 - 177

27. NATIONALISM IN INDIA 178 - 185

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DEVELOPMENT
Development Different People, Different Goals.
Different persons can have different development goals.
What may be development for one may not be development for the other. It may be destructive
for the other.

Income and Other Goals: More income; equal treatment; freedom; Job security; facilities for
family; environment (healthy & secure).

Concept of National Development

World Development Report 2006, “In 2004 countries with per capita income of Rs. 453000 per
annum are called rich or developed countries.
Those with per capita income of Rs.37000 or less are called low income countries.
Human Development Report 2006 published by UNDP, “Development is based on per capita
income, educational levels of the people and their health status.

Sustainability : The regular process without harming the productivity of future generation and
satisfy the
need of present generation.

Sustainable Development : Development without damaging surrounding.

Average Income : Total income of the country divided by its total population. Also known as
per capita income.

National Income : Sum of value of final goods produced within the country and income from
foreign factors.

Infant Mortality Rate : The number of children that die before the age of one year as a
proportion of 1000 live children born in that particular year.

Literacy Rate : The proportion of literate population in the 7 and above, age group.

Net attendance Ratio : the total number of children of age group 6-10 attending school as a
percentage of total number of children in the same age group.

EXTRA QUESTIONS
Q. 1 What is Per Capita Income? 1 Mark
Ans. It is obtained by diving national income by the population of a country i.e.
Per Capita Income = National Income / Mid Year Population

Q. 2 What is meant by ‘economic development’? Write the two basis of measuring economic
development of a country? 1 Mark
Ans. Economic development is a sustained increase in real per Capita income that promotes
economic welfare by reducing poverty, unemployment & inequalities in distribution of Income.
Two basis of measuring economic development are National Income & per Capita Income.

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Q. 3 “What may be development for one may not be development for the other.” Explain with
a suitable example. 1 Mark
Ans. The establishment of a dam leads to infrastructural development but many people have shif
ted out of the village, hence it may not be development for them. 1 Mark

Q. 4 Why is the total income of countries not used to make comparisons between them?
1 Mark
Ans. The total income of the countries is not used to make comparisons between them because
the population of different countries is different.

Q. 5 Why do you think average income is an important criterion for development? Explain.
1 Mark
Ans. It is an important criterion because it gives some idea about the rising standard of living. Pro
sperity of a country depends not only on the size of the national income but also on the number
of people who would share it.

Q. 6 Besides the size of per capita income, which other property of income is important in
comparing two or more societies? 1 Mark
Ans. Per capita income is an important but not the only criterion for development. Along with
average income, equitable distribution of income in a country should also be considered.

Q. 7 Why is the issue of sustainability important for development? 1 Mark

Ans. Sustainability is important for development because it results in
(i) protecting the people against pollution ensuring their quality of life & health.
(ii) conserving the environment which is necessary for development.

Q. 8 What is human development index HDI? 1 Mark

Ans. HDI is a composite index of achievements of a nation in terms of three important variables
that determine the quality of life. These three variables are longevity, knowledge & standard of li
ving. It is prepared by United Nations Development program.

Q. 9 Among Punjab, Kerela & Bihar, which one has the lowest infant mortality rate? 1 Mark
Ans. Kerela has lowest infant mortality rate.

Q.10 How can development be sustained in an economy? Give an example with reference to
use of resources. 1 Mark
Ans. Development can be sustained in any economy by using renewable resources such as
ground water, wind energy & solar energy.

Q. 11 Why is per capita income of different countries calculated in dollars & not in their own
currencies By the World Bank? 1 Mark
Ans. It is done in order to make comparisons of per capita income of different countries possible.

Q. 12 Kerela, with low per capita has a better human development ranking than Punjab. Hence
per capita income is not useful criterion at all & should not be used to compare states. Do you
agree? 3 Marks
Ans. It is true that per capita income is not the only criterion behind human development.
Factors like infant mortality rate, literacy rate & not attendance ratio are also very crucial for

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overall human development. In these factors Kerela is better than Punjab. However if we are
interested only in comparing two or more states in terms of production and income generated
then per capita income is an important criterion.

Q. 13 In what respects is the criterion used by UNDP for measuring development different
from the one used by the World Bank? 3 Marks
Ans. World Bank uses the criterion of per capita income (measured in dollar terms) to classify
different countries as high income or low income countries. Countries with per capita income of
Rs 4,53,000 per annum & above in 2004 are rich countries & countries which have per capita
income of Rs. 37000 per annum or less are low income countries (according to WDR 2006). But
the limitation of this criterion is that it doesn’t tell us anything about the distribution of income
in a country. UNDP uses a different criterion called human development index (HDI). HDI is a
composite index on a scale 0-1 measured on the basis of three indicators,
a) Longevity :- It is measured in terms of life expectancy
b) Knowledge :- It is measured by a combination of adult literacy & combined enrollment ratio
c) Standard of living :- It is measured by real per capita income in dollars
The country with 0 HDI will be at bottom & the one with 1 HDI will be at top. All other countries a
re in between.

Q. 14 ‘While average income is useful for comparison but it may hide disparities’. Discuss.
Ans. Per capita income is an important criterion for development is considered to be one of the
most important attributes for comparing countries but is suffers from the following limitations:
( i ) Per capita income doesn’t tell us anything about the distribution of income. A poor country
with a more equal distribution of income would be better off than a richer country with unequal
distribution of income.
( ii ) Per capita income doesn’t measure various facilities & services that influence quality of life ‘
e.g. health facilities, education facilities, equal treatment etc.
( iii ) It is effected by size of population. Even with a large national income, per capita income will
be low if a country has large population.

Q. 15 Distinguish between economic development & human development. 4 Marks

Ans.
Human Development
1. It refers to human centered approach towards development. It focuses on people &
qualitative improvement in human life.
2. It is indicated by human development index.
3. It is a under term & includes economic development also.
4. It considers human welfare should be increased through investments in education & health.
Economic Development
1. It refers to sustained increase in real per capita income that promotes economic welfare by
reducing poverty, unemployment & inequalities in distribution of income.
2. It can be indicated by national income & per capita income.
3. It is narrower term as compared to economic development.
4. It considers people can be made better off by increasing their command over goods and
services.
Q. 16 How does industrial pollution degrade the environment? Explain three measures to
control environmental degradation. 4 Marks
Ans. Industrial pollution degrades the environment in the following ways :
( i ) Air is polluted by the gases.

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( ii ) Dust, fume, mist, spray and smoke contain particles.
( iii ) Industrial effluents pollute rivers.
( iv ) Paper pulp, textiles, chemicals etc. industries pollute land & soil due to toxic materials.
Steps to control environmental degradation are:
( i ) Careful planning & setting of industries.
( ii ) Better equipment
( iii ) Proper fuel selection & utilization.
( iv ) Treatment of industrial liquids.
Q. 17 Identify the different thrust areas of human development. Which one of them plays the
most significant role in the development? 4 Marks
Ans. Human development is a human centered approach towards development. It focuses on
people. It is concerned with them and their well being, their needs, choices & aspirations.
Human development is a wider term which not only includes economic development but also
Includes development of one’s knowledge & educational capabilities as well as one’s health
conditions so that one may lead a healthy and long life. Human development aims at building of
different human capabilities so that one may make use of natural resource, have sustainable
development have better personal & social security & to ensure a decent standard of living.

Q.18 “Do the two terms –economic growth and economic development mean the same thing”.
Discuss. 3 Marks
Ans. No, they are different. Economic growth can be defined as a process whereby a country’s
real national income increases over a period of time. On the other hand economic development
is a process of long-term increase in income as well as with achieving a more equitable income
distribution and poverty alleviation. Thus economic development is a wider concept than
economic growth.

Q.19 Describe briefly four steps taken by the Indian government for raising the status of
women at par with that of men. 4 Marks
Ans. (i) Women are given the equal right to vote like those of men.
(ii) the government of India has declared dowry as illegal and now no one can force the other
party to give dowry.
(iii) To impart education to girls various schools and colleges have been opened.
(iv) Gender empowerment focuses on opportunities and participation in decision making process
and values.
(v) Women have been recognized as a separate target group in our development planning, for
raising their status at par with that of men. To achieve the above objective the National
Commission for women was set up in January 1992.

Q20 Explain two main reasons for the need of environment friendly economic growth and also
explain two suggestions to achieve them. 4 Marks
Ans. Reasons for need of environment friendly economic growth are:
(i) Present production technology has polluted atmosphere and water bodies with garbage,
Smoke and poisonous gases.
(ii) Rapid economic growth and industrialisation have led to natural resources (like fossil fuels).
Suggestions to achieve it:
(i) Increased use of renewable and clean sources of energy, less use of fossil fuels, organic
farming.
(ii) Measures to reduce global warming and global limits on carbon emissions etc.

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SECTORS OF THE INDIAN ECONOMY

Primary Sector :
When we produce a good by exploiting natural resources. It is an activity of the primary sector
also known as agriculture and related sector.

Secondary Sector :
Natural products are changed into others forms through ways of manufacturing. Also known as
Industrial sector.

Tertiary Sector :
These activities , by themselves, do not produce a good but they are an aid or a support for the
production process. Also known as service sector.

Gross Domestic Production :

The total value of final goods and services produced in each sector during a particular year
provides the total production of the sector for that year.

Rising importance of the Tertiary Sector

- In any country several services such as hospitals, educational institution, defence, transport,
banks etc. are required.
- The development of agriculture and industry leads to the development of services such
transport, banks are required.
- As income levels rise, certain sections of people start demanding many more services like
tourism, shopping, private hospitals and private schools etc.
- Over the past decade or so certain new services such as those based on information and
communications technology.

Disguised unemployment :
More people engaged in than the people required for work. People do less work than their
efficiency.

National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005

- 100 days work guarantee in year by the government.
- If government fails in its duty to provide employment. It will give unemployment allowances.
- Types of work given to improve production of land.

Organised Sector :
- Terms of employment are regular
- Registered by government
- Follows various rules and regulations
- It has some formal processes and procedures.

Unorganised Sector
- Small and scattered units which are largely outside the control of the government.
- There are rules and regulations but these are not followed.
- Employment is not secure.

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EXTRA QUESTIONS
Q1 Mention the 3 different classifications on the basis of which we divide the sectors Indian
economy.
A1 a) Primary, Secondary & Tertiary sector
b) Private & Public sector
c) Organized & unorganized sector

Q2 Classify industries on the basis of their economic activities with examples

A2 PRIMARY SECTOR:
This sector consists of activities that are undertaken by directly using the natural resources. This
sector is called primary as it forms the base for all other products to be subsequently produced.
Example: In activities like dairy, we are dependent on the biological process of the animals &
availability of fodder; cultivation of co on which depends on the availability natural factors like
rainfall, sunshine etc.
SECONDARY SECTOR:
It covers activities in which natural products are changed into other forms through ways of
manufacturing that we associate with industrial activity. The product is not produced by nature
but has to be made & thus some process of manufacturing is important. This could be done in a
factory, workshop or at home. Since this sector gradually become associated with the different
kinds of industries, it is also called industrial sector.
Example: Using sugarcane as a raw material, we make sugar or gur; using wood to make
furniture etc.
TERTIARY SECTOR:
This sector consists of activities that do not produce goods but they are an aid in the production
process. Since these activities generate services than goods, it is also called service sector.
Example: Goods produced in primary or secondary need to be transported by trains or trucks to
be able to reach the final consumers; making use of banking service to borrow loan from banks
to help production & trade.

Q3 Why the Primary sector is also called ‘agriculture & related sector’?
A3 Since most of the natural products we get are from agriculture, dairy, fishing, forestry, this
sector is also called ‘agriculture & related sector’.

Q4 What changes have been bought about in the primary, secondary & tertiary sectors over a
period of me?
A4 PRIMARY SECTOR:
a) Noted from the histories of many (now developed) countries, primary sector was the most
important sector of economic activity at initial stages of development.
b) As the methods of farming changed & agricultural sector began to prosper, it produced much
more food than before.
c) Many people could now take up other activities. Buying & selling activities increased many
times.
d) However, at this stage most of the goods produced were natural products from primary sector
& most people were also employed in this sector.
SECONDARY SECTOR:
a) Over a long me & specially because new methods of manufacturing were introduced, factories
came up & started expanding

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b) Those people who had earlier worked on farms now began to work in factories in large
numbers.
People began to use goods that were produced in factories at cheaper rates.
c) This sector gradually became important in the total production & employment.
d) Hence, over time, a shift had taken place. This means that the importance of sectors had
changed.
TERTIARY SECTOR:
a) In the past 100 years, there has been a further shift from secondary to tertiary sector in
developed countries.
b) The service sector has become very important in terms of the total production.
c) Most of the working people are also employed in the service sector. This is the general pattern
observed in developed countries.

Q5 “Tertiary sector has emerged as the largest producing sector in India replacing the primary
sector”. Explain why is the tertiary sector becoming so important in India?
A5 Following factors can be attributed for the rising importance of the tertiary sector:
First, in any country, several services like hospitals, banks, insurance, police station, courts etc
are required. These can be said as basic services which are the responsibility of government in a
developing country.
Second, the development of agriculture & industry leads to the development of services such as
transport, trade, storage & the like. Thus, greater the development of primary & secondary
sectors more would be the demand of such services.
Third, as income level rise, certain sections of people start demanding more services like eating
out, shopping, private schools or hospitals etc.
Fourth, over the past decade or so, certain new services like those based on information &
communication technology have become important. The production of these services has been
rising rapidly.

Q6 “Not the en re service sector is growing equally well.” Do you agree with this statement?
Give reason(s) for your answer.
A6 Yes, not the en re service sector is growing equally well. This is because the service sector in
India
employs different kinds of people. At the one end, there are a limited number of services that
employ highly skilled & educated workers. At the other end, there are a very large number of
workers engaged in services like small shopkeepers, repair persons, transport persons etc these
people barely manage to earn a living & yet they perform these services as no alternative work is
available to them. Hence, only a part of this sector is growing in importance.

Q7 How do we calculate the GDP of a country?

A7 GDP is the Gross Domes c Product which is calculated by having the sum of production in the
3 sectors. GDP is the value of all final goods & services produced within a country during a
particular year. In India, the task of measuring GDP is undertaken by central ministry which
collects information relating to total volume of goods & services & their prices & then estimates
the GDP.

Q8 Why are only ‘final goods & services’ counted in the GDP? Explain with the help of an
example.
A8 This is because the value of final goods already includes the value of all intermediate goods
that are used in making the final good.

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For example, a farmer sells wheat to a flour mill for Rs 8 per Kg. The flour mill grinds the wheat &
sells the flour to a biscuit company for Rs 10 per Kg. The biscuits company in turn uses flour &
other things to make biscuit & sells it in the market for Rs 60. Here, the value of Rs 60 for biscuit
(final good) already includes the value of flour (Rs 10).

Q9 “More than half of the workers in the country are working in the primary sector, mainly in
agriculture, produce only a quarter of GDP.” Does this statement mean that the workers in
agriculture are not producing as much as they could? Give reasons.
A9 It is not that the workers in agriculture are not producing as much as they could but the real
problem is that there are more people in agriculture than is necessary. So, even if a few people
are pulled out from here, production will not be affected. Thus, workers in agriculture sector are
said to be underemployed. Also, the rate at which these primary products are sold in the market
is less because of which their contribution to the GDP is also less.

Q10 Why is the problem of underemployment hidden in nature?

A10 The problem of underemployment is hidden in nature as people are apparently working but
all of them are made to work less than their potential or some people are even made to work
more but are not paid accordingly & are thereby exploited. This is in contrast to someone who
does not have a job & is clearly visible as unemployed.

Q11 Does the problem of underemployment happen in others sectors also, apart from
agriculture? Substantiate with example(s).
A11 Yes, the problem of disguised unemployment happens in other sectors as well. For example,
there are thousands of casual workers in the service sector in the urban area who search for
daily employment. They are employed as painter, plumber etc. Many of them do not find work
every day. Similarly, we see other people in the service sector where they may spend the whole
day but earn very little.

Q12 Why do you think NREGA is referred to as ‘Right to work’?

A12 The central government in India recently made a law implementing the Right to Work in 200
districts of India. It is called National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005. It is referred to as
‘Right to Work’ as all those who are able to & are in need of work have been guaranteed 100
days of employment in a year by the govt. if the govt fails in its duty to provide employment, it
will give unemployment allowance to the people.

Q13 What is an organized sector of economy?

A13 Organized sector covers those enterprises or places of work where the terms of employment
are regular & therefore people have assured work.

Q14 Why is the organized sector of economy so called?

A14 This sector is called Organized because it has some formal processes & procedures. They are
registered by the government & have to follow its rules & regulations which are given in various
laws such as the Factories Act, Minimum Wages Act, Payment of Gratuity Act etc.

Q15 What are the benefits that are enjoyed by the people working in the organized sector?
A15 a) Workers in this sector enjoy security of employment
b) They are expected to work only a fixed number of hours & if they work more, they are
paid over me by the employer.
c) They enjoy benefits like paid leaves, payment during holidays, provident fund, gratuity etc

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d) They are supposed to get medical benefits & under the laws, the factory manager has to
ensure facilities like drinking water & safe working environment.
e) On retirement, the workers are even entitled to pensions as well.

Q16 What is unorganized sector of economy?

A16 This sector is characterized by small & scattered units which are largely outside the control
of the govt. There are rules & regulations but which are not followed. Jobs here are low paid &
even not regular.

Q17 What are the disadvantages that people have to suffer in the Unorganized Sector?
A17 a) There is no job security as a lot depends on the whims of the employer & some people
may be asked to leave.
b) There is no provision for over me, paid leave, holidays, leave due to sickness etc.

Q18 In the rural areas, who are the vulnerable people in the unorganized sector who need
protection by the government?
A18 In the rural areas, the unorganized sector mostly comprises of landless agricultural laborers,
small & marginal farmers, sharecroppers & artisans (such as weavers, carpenters, goldsmiths
etc). Nearly 80% of the rural household in India is in small & marginal farmer category. These
farmers need to be supported through adequate facilities for timely delivery of seeds,
agricultural inputs, credit, storage facility & marketing outlets.

Q19 In the urban areas, who are the vulnerable people in the unorganized sector who need
protection by the government?
A19 In the urban areas, unorganized sector comprises mainly of the workers in small scale
industries, casual workers in construction, trade & transport etc & those who work as street
vendors, head load porters, rag pickers etc. Small scale industries also need government’s
support for processing raw material & for marketing the output. Similarly, the casual workers
also need protection in their jobs & wages.

Q20 How do we classify the sectors of Indian economy in terms of ownership?

A20 In terms of ownership, we can classify the sectors as Private & Public sectors. In the Public
sector, govt owns most of the assets & provides all the services. Example: Railways or post office.
In Private sector, ownership of assets & delivery of services is in the hands of private individuals
or companies. Example: Reliance Industries Ltd (RIL), Tata Iron & Steel Company Ltd (TISCO).

Q21 Why do we need to have Public sector in a society when we have the Private sector
providing quality services? Give reasons for your answer.
A21 We need to have Public Sector for the following reasons:
a) Advances in a private sector are guided by the motive to earn profits. However, the purpose of
the public sector is not to earn profits but to provide services to the people.
b) There are several things needed by the society as a whole but which the private sector will not
provide at a reasonable cost as these need spending large sums of money which is beyond the
capacity of the private sector.
c) Also, collecting money from thousands of people who use these facilities is not easy. Even if
the private sector provides these things, they would charge a high rate for their use.
Thus, governments have to undertake such heavy spending & ensure these facilities are available
to all.

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MONEY AND CREDIT

 Barter System:
The barter system was used before the advent of money. People used to exchange one thing for another
in this system.

Double Coincidence of wants: The double coincidence of wants is the major drawback of the barter
system. It can be very difficult to find a person who can fulfill this condition. Suppose you want to barter
your MP3 player with a game console, then you need to find a person who wants to barter his game
console for an MP3 player.

 Money
Money is a means by which we can get something in exchange. Initially, coins came into use. The coins
were initially made of precious metals; like gold and silver. When the precious metals became too
precious, ordinary metals were being used for making coins. Paper money or currency notes gradually
took place of coins; although coins of smaller denominations are still in use.
The currency notes and coins are issued by the government of an authorized body. In India, the RBI
(Reserve Bank of India) issues currency notes. On the Indian currency note, you can find a statement
which promises to pay the bearer the amount which is mentioned on the currency note.

Advantages of Money:
a. Removes the coincidence of wants.
b. Takes less storage space and is easier to carry.
c. Liquidity of currency is easier.
d. Now-a-days; many instruments are available through which it is not necessary to physically carry the
currency.

 Other Forms of Money

Deposits with Banks: Most of the people need only some currency for their daily needs. Rest of the
amount is usually kept as deposit in banks. Money which is kept in a bank is safe and it even earns an
interest. One can withdraw money from his account as and when required. Since deposit in the bank
account can be withdrawn on demand, these deposits are called demand deposits.
One can use a cheque; instead of cash to settle payments. Moreover, one can also buy a demand draft
from a bank to make payments.

Credit: Banks keep a small proportion of their deposits as cash with themselves. This is usually 15% of
their deposits as cash. This amount is kept as provision to pay the depositors who may come to withdraw
the money on any day. This amount is enough because only a small fraction of people come to withdraw
money on a given day. The rest of the amount is used by the banks to give money on credit to people
who need the credit. A bank charges interest on the loan which it gives to its creditors. The interest rate
charged by a bank no loans is higher than the interest rate given by it on deposits. Thus, interest is the
main source of income for banks.

Credit/Debit Cards: Now-a-days, credit/debit cards are in vogue. A debit card allows you to make
payments from the amount which is lying in your bank account. A credit card, on the other hand, provides
money on credit. Payment through credit/debit card is done electronically and this removes the need of
carrying cash.

 Terms of Credit
People often need to borrow money for various purposes. Many businessmen need to borrow to buy raw

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materials and machineries. Many farmers need to borrow to buy seeds, fertilisers, farm equipments, etc.
People usually buy vehicles and houses by borrowing from banks. Thus, credit plays an important role in
the economy.
Every loan agreement specifies terms and conditions; regarding the rate of interest and term of payment.
In most of the cases, the banks fix an EMI (Equated Monthly Installment) for repayment of loan.

Collateral: An asset which is owned by the borrower and is used as a guarantee to a lender until the loan
is repaid is called the collateral. Land, house, vehicle, livestocks, deposits with banks, insurance policy,
gold, etc. are examples of assets. If the borrower fails to repay the loan, the lender reserves the right to
sell the collateral to obtain payment.

Terms of Credit: The terms of credit include rate of interest, collateral and mode of repayment. The terms
of credit varies from one loan agreement to another and also on the nature of the lender and the
borrower.

 Sources of Credit

Formal Sector: The formal Sector comprises of banks and cooperative societies.

Informal Sector: The informal sector consists of money lenders and friends and relatives, merchants and
landlords.

The following diagram shows share of different sources of credit in rural households in India in 2003.

While the formal sector is bound by the rules and regulations of the RBI and charge the prevalent rate of
interest as per RBI guidelines; the informal lenders are not bound by such rules. The informal lenders
usually charge a very high rate of interest. A higher cost of borrowing is often detrimental to the
borrower. It usually results in a debt trap for the borrower. The borrower is seldom able to escape the
never ending cycle of loan repayment.

Many people are too poor to qualify the requirements of credit-worthiness of banks and cooperatives.
There are many others who may not have enough documents; like residential certificate or income
certificate. Such people are usually at the mercy of informal lenders.

 Self Help Groups

Self Help Groups (SHGs) are recent phenomena. An SHG is comprised of small number of people; like 15 –
20 members. The members pool their savings. The collection is then utilised to lend small amounts of
money which may be required by any of the members. The group charges interest on the loan. The
arrangement of loans through Self Help Groups is also known as microfinance because the small amount
of loan is involved.

It was the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh which began experimenting with microfinance. The founder of

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Grameen Bank, Mohammad Yunus was conferred with Nobel Prize in 2006 for his efforts at improving
the lot of the poor.

SHGs have helped immensely in reducing the influence of informal lenders in rural areas. Many big
corporate houses are also promoting SHGs at many places in India.

NCERT Questions
Answer the following questions:

1. How does the use of money make it easier to exchange things?

Answer: Unlike the barter system, exchange by using money does not need a double coincidence of
wants. Hence, money makes it easier to exchange things. Let us take example of a student who wants to
sell his old books and wants to buy a guitar in lieu of that. If he opts for the barter system, he will have to
search a person who may be interested in giving off his guitar and in taking old books. But finding such a
person can be difficult and time consuming. On the other hand, if the student sells his books and takes
money for that, he can easily go to a shop to buy a guitar.

2. Can you think of some examples of goods / services being exchanged or wages being paid through
barter?
Answer: Barter system does exist at some degree in our society. Farmers often use this system of
exchange to barter different types of farm produce. Even some friends may exchange certain items
among each other. Some hawkers sell trinkets and edible stuff in lieu of old bottles and plastic containers.

3. Why do lenders ask for collateral while lending?

Answer: The collateral is a kind of surety, which the lender can hold on to. In case of de debtor failing to
repay the loan, the lender can recover some money by selling the collateral.

4. Given that a large number of people in our country are poor, does it in any way affect their capacity
to borrow?
Answer: Credit is always given after properly assessing the repayment capacity of the borrower. Since
poor people do not have repayment capacity, they are usually unable to get a loan; especially from the
formal sector. They get some loan from the informal sector but in that case, they often fall in debt trap
because of very high rate of interest.

5. What are the differences between formal and informal sources of credit?
Answer: The formal sector gives loan only after thorough check of the borrower. Suitable paperwork is
done before giving the loan so that both the borrower and the creditor can resort to judicial process in
case of any problem. Rate of interest is governed by the government rules when loan is given by the
formal sources. In case of informal sector, rate of interest is usually very high and the borrower cannot go
to the courts in case of being subjected to arm-twisting tactics by the creditor. Informal sector usually
works on personal influence and relation of the borrower and creditor.

6. Why should credit at reasonable rates be available for all?

Answer: Credit is an important aspect of economic activity. Right from a small farmer to a big business
tycoon; everyone needs to borrow at some time to improve productivity. In case of unreasonable rates,
the borrower always runs the risk of falling in the debt trap which is not good for the society and the
economy. Hence, reasonable rates are important for all.

7. Should there be a supervisor, such as the Reserve Bank of India that looks into the loan activities of
informal lenders? Why would its task be quite difficult?
Answer: The informal lenders work according to their own set of rules. They seldom maintain proper
records and do not reveal their transaction detail to the government authority. Most of the money
involved in this is black money and the lender always wants to earn windfall profits. They will oppose

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every attempt to bring them into the ambit of governance. Hence, it would be very difficult for supervisor
to look into the loan activities of informal sector.

8. Why do you think that the share of formal sector credit is higher for the richer households compared
to the poorer households?
Answer: The formal sector credit is available to those who have good repayment capacity. Lending
money is the main source of income for banks. They cannot afford to lend to the poor and suffer losses in
the bargain. Due to this, the share of formal sector credit is higher for the richer households compared to
the poorer households.

9. In situations with high risks, credit might create further problems for the borrower. Explain.
Answer: In situation of high risks, credit often creates further problems for the borrower. To understand
this, let us take an example of a marginal farmer who holds a small plot of land. Let us assume that the
farmer borrows some money to buy seeds and fertilisers. The harvest which he gets may not be enough
to meet his family’s needs. So he never comes in a position to sell the farm produce so that he can repay
his loans. If some natural calamity; like flood or drought destroys the crops; it even worsens the situation
for him. Finally, there is no other way than to get trapped in the never ending cycle of loans.

10. How do banks mediate between those who have surplus money and those who need money?
Answer: Banks take deposits from different people. People, who have surplus money, maintain a healthy
deposit in banks. There are many who may be looking for loan. Such people go to the bank if they want to
borrow from the formal sector. The bank provides them loan from the deposit which is lying with the
bank. Thus, banks serve as a conduit between those who have surplus money and those who need money.

11. Why do we need to expand formal sources of credit in India?

Answer: Around 48% credit in India comes through the informal sector. There are many people who do
not have access to the formal credit sources. Such people often fall in the hands of moneylenders who
resort to all sorts of methods to suppress the poor. To help such people out of the economic mess, it is
necessary to reach the formal sources of credit to them. It will also help in improving the socioeconomic
conditions in villages and remote areas.

12. What is the basic idea behind the SHGs for the poor? Explain in your own words.
Answer: Self Help Groups are made to help those poor who do not have access to the formal sources of
credit. There are various reasons for their inability to secure a loan from banks or cooperatives. These
people are so poor that they fail the creditworthiness. Moreover, the amount borrowed by them is too
small to even recover the cost of administration of loan. Illiteracy and lack of awareness further
compounds the problems for them. The SHGs help them in providing micro finance so that they can
sustain their livelihood. Moreover, SHGs also facilitate the development of a repayment culture among
such people.

13. What are the reasons why the banks might not be willing to lend to certain borrowers?
Answer: A bank usually lends to a person who has repayment capacity. Banks avoid lending for a risky
venture. These are the reasons, banks might not be willing to lend to certain borrowers.

14. In what ways does the Reserve Bank of India supervise the functioning of banks? Why is this
necessary?
Answer: RBI is the central bank of India. It formulates policies for the banking sector in India. Proper rules
and regulations are necessary for the banking system because the banks affect the overall economy in a
great way. By regulating the functioning of banks, RBI not only keeps a check on the banking and finance
but also on the overall economy so that economic crisis does not erupt.

15. Explain with an example how the terms of credit can be unfavourable for the small farmer.
Answer: If the creditor wants that the farmer can utilize his farm produce only after repaying the loan

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amount, it can be a problem for the farmer. If the creditor wants a very high interest rate or wants the
interest to be paid on a monthly basis, then it can be a problem for the farmer.

16. Suggest some ways by which small farmers can get cheap credit.
Answer: Microfinance; on the lines of Grameen Bank of Bangladesh; can be a good way to help small
farmers. Many Self Help Groups are being formed in various parts of the country to help out small
farmers.

EXTRA Questions

1. What are the transactions involving money?

Answer: The transactions involving money are:
1 ) Goods are being bought and sold with the use of money .
2 ) Services are being exchanged with money .
3 ) Goods are also bought with a promise to pay money later.
4 ) Money is sometimes paid as advance with the promise of delivery of goods later.

2. What were the objects that were used before the use of currency?
Answer: As the need for a medium of exchange (currency) became a necessity different materials were
used as currency. Initially Indians used grains and cattle as money. Before the introduction of coins, a
variety of objects was used as money. Thereafter came the use of metallic coins — gold, silver, copper
coins — a phase which continued well into the last century.

3. What are Demand Deposits?

Answer: People with extra money deposit it in the banks by opening a bank account in their name. Banks
accept the deposits and also pay an interest rate on the deposits. In this way people’s money is safe with
the banks and it earns an interest.
People also have the provision to withdraw the money as and when they require. Since the deposits in
the bank accounts can be withdrawn on demand, these deposits are called demand deposits.

4. What is a cheque?
Answer: A cheque is a paper instructing the bank to pay a specific amount from the person’s account to
the person in whose name the cheque has been made.

5. What is Collateral?
Answer: Collateral is an asset that the borrower owns (such as land, building, vehicle, livestock, deposits
with banks) and uses this as a guarantee to a lender until the loan is repaid.

6. What is called the ‘terms of deposit ’ ?

Answer: Interest rate, collateral and documentation requirement, and the mode of repayment together
comprise what is called the terms of credit. The terms of credit vary substantially from one credit
arrangement to another. They may vary depending on the nature of the lender and the borrower.

7. How do cooperatives function?

Answer: Cooperatives have many members. It accepts deposits from its members. With these deposits as
collateral, the Cooperative obtains a large loan from the bank. These funds are used to provide loans to
its members. Once these loans are repaid, another round of lending takes place

8. Cheap and affordable credit is crucial for the countries development. Discuss.
Answer: Cheap and affordable credit is crucial for the country’s development. The various types of loans
or credits can be grouped as formal sector loans and informal sector loans. Among the former are loans
from banks and cooperatives. The informal lenders include moneylenders, traders, employers, relatives
and friends.

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Banks and cooperatives give loans on a lesser interest rate than the informal sector. But bank loans
require proper documents and collateral. Absence of collateral is one of the major reasons why bank
loans are not available to small farmers and people who wish to start small industries.
Compared to the formal lenders, most of the informal lenders charge a much higher interest on loans.
Thus, the cost to the borrower of informal loans is much higher. Higher cost of borrowing means a larger
part of the earnings of the borrowers is used to repay the loan.
For these reasons, banks and cooperative societies need to lend more to the poorer section of people.
This would lead to higher incomes and many people could then borrow cheaply for a variety of needs.
They could grow crops, do business, set up small - scale industries etc. They could set up new industries
or trade in goods.
At present, it is the richer households who receive credit from formal sources whereas the poor have to
depend on the informal sources. It is essential that the total formal sector credit increases so that the
dependence on the more expensive informal credit becomes less. Also, the poor should get a much
greater share of formal loans from banks, cooperative societies etc. Both these steps are important for
development.

9. What is the barter system and double coincidence of wants?

Answer: In the olden days, when modern currency was not in vogue, people had to sell and buy each
other’s commodities. This was called the barter system. For instance if a shoe manufacturer wants to buy
wheat, he has to find a farmer who wants to buy his shoes in exchange for the wheat. That is, both
parties have to agree to sell and buy each other’s commodities. This is known as double coincidence of
wants. In a barter system where goods are directly exchanged without the use of money, double
coincidence of wants is an essential feature.

10. What are ‘demand deposits ’?

Answer: People need only some money for their day - to - day needs. So, people deposit the extra money
with the banks by opening a bank account in their name. Banks accept the deposits and also pay an
interest rate on the deposits. In this way people’s money is safe with the banks and it earns an interest.
People also have the provision to withdraw the money as and when they require. Since the deposits in
the bank accounts can be withdrawn on demand, these deposits are called demand deposits .

11. Write a short note on ‘cheques ’.

Answer: A deposit in a Bank offers the customer the facility of issuing cheques. A cheque is a paper
instructing the bank to pay a specific amount from the person’ s account to the person in whose name
the cheque has been made . The recipient of the cheque can deposit it in his own account in his bank. The
money is transferred from one bank account to another bank account in a couple of days. The transaction
is complete without any payment of cash. This is a safe mode of transferring money avoiding the
possibility of any theft.

12. Write about the functioning of Krishak Cooperative society .

Answer: Krishak Cooperative functions in a village not very far away from Sonpur. It has 2300 farmers as
members. The Cooperative accepts deposits from its members. Using the deposit as collateral, the
Cooperative obtains a large loan from the bank. The loan amount received from the bank is used as funds
to provide loans to the members.
Once the members repay the loans the amount is repaid to the bank and a fresh loan is taken from the
bank. The Cooperative provides loans to its members for the purchase of agricultural implements, loans
for cultivation and agricultural trade, fishery loans , loans for construction of houses and for a variety of
other expenses .

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GLOBALISATION & THE INDIAN ECONOMY

 Globalisation:
The way in which the world economy is integrated in the modern world is globalization. Take example of
Microsoft. Microsoft is having its headquarters in USA. This company is getting part of its software
developed in India and several other countries. And Microsoft’s software is being used across the world.
Another example can be Ford motors based in USA. Ford is having manufacturing plants in Chennai and
cars manufactured in Chennai go for sale in other countries. Moreover, company may be getting gear
boxes produced in some other country, seat belts from a different country, lights, rear view mirrors in
some other nation by some other company. Almost all the components get supplied by various vendors
to the Ford motor, which assembles them to make the car.

All these activities help in generating employment opportunities across the world. This in turn affects the
world economy. You can think of various activities in the step of final production of a product or a service
which take place around the world at different locations. This results in interdependence of national
economies around the world.

 Development of Globalisation

Since early history global trade has been connecting mankind in myriad ways. Silk route of early history
helped in connecting Asia from the rest of the world. This trade route not only facilitated movement of
goods but also movement of people and ideas. If zero traveled from India to rest of the world then
western clothes came to India. Nowadays the way we relish eating pizza or noodles, people abroad are
big fans of the Indian curry and chicken tikka.
Early phase of globalization involved export of raw material from Asia and import of finished products
from Europe. But from mid twentieth century things began to change.
During mid to late twentieth century certain company’s became multinationals as they spread their
economic activities to various parts of the world.

 Causes of Globalisation:

Need of Cost Cutting: Suppose a company is having two options to get a particular work done. The first
option is to get it done in the home country but cost involved will be higher. Next option is to get it done
in a different country at a lesser cost. Obviously any company will prefer the second option. Labour cost
and cost of certain raw materials are cheaper in India, Malaysia, China and Taiwan. This results in reduced
cost of production, which will result in better profit for the company. So you get a computer with certain
parts manufactured in Taiwan or Malaysia, processor manufactured in India and software supplied from
USA. The final product may get assembled in the market where it will be ultimately used.

Need to find newer markets: If home market’s consumer base has purchased a product and needs no
more of it or little bit of it, then the company has to plan to increase the business. This can be done by
finding newer markets with new consumer base. Especially in today’s scenario when India and China
constitute about one fourth of the world population, any company which wants to get more business
can’t ignore these two markets. Try comparing it with your city or village. If vegetables produced in a
village can only be sold in that village then it may not find many customers, resulting in low price and may
be wastage of vegetables. To get a better price from large customer base the village vegetable grower
needs to move to cities.

 Stimulus for Globalisation:

Earlier countries imposed heavy import duties to restrict goods from outside and to promote local
industries. These were part of deliberate trade barriers. But WTO (World Trade Organisation) convinced

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all member nations to reduce trade barriers. WTO believes in unrestricted economic opportunity across
the world. In India after 1991, liberalization policies were being followed resulting in MNCs setting up
shops in India. The result is for everybody to see. Earlier car meant an Ambassador or a Fiat and two-
wheeler meant a Bajaj Scooter or Rajdoot Motorcycle. Now people have various options for car and two
wheelers.

 Results of Globalisation:

Better Employment Opportunities: At present India is the leader in BPO sector. BPOs provide backoffice
support to many MNCs. A customer calling in USA to sort out his problem may be talking to a call centre
employee in Gurgaon. Because of growing economic activities many new centres of economic activity
have developed in India. These are Gurgaon, Chandigarh, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Meerut. Earlier
Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata and Delhi used to be major economic centres.

Change in Lifestyle: Eating habits have changed dramatically. Now you may be eating Kellog’s corn flakes
for breakfast and Aloo Tikki Burger for lunch. You may be wearing a Levi’s jeans and if you are having a
BPO employee as neighbour then you may have listened his accented English.

Uneven Benefits of Development: For every MNC executive there is a larger number of rickshaw puller
and daily wage earner. There are still millions who are unable to get two square meals in a day. We still
hear news of farmers committing suicide in Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Unfair Means Adopted by Developed Countries: Developed countries still give huge subsidies to their
farmers and impose heavy trade barriers. In the bargain developed nations don’t get the desired benefit
out of WTO negotiations.

 Conclusion:
Globalisation is a reality which is here to stay. Globalisation has given more benefits than problems. The
economists and policy makers of the world need to fine tune their strategy so that benefits of
globalization can reach the masses. The ultimate success of globalization can only be realized when it
helps achieve all the parameters of development. These parameters or goals of development are not only
about monetary income, but also about better healthcare, education, security and overall quality of life
for all.

NCERT Questions

Answer the following questions

1. What do you understand by globalisation? Explain in your own words.

Answer: Integration of the world market in various ways is called globalization. Take example of
Microsoft. Microsoft is having its headquarters in USA. This company is getting part of its software
developed in India and several other countries. And Microsoft’s software is being used across the world.
Another example can be Ford motors based in USA. Ford is having manufacturing plants in Chennai and
cars manufactured in Chennai go for sale in other countries. Moreover, company may be getting gear
boxes produced in some other country, seat belts from a different country, lights, rear view mirrors in
some other nation by some other company. Almost all the components get supplied by various vendors
to the Ford motor, which assembles them to make the car.

2. What was the reason for putting barriers to foreign trade and foreign investment by the Indian
government? Why did it wish to remove these barriers?
Answer: When India became independent, it was a poor country and private capital was negligible. At
that time, it was necessary to protect the local industry so that they could grow to a certain size. This was
the reason various trade barriers were in place in India. Once the situation improved and India became a

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ready market, the government decided to open up the market for foreign players.

3. How would flexibility in labour laws help companies?

Answer: Flexibility in labour laws can help companies in keeping the size of the workforce under control.
A company can hire and fire as per the seasonal variation in demand for the workforce. During lean
season, it won’t be forced to carry a bloated workforce and thus can cut costs. This will definitely help in
improving profitability.

4. What are the various ways in which MNCs set up, or control, production in other countries?
Answer: MNCs set up or control production in other countries in various ways. Some of them are
discussed below:
- Many MNC make a joint venture with a domestic company to start its operations. This helps the MNC
because the domestic company has the knowhow of the local business conditions. Moreover, the
domestic company already has an established framework of business.
- Once the business grows upto a certain size, the MNC can break the tie up and operate as an
independent company. This helps it in having a greater control on the business.
- Some MNCs start as independent entity right from the first day.
- While some of the MNCs produce entirely for the local market, many others produce for the exports
markets.

5. Why do developed countries want developing countries to liberalise their trade and investment?
What do you think should the developing countries demand in return?
Answer: The companies in the developed countries often pressurize their governments to create
business-friendly environment in other countries. Due to this, developed countries want developing
countries to open up their markets. The developing countries should demand the same favour in return.

6. “The impact of globalisation has not been uniform.” Explain this statement.
Answer: While globalization has definitely changed the way business is being done in India and people go
about their daily life, a large section of population is still to taste the fruit of development. The rich have
become richer, but the poor have become poorer. Due to increased competition, many smaller
entrepreneurs are unable to survive. Many workers have lost their job due to increased competition. On
the other hand, consumers have better choice for almost every product. It can be said that the impact of
globalization has not been uniform.

7. How has liberalisation of trade and investment policies helped the globalization process?
Answer: Liberalisation of trade and investment policies has immensely helped in globalization process.
There has been significant increase in FDI in India. Many large MNCs have opened their production
centres and shops in India. Business Process Outsourcing has grown manifold and has generated lot of
employment. All of this could have been possible because of liberalization policies.

8. How does foreign trade lead to integration of markets across countries? Explain with an example
other than those given here.
Answer: Foreign trade connects various markets of the world and thus leads to integration of markets
across countries. To understand this, we can take the example of mobile phone. The major companies
which manufacture mobile phone are in America and Europe. The product is designed in these countries.
Different components of mobile are manufactured in the east Asian nations; like Malaysia, China and
Taiwan. Most of them are assembled in China and India. The finished products are used all over the world.
This shows the integration of markets across various countries.

EXTRA Questions

Question – 1 What are the factors that have enabled globalisation?

Solution: Rapid improvement in transportation and communication technology and the liberalisation of

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trade restrictions and foreign investment have been the major factors that have enabled the globalisation
process.
The dramatic improvement in transportation technology has played a vital role in faster delivery of goods
across long distances at lower costs and in the movement of people from one country to another in a
short time. As the basis of gloalisation is foreign trade movement of goods and people are vital for
globalisation.
Information and communication technology (or IT in short) has also played a major role in globalisation.
Many MNCs are service based companies therefore the transfer of information is very vital to them.
Computers, internet facilities, telegraph, telephones mobile phones, and fax are used to contact one
another around the world, to access information instantly, and to communicate from remote areas.
Liberalisation of foreign trade and investment policy has speeded up the globalization process. During the
end of the 20 century, India removed trade barriers and foreign goods flooded the Indian market. Barriers
on foreign investment were also removed to a large extent enabling many MNCs to set up their factories
in India.

Question – 2 Write a short note on WTO.

Solution: World Trade Organisation (WTO) is an international body which aims at liberalising
international trade. It was started at the initiative of the developed countries.
i. WTO establishes rules regarding international trade,
ii . It sees that these rules are obeyed by the member countries,
iii 149 countries of the world are currently members of the WTO (2006 ).
WTO Head Quarters is situated in Geneva, Switzerland. It was established in the year 1995. There are 151
member countries in WTO and its budget for the year 2007 is 182 million Swiss francs.
The functions of the WTO are as follows:
• Administering WTO trade agreements.
• Forum for trade negotiations.
• Handling trade disputes.
• Monitoring national trade policies.
• Technical assistance and training for developing countries.
• Cooperation with other international organizations.

Question – 3 what are the positive impacts of globalisation in India?

Solution: The positive impact of globalisation in India has been tremendous.
1. Greater competition among producers resulting from Globalisation is a great advantage to consumers
as there is greater choice before them. Consumers now enjoy improved quality and lower prices for
several products.
2. Due to globalisation many MNCs have increased their investments in India. This means thousands of
people are getting highly paid jobs and, enjoy much higher standards of living than was possible earlier.
3. Local companies supplying raw materials, to these industries have prospered.
4. Top Indian companies have benefit from increased competition. They have invested in newer
technology and production methods and raised their production standards.
5. Some Indian companies have gained from successful collaborations with foreign companies.
Large Indian companies have emerged as multinationals like Tata Motors Globalisation has also created
new opportunities for Indian companies providing services, particularly in the IT field. Services such as
data entry, accounting, and administrative tasks, are now being done cheaply in India and exported to the
developed countries. This has generated thousands of jobs.

Question – 4 Mention a few negative impacts of globalisation in India.

Solution: There has also been a negative impact of globalisation in India. Globalisation has posed major
challenges to a large number of small producers.
Globalisation which resulted from liberalisation of Foreign Trade policies allowed the import of electronic
goods at a very cheap cost. Local producers of electronic goods were not able to meet with this challenge.
MNCs flooded the market with quality products at a cheap price. Local producer were not able to

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compete with this and were put to hardship as their goods do not have a market.
Another negative factor to globalisation is the lower wages that are given to labourers. In order to
compete in the world market, exporters try and cut labour costs and workers are denied their fair share
of benefits as manufacturers are always on the look out for cheaper labour.
Question – 5 Differentiate between a ‘permanent worker’ and a ‘temporary worker ’.
Solution: A ‘permanent worker’ is entitled to health insurance, provident fund, overtime at a double rate.
The permanent worker is also eligible for paid leave and has fixed working hours. Whereas a ‘temporary
worker’ earns less than a permanent worker. He does not enjoy any of the benefits a permanent worker
is entitled for. A day off from work means no wage and there are no fixed timings of work. The temporary
worker can be dismissed from work any time.

Question – 6 Write a short note on MNCs with an example.

Solution: A MNC or Multinational Corporation is a company that owns or controls production in more
than one nation. MNCs set up offices and factories for production in regions where they can get cheap
labour and other resources. The cost of production is reduced considerably due to cheap labour and the
MNCs earn great profits.
MNCs not only sell their finished products globally, the goods and services are produced globally. Because
of this global production, today’s consumer has a wide choice of goods and services at a very reasonable
price.
Cognizant Technology Solutions is a MNC which provides end- to - end solutions in Consulting, Application
Value Management, Application Development, Re - engineering , and Platform Consolidation across all
major technologies.
The company’s Head Quarters is in New Jersey, USA.
The Company has Offices in the following countries.
(i) Canada (ii ) United Kingdom (iii ) Germany (iv ) Switzerland
(v ) France (vi ) Malaysia (vii) Singapore (viii ) Australia
(ix ) China (x ) India

Question – 7 What is meant by interlinking production across countries?

Solution: MNCs are exerting a strong influence on production at distant locations. As a result, production
in these widely dispersed locations is getting interlinked.
MNCs look into 4 major criteria before they set up production in any place.
1. The factory or company should be close to the markets.
2. Skilled and unskilled labour should be available at low costs.
3. Availability of other factors of production should be assured. (eg . Infrastructure)
4. Local Government policies should be in their interests.
When the above conditions are to their satisfaction MNCs set up factories and offices for production in
different countries thus interlinking production across countries.
At times, MNCs set up production jointly with some of the local companies in other countries. Then the
local company benefits in 2 ways from this joint venture. Money for additional investments, like buying
new machines and the introduction of the latest technology for production is available to the local
producer thus interlinking production across countries.

Question – 8 IT in globalisation – Discuss.

Solution: Information and communication technology (or IT in short) has played a major role in
globalisation. Production of services has spread rapidly across countries due to the growth in Information
technology.
Many MNCs are service based companies therefore the transfer of information is very vital to them.
Computers, internet facilities, telegraph, telephones mobile phones, and fax are used to contact one
another around the world, to access information instantly, and to communicate from remote areas. This
has been facilitated by satellite communication devices. Internet also allows us to send instant electronic
mail (e - mail) and talk (voice - mail) across the world at negligible costs.

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CONSUMER RIGHTS
The consumer in the marketplace
Consumers participate in the marketplace by using a particular product. Had there been no consumer no
company would exist. The status of consumer is more or less pathetic as far as consumer rights are
concerned. You can take examples of shopkeepers weighing less than he should, company’ making false
claims on packs. Then there are local sweetmeat sellers adulterating raw materials to produce the
laddoos or barfis. You can recall the case of dropsy because of adulterated mustard oil. No matter how
bad quality you get, chances are you will get a rude response from the shopkeeper if you dare to
complain.
If you have traveled by railways then you can recall the horrible taste of almost all foodstuffs being sold in
trains and on platforms. Even the food supplied by the rail pantry is of horrible quality.

Consumer Movement in India:

India has long tradition of food adulteration, black marketing, hoarding, underweighing, etc. It was from
the 1960s that the consumer movement began in India. Till the 1970s, consumer movement was mainly
restricted to writing articles and holding exhibitions. But there has been an upsurge in the number of
consumer groups in recent times.
The level of dissatisfaction with the sellers and service providers was such an extent that the consumers
had no choice but to raise their voice. After many years of organized struggle, the government was forced
to take notice and finally the Consumer Protection Act (COPRA) was enacted in 1986.

Consumer rights:

- Right to Be Informed: A consumer has the right to have correct information about a product. There are
rules which make it mandatory to mention ingredients and safety features on the pack of a product.
Proper information helps a consumer to make informed buying decision. A pack of a product also
needs to mention the MRP (Maximum Retail Price) and a consumer can complain if the seller asks for
more than the MRP.

- Right to Choose: A consumer has the right to choose from different options. A seller cannot just offer
to sell only one brand to the consumer. The seller has to offer various options to the consumer. This
right is usually enforced through laws against monopoly trade.

- Right to Seek Redressal: If a consumer gets affected by false promises made by the producer or suffers
because of manufacturing defect; he has the right to seek redressal. Suppose you took a mobile
connection and the bill shows many hidden charges which were not explained to you earlier. Or the
mobile company activated a ringtone without your permission. Then you can go to the consumer court
to put your case.

Consumer Forum:
The consumer movement in India has led to the formation of various organisations locally known as
consumer forums or consumer protection councils. They guide consumers on how to file cases in the
consumer court. On many occasions, they also represent individual consumers in the consumer courts.
These voluntary organisations also receive financial support from the government for creating awareness
among the people.
If you are living in a residential colony, you might have noticed name boards of Resident Welfare
Associations. If there is any unfair trade practice meted out to their members they take up the case on
their behalf.

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Consumer Courts: This is a three-tier quasi-judicial system. The district level court deals with cases
involving claims upto Rs. 20 lakh. The state level court deals with cases between Rs. 20 lakh and Rs. 1
crore. The national level court dealt with cases which involve claims exceeding Rs. 1 crore.
If a case is dismissed in district level court, the consumer can also appeal in state and then in National
level courts.

National Consumers’ Day

24 December is celebrated as the National Consumers’ Day. It was on this day that the Indian Parliament
enacted the Consumer Protection Act in 1986. India is one of the few countries that have exclusive courts
for consumer redressal. The consumer movement in India has made significant progress in recent times.
At present, there are more than 700 consumer groups. Out of them, about 20-25 are well organized and
are recognized for their work.
The consumer redressal process is becoming cumbersome, expensive and time consuming. The lawyer’s
charges in some cases work as deterrent. Sometimes, the long delay de-motivates a person and he may
even stop pursuing the case.

NCERT Questions

1. Why are rules and regulations required in the marketplace? Illustrate with a few examples.
Answer: Rules and regulations are required so that markets function in smooth and just manner. Profit
maximization is the prime motive of any business. Rules and regulations ensure that the profit does not
come at the cost of the quality of life of the consumer. In our day-to-day life, we can see many instances
of food adulteration. The milk seller, the sweet-meat seller, etc. usually adulterate the food items they
sell. It is important to stop such practices by enforcing proper rules.

2. What factors gave birth to the consumer movement in India? Trace its evolution.
Answer: India had a long tradition of malpractices in business; such as food adulteration, hoarding,
underweighing, etc. Right from the 1960s, various consumer associations came into origin. They began to
raise public awareness and to fight to consumer protection. As a result of consumer movement, the
COPRA was finally enacted in 1986.

3. Explain the need for consumer consciousness by giving two examples.

Answer: Many people seldom bother to check the MRP and pay whatever the shopkeeper demands.
While developing a faith on the neighbourhood shopkeeper is a good attitude, but one should always
check the MRP. Some people do not even check the expiry date on the pack of a medicine. This can prove
to be dangerous and can even be life threatening for the patient who is going to consume the medicine.
These examples suggests that there is a real need for consumer consciousness.

4. Mention a few factors which cause exploitation of consumers.

Answer: Some of the factors which cause exploitation of consumers are as follows:
- Lack of awareness among consumers.
- Greed of businessperson.
- Lax enforcement of rules.
- Slow and time taking process of consumer grievance redressal.

5. What is the rationale behind the enactment of Consumer Protection Act 1986?
Answer: Protection of consumers against exploitation was the main rationale behind the enactment of
Consumer Protection Act 1986.

6. Describe some of your duties as consumers if you visit a shopping complex in your locality.
Answer: While visiting a shopping complex, I should check if proper parking facility is available or not. I
should check for the presence of fire fighting equipments. I should check if any item beyond its expiry

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date is lying on the shelf. I should ensure that billing calculation is correct.

7. Suppose you buy a bottle of honey and a biscuit packet. Which logo or mark you will have to look for
and why?
Answer: I will look for AGMARK logo. This logo shows that food safety norms have been followed while
making these items.

8. What legal measures were taken by the government to empower the consumers in India?
Answer: The government enacted COPRA in 1986 to empower the consumers in India. After that, the
government opened consumer courts at various levels so that people can register their complaints.

9. Mention some of the rights of consumers and write a few sentences on each.
Answer: Some of the rights of consumers are as follows:
Right to information: A consumer has the right to be informed about the ingredients, expiry date and
adverse events related to the product.
Right to choice: A consumer has the right to choose from among various options. For example; when
someone goes to buy a pen, he has the right to compare various brands so that he can make an informed
buying decision.
Right to seek redressal: If a consumer is not satisfied with the product or services he buys, he has the right
to seek redressal. Many companies have a dedicated section for consumer complaint and feedback. Apart
from that, the consumer can also go to a consumer court if he feels that the seller is not willing to solve
his problem.

10. By what means can the consumers express their solidarity?

Answer: Consumers can become part of a consumer group to help fellow consumers. A consumer can
also do his own bit in raising consumer awareness. This can be done by taking out poster campaigns, by
writing letter to editor, by writing blog, etc.

11. Critically examine the progress of consumer movement in India.

Answer: The consumer movement began in India out of a desire to fight the tradition of exploitation at
the hands of sellers. There was no legal framework to protect the interest of consumers. It was only after
a two decade long struggle that the government set up the consumer courts. Still many cases of
consumer complaint remain pending for long years. It takes about 20 to 30 years to decide on court cases.
The consumer movement is still not powerful enough to take on the powerful business lobby and a lot
more needs to be done.

EXTRA Questions

Question-1. What is Consumer Exploitation ?

Solution : Supplying goods having under weight and under measurement , sub – standard quality ,
duplicate articles, adulteration , impurity , unsafe articles, false information , unsatisfactory after sale
service and high prices is termed as consumer exploitation

Question -2 What is the need for Consumer Awareness ?

Solution : Consumer awareness is needed to protect the consumers from the exploitation. If safe guards
their interests. It removes their ignorance , unawareness and illiteracy about the goods consumer
awareness provides the consumer the knowledge of their rights where can be claimed to redress
grievances .

Question -3 When is the world consumer rights day celebrated ?

Solution : "World Consumers Rights Day " is celebrated on March 15 every year .

Question -4 Why was consumer Protection Act 1986 exacted ?

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Solution : Consumer Protection Act , 1986 was exacted to safe guard the interests of consumer .

Question -5 Where should the consumers go to get justice ?

Solution : Consumer can go to the District Consumer Dispute Redressal Commission , State Consumer
Dispute Redressal Commission or the National Consumer Dispute Redressal Commission , to get justice .

Question -6 Many consumers who are exploited do not seek redressal . Why ?
Solution : Consumer do not seek redressal becoming the process is cumbersome, expensive and time
consuming.
A Redressal case requires …
(a ) engaging a lawyer.
(b ) filing and attending the court proceedings.
(c ) the non availability of cash memos as cash memos are not issued for most purchases.
(d ) evidence is not easy to gather.
(e ) most purchases in the market are small retail sales .
(f) the existing laws also are not very clear on the issue of compensation to consumers .
(g ) injured by defective products .

Question -7 What do we mean by consumer rights ?

Solution : A consumer is a person who buys a product , he is also called the end user.
When a product is sold there are certain rules and regulations the maker and the seller have to follow .
These rule and regulations are not followed in several cases . When these rules are not followed the
consumer has a right to fight for justice. This is called Consumer rights .

Question -8 How does exploitation in marketplace take place ?

Solution : Exploitation in the marketplace happens in various ways.
1 . Traders indulge in unfair trade practices .
2 . Shopkeepers weigh less than what they should.
3 . Traders add charges that were not mentioned in the product .
4 . Adulterated / defective goods are sold .

Question -9 What are the difficulties a consumer faces when he wants to seek redressal against unfair
trade practices and exploitatio
Solution : The consumer redressal process is cumbersome, expensive and time consuming .
The redressal process requires the following
engaging a lawyer filing and attending the court proceedings cash memos evidence , if the customer is
injured by defective products .
Engaging a lawyer is costly and court proceedings take time. Another problem the consumer faces is the
non availability of cash memos as cash memos are not issued for most purchases . Evidence is also not
easy to gather as most purchases in the market are small retail sales . More over , the existing laws also
are not very clear on the issue of compensation to consumers.

Question -10 Write a brief note the Bureau of Indian Standards.

Solution : The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS ) certification marks scheme was also introduced by the
government of India.
ISI and Agmark seals were made compulsory for many products .
These logos or seals and certification help consumers get assured of quality while purchasing the goods
and services . The Bureau of Indian Standards monitors and issue these certificates to producers to use
their logos provided they follow certain quality standards .
It is mandatory on the part of the producers of LPG cylinders, food colours and additives, cement ,
packaged drinking water , to get certified by organisation .
"Agmark " seal is mandatory for certain food articles such as edible oils , spices and honey.

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Question -11 What are consumer forums?
Solution : The consumer movement in India has led to the formation of various organisations locally
known as consumer forums or consumer protection councils . They guide consumers on how to file cases
in the consumer court and exercise their right to represent their case or grievance in the consumer courts.
On many occasions , these consumer forums also represent individual consumers in the consumer courts.
These voluntary organisations also receive financial support from the government for creating awareness
among the people .

Question -12 What the information a consumer has a right to know when he is buying a product ?
Solution : The information a consumer has a right to know when he is buying a product are :-
1 . Details about ingredients used
2 . Price
3 . Batch number
4 . Date of manufacture
5 . Expiry date
6 . Address of the manufacturer.
7 . Directions for proper use
8 . Information relating to side effects (if it is medicine)
9 . Instructions for washing (if it is garments)
This is necessary for the consumer can then complain and ask for compensation or replacement if the
product proves to be defective in any manner and not according the information provided on the
product .

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RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Resource: Anything which can be used for satisfying the human needs is called a resource.

Types of Resources:
Resources can be classified on different bases; into following types:
a. On the basis of origin: Biotic and Abiotic
b. On the basis of exhaustibility: Renewable and Non- renewable
c. On the basis of ownership: Individual, community, national and international
d. On the basis of status of development: Potential, Developed, Stock and Reserves

Classification of Resources : On the basis of Origin

a. Biotic Resources: All living organisms in our environment are called biotic resources. For
example, trees, animals, insects, etc.
b. Abiotic Resources: All non-living things present in our environment are termed as abiotic
resources.
For example – earth, air, water, metals, rocks, etc.

Classification of Resources: On the basis of Exhaustibility:

a. Renewable Resources: Resources that can be replenished after a short period of time are
called Renewable Resources. For example – agricultural crops, water, forest, wildlife, etc.
b. Non-renewable Resources: Resources which takes million years of time to replenish are
called non- renewable resources. For example – fossil fuel.

Classification of Resources: On the Basis of ownership:

a. Individual: Resources owned by individuals are called Individual Resources. For example –
land owned by farmers, house, etc.
b. Community: Resources owned by community or society are called Community Owned
Resources. For example – Graveyard, grazing land, ponds, burial grounds, park, etc.
c. National Resources: Resources owned by Individual Nations are called National Resources.
For example – Government land, Roads, canals, railway, etc.
d. International Resources: Resources regulate by International bodies are called International
Resources. For example – Ocean and sea beyond 200 km of the Exclusive Economic Zone and is
called open sea or ocean. No individual country can utilize these resources without the
permission of International bodies.

Classification of Resources: On the basis of Status of Development:

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a. Potential Resources: Resources which are found in a particular region, but not yet used
properly. For example – Rajasthan and Gujarat receive plenty of solar energy and have plenty of
wind energy, but use of these resources so far has not been developed properly.

b. Developed Resources: Resources which are developed and surveyed for utilization and are
being used in present time are known as Developed Resources.

c. Stock: Resources that are available, but we do not have proper technology to used them are
called Stock. For example – water is made of oxygen and hydrogen, which can be used as fuel,
but because of lack of proper technology these are not being used.

d. Reserves: Resources which are available and the know how to use them is also present but
they are yet to be used are called Reserves. For example – river water which is not used to
generate electricity.

Discriminate use of Resources

Resources are vital for human beings. But indiscriminate use of resources is creating many
problems.
Examples:
- Accumulation of resources in only few hands leaves others unsatisfied.
- Indiscriminate use of resources is creating many problems around the world, such as global
warming, ecological crisis, disturbance in ozone layer, etc.
- Thus, equal distribution of resources becomes necessary for sustainable development.

Sustainable Development:
Development which takes place without damaging the environment and compromising with
needs of future is called sustainable development.
Keeping the view of justified use of resources and sustainable development, the Earth Summit
was organized in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro in which more than 100 state heads agreed with Agenda
21 for the sustainable development and proper use of resources.
Agenda 21 is an agenda to combat environmental damage, poverty, disease, etc. through global
co- operation on common interests, mutual needs and shared responsibilities.

Resource Planning:
Resource planning is the judicious use of resources. Resource planning becomes more important
in a country like India, where resources are not distributed properly. For example; many states
are rich in mineral and deficient in other resources, such as Jharkhand is rich in minerals, but
there is problem of drinking water and other facilities, Arunachal Pradesh has plenty of water
but lack of other development because of lack of resources.
These types of discriminations can be reduced or completely vanished with proper planning of
judicious use of resources.

Resource Planning in India:

Resources can contribute in proper development only with a good planning keeping the
technology, skills and institution in mind.
Resource Planning in India is one of the most important goals right from its first Five Years Plan.
Following are the main points of Resource planning.

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a. Making of inventory of resources after their region- wise identification across the country.
b. Making of the planning structure with appropriate technology, skill and institutions.
c. Matching of resource plan with development plan, etc.

Conservation of Resources:

Overuse of resources creates many socio-economic problems. Many leaders and thinkers have
been advocating for the judicious use and conservation of resources. Gandhiji told “There is
enough for everybody’s need and not for any body’s greed.” He thought that exploitative nature
of modern technology is the root cause for depletion at global level. He believed in the
production by masses and not in the mass production.
Thus, conservation of resources at various levels becomes most important. Resources can be
conserved only with their judicious use.

Land Resources:

Land is one of the most important natural resources. Land supports our life system. Thus, careful
planning of use of land resource is necessary. India comprises of many types of land. These are
mountains, plateau, plains and islands.
A. Mountains: About 30% of land area in India is in the form of mountain. Mountain supports
the perennial flow of rivers, which carry fertile soils, facilitate irrigation and provide drinking
water.
B. Plain: About 43% of land area in India is in the form of plains. Plains provide facilities for
agriculture, building of industries and houses, etc.
C. Plateau: About 27% of land in India is in the form of plateau which provides many types of
minerals, fossil fuels and forest.

Land Utilisaiton: Patterns of use of Land Resources

1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation: There are two types of land which are not used for
agriculture purpose. These are:
a. Barren and waste land
b. Lands used for buildings, roads, factories, etc. i.e for non-agriculture purpose.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)
a. Permanent pastures and grazing land,
b. Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area),
c. Culturable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
4. Fallow lands
a. Current fallow-(left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year),
b. Other than current fallow-(left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years).
5. Net sown area: Area which is sown at least once in a year is called net sown area.
6. Gross cropped area: Area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown area is
known as gross cropped area.

Land Use Pattern in India:

Pattern of use of land depends upon physical and human factors both. Climate, topography, type
of soil, etc. are considered as physical factors while population, technology, skill, population

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density, tradition, capability, etc. are considered as human factors.
India has total 3.28 million square kilometer land used data. But only 93% of land of total
geographical area is available. This is because land used data has not been collected for the
north eastern states except Assam and the land occupied by Pakistan and China has not been
surveyed because of many unavoidable reasons.
The land under permanent pasture is decreasing, this will create the problem for grazing. The
total net sown are (NSA) is not more than 54% including land other than fallow land. Land other
than fallow land is either of poor quality or too costly to cultivate, these lands are cultivated only
once or twice in two or three consecutive years.
The pattern of net sown area varies widely from state to state. Where net sown area is 80% in
state like Punjab, it is only 10% in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and
Andaman and Nicobar Island. Such difference is creating lot of discrimination.
According to National Forest Policy (1952), the forest should be 33% of total geographical area,
which is essential to maintain ecological balance. But the forest area in India is far less than
desired measures. This is because of illegal deforestation and development which cannot be
overlooked, such as construction of roads and building, etc. On the other hand, a large
population which is dwelling at the fringe of forest depends upon the forest and its produce,
resulting in the reduction of forest area.
Moreover, continuous use of land over a long period without taking measures to conserve and
manage, degrade them. This has resulted in repercussion in society and creating serious problem
to environment.

Land as Resource

Our past generation left land for us without exploiting them too much and it is expected from us
too. We fulfill most of our needs from land, such as food, clothing, shelter, drinking water, etc.
But in past few decades the quality of land is degrading fiercely because of human activity. Many
human activities aggravated the natural forces which are, in turn, degrading the land resources
also.
Presently, about 130 million hectare of land is reported under degraded land in India, in which
about 28% of land belongs to forest and about 28% is water eroded area. Rest degraded land is
because of over deposition of salinity and alkalinity. Overgrazing, mining, deforestation, division
of lands in small area because of family feuds, etc. are some of the major causes of degradation
of land.
Because of mining in the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh; lands
are left abandoned without proper treatment after the completion of mining works. This has
resulted in the form of deep scars and traces. Along with mining, deforestation in these states
has degraded the land very fast.
In the states of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, over irrigation causes water shortage and
increase in salinity and alkalinity due to water logging.
In Bihar, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, land is degraded because of flood.
States, in which minerals processing, such as grinding of lime stone, manufacturing of cement,
etc. produce huge quantity of dust. These dusts prevent the percolation of water because of
deposition on the ground and it is responsible for degradation of land.
The degradation of land creates many problems, such as flood, decrease in yield, etc. which
leads to decrease in GDP and country has to face economic problems.

Measures to Conserve the Land Resources:

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Degradation of land can be prevented by taking following measures:
a. Afforestation
b. Proper management of grazing.
c. Stabilisation of sand dunes by plantation of thorny bushes.
d. Proper management of waste lands.
e. By proper irrigation.
f. By proper harvesting.
g. Control over mining activities.
h. Proper management of land after completion of mining work.
i. Discharge of industrial waste and effluents only after proper treatment.
j. Plantation of trees along the road sides.
k. By preventing deforestation.

Soil as a natural resource:

Soil is one of the most important natural resources. Soil supports the growth of plants. Soil is the
natural home of many living organism, such as ants, rats, snakes, and many insects.
Formation of Soil: It takes thousands of years to form even 1 cm of soil. Soil is formed by the
weathering process of the rocks. Various natural forces, such as temperature, running water,
wind, etc. along with many physical and chemical changes are equally important in the formation
of soil formation.

Classification of Soil:

Soil is categorized in many types on the basis of texture, colour, age, chemical properties, etc.
India is a vast country which comprises of many types of land. Thus, many types of soils are
found in different regions in India.

Alluvial Soil

Availability: Alluvial soil is found near the river or plains formed by rivers. Alluvial soil is
considered relatively younger in age. In India, alluvial soil is found in the north eastern plain
where Ganga, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra flow. Alluvial soil is deposited by river system. Entire
northern plain is made of alluvial soil.
Alluvial soil is also found in eastern coastal plains near the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavari
and the Kaveri rivers.
Nature: Alluvial soil is very fertile, thus plains of Ganga, Brahmaputra, Yamuna, etc. are densely
populated. Alluvial soil is the mixture of various proportions of silt, sand and clay. Alluvial soils
differ in the size of their particles at the area of break of slope.
Apart from the size of particles of grains, soils are also classified on the basis of their age. The
older alluvial soil is known as Bangar and new alluvial soil or Khadar. New alluvial soil has more
concentration of coarse grains while Old alluvial soil has plenty of fine particles.
Alluvial soil is rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime. Because of presence of these chemicals
alluvial soil is good for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat, maize, and pulses.

Black Soil

Availability: Because of black colour, this type of soil is called black soil. It is also known as Regur

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Soil. Black soil is found in the north west deccan plateau. It is found in the plateau of
Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh and extent along with the
valley of Krishna and Godavari Rivers.
Nature: Black soil has high concentration of fine particles and thus can hold moisture for long
time. It contains calcium, potassium, magnesium and lime. Black soil is suitable for the growth of
cotton, but many other crop are grown in the area of black soil.

Red and Yellow Soil

The soil looks red due to presence of iron in crystalline or metamorphic rocks. When the soil
look yellow when it occurs in dehydrated form. Red soil is present in the eastern and southern
parts of the Deccan Plateau. Red soil is also found in Orissa, Chhattisgarh, on the southern part
of the Gangetic plains and along the piedomont zone of the Western Ghats.

Laterite Soil

Laterite soil is formed in regions which get high rainfall with high temperature. This causes
leaching of the soil and microorganisms are killed during the process. Due to this, laterite soil
does not contain humus or contains very low amount of humus. This soil is mainly found in
Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and in hilly areas of Orissa and Assam. This soil
can be made cultivable with heavy dose of manures.

Arid Soil

Arid soil is found in those areas which receive scanty rainfall. Due to high temperature,
evaporation is faster in these regions. The soil has a high content of salt. Arid soil can be made
cultivable with proper treatment. Arid soil is present in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Forest Soil

The forest soil is found in hilly areas. The soil in upper parts is highly acidic because of
denudation. The soil in the lower part is highly fertile.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

Removal of top soil is called soil erosion. Intense farming, grazing, construction activities and
other human activities; along with deforestation have led to soil erosion. Soil erosion; if not
checked in time; can even lead to desertification.
Soil conservation is important to prevent soil erosion. Soil conservation can be done by many
methods. Afforestation is the main method because trees hold the topsoil in place. Terrace
farming and shelter belt planting also help in soil conservation.

EXTRA QUESTIONS

Q1: Why is resource planning important in country like India?

Ans: Resource Planning in India is important in a country like India because
(a) There is enormous diversity in the availability of resources.
(b) There are regions which are rich in certain types of resources and deficient in

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other resources

Q2: Mention the most satisfactory feature of land use pattern of our country?
Ans: The most satisfactory feature of land use pattern of our country is the Barren and
Waste land has reduced from 12.01% (1960-61) to 6.29% (2002-03).

Q3: Which is the most unsatisfactory feature of our land use pattern?
Ans: Land under forests has changed marginally. Forest area is 22.54% which is far lower
than the desired 33% as outlined in the National Forest Policy(1952).

Q4: Why has the land under forest not increased much since1960-61?
Ans: Large scale development projects, industrialization and urbanization as well as
agricultural expansion have widely reduced forest cover in various parts of our country.
Though afforestation and social forestry measures have been adopted, it has lead to only
a marginal increase in the forest area

Q5: Distinguish between Bangar and Khadar soil?

Ans:
Bangar Soil
1. It is an old alluvial soil.
2. It is found away from the rivers
3. It is more Fertile
4. It has high concentration of kankars
nodules and is coarse
5. It is dark in colour
Khadar Soil
1. It is a newer alluvial soil.
2. It is found close to rivers valleys
3. It is less Fertile.
4. It has fine particles and is quite smooth.
5. It is light in colour

Q6:DEFINE THE FOLLOWING TERMS:

Ans A)RESOURCE-everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our
needs ,provided ,it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally
acceptable can be termed as resource.
B) SOIL EROSION-the denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is
described as soil erosion.
c) BADLAND-the running water,cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels as
gullies. The land thus becomes unfit for cultivation ,is known as badland.

Q7:EXPLAIN THE HUMAN ACTIVITIES RESPONSIBLE FOR LAND DEGRADATION IN

INDIA?
Ans Some human activities which contributed significantly in land degradation in our
country are following
1. MINING AND DEFORESTATION-Mining sites are abandoned after excavation work is
complete leaving deep scars and traces of over burdening .In states like Jharkhand.
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa deforestation due to mining have caused
severe land degradation.
2 OVERGRAZING: Due to overgrazing grasses are uprooted and land is exposed to soil
erosion .In states like Gujarat ,Rajasthan ,Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra overgrazing is
one of the main reasons for land degradation.
3. OVER IRRIGATION: it is responsible for land degradation due to water logging leading to
increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil .in the states of punjab ,haryana and western
uttar pradesh over irrigation is the main cause of land degradation.

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4. MINERAL PROCESSING: The mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement
industry generate huge quantity of dust in the atmosphere.it retards the process of
infiltration of water into the soil after it settles down on the land .
5. INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS : industrial effluents as waste .which are discharged without
treatment, have become a major source of land and water pollution in many parts of the
country.

Q8:WHAT ARE THE MEASURES TAKEN TO CONTROL LAND DEGRADATION IN DIFFERENT

REGIONS OF INDIA?
Ans.Measures taken to control land degradation in different regions of India are following:
1. AFFORESTRATION AND PROPER MANAGEMENT OF GRAZING-it can help to some
extent .it helps in binding the soil and reduces the chances of occurrence of.
2. PLANTING OF SHELTER BELTS OF PLANTS ,CONTROL ON OVER GRAZING.
3. STABILISATION OF SAND DUNES BY GROWING THORNY BUSHES are the suitable
measures taken in arid and semi arid regions. They help in binding the soil with the roots
and also reduce the speed of wind.
4. PROPER MANAGEMENT OF WASTE LAND , CONTROL OF MINING ACTIVITIES
, PROPER DISCHARGE AND DISPOSAL INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS AND WASTES after
treatment can reduce land and water degradation in industrial and sub urban areas.

Q9:HOW HAVE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT LED TO MORE CONSUMPTION OF

RESOURCES?
Ans. Human beings interact with nature through technology and create institutions to
accelerate their economic development. In this process they often consume resources more
in quantity which cause depletion of resources .as more technological development occurs,
there is increased need of input and utilization of resources .for example, more factories
providing employment to more people is a necessity .for the factory ,land and metal (for
machines)are used. For this mining of minerals increases causing land degradation and
depletion of mineral resources of a certain area. As technical or technological development
is closely linked to economic development we can say that both of these have led to more
consumption of resources.

Q10:SUGGEST METHODS TO CONTROL SOIL EROSION.

Ans Methods are as follows:
1. CONTOUR PLOUGHING- Ploughing in a wrong way i.e. and down the slope form channels
for the quick flow of water leading to soil erosion ,whereas ploughing along the contour lines
can decelerate the flow of water down the slopes .this helps in controlling soil erosion.
2. TERRACE CULTIVATION-steps can be cut on the slopes making terraces. Terrace farming
restricts the speed of running water and controls soil erosion .western and central
Himalayas have well developed terrace farming.
3. STRIP CROPPING-large fields can be divided into strips .strips of grass are left to grow
between the crops .this breaks up the force of the wind. This method is known as strip
cropping.
4. SHELTER BELT-planting lines of trees to create shelter also helps in breaking up of the
Force of the wind .rows of such trees are called shelter belts .these shelter belts have
Contributed significantly to the stabilization of sand dunes and in stabilizing the deserty in
western india.

Q11: EXPLAIN BLACK SOIL UNDER THE FOLLOWING HEADS

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A) FORMATION B) DISTRIBUTION C) NUTRIENTS D) OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
Ans The black soil is black in colour and is also known as regur soil.
a) Formation-it is believed that climatic conditions along with the parent rock material are
the important factors for the formation of black soil. It is made of lava flows.
b) Distribution-this type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (basalt ) region spread over
northwest Deccan plateau .it covers the plateaus of Maharashtra , saurashtra, malwa ,
Madhya pradesh ,Chhattisgarh and extend in the southeast direction along the Godavari
and the Krishna valleys.
c) Nutrients-it is rich in soil nutrients such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and
lime. It is generally poor in phosphoric contents.
d) Other characteristics-black soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black
cotton soil.
It is made up of extremely fine clayey material and is well known for its capacity to hold
water.
It develops deep cracks during hot weather which helps in the proper aeration of the soil.
It is sticky when wet and difficult to work on unless tilled immediately after the first
shower or during the pre monsoon period.

Q12: GIVE A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA.

Ans .The total area of India is 3.28 million sq.km. according to the land use data, records are
available only for about 93%of the total area .the land is used for following purposes:
1. Net sown area-43.41%area of the total reporting area is in this category. The pattern of
NSA varies greatly one state to another .it is over 80%of the total area in Punjab and
Haryana and less than 10%in arunachal pradesh, Mizoram , Manipur and Andaman and
nicobar islands.
2. Fallow land-fallow other than the current fallow land is 3.82%of the total reported area.
These lands are cultivated once or twice in about two to three years as either these are of
poor quality or the cost of cultivation of such land is very high. If these are included in the NSA
then the %of NSA in India comes to about 54%of the total reporting area.
3. Permanent pasture-the land under permanent pasture has decreased in last few decades ,it is
quite difficult for the farmers to feed huge cattle .population on this pasture land and it has
affected the production of milk and other animal products
4. Forest area -forest area in our country is far lower than the desired 33%of the
geographical area, as it was outlined in the national forest policy (1952).in our country
22.57%of the total reported area is under forest. It was considered essential to have one
third of the total area under forests for the maintenance of the ecological balance. The
livelihood of the millions of people who live on the fringes of these forests depends upon
it.
5. Land not available for cultivation.
a. Barren waste land- it includes rocky, arid and desert areas. Land under this category
reduced from 12.01% to 6.29% which is the most satisfactory feature of our land use
pattern.
b. Land put to other non-agricultural uses- it includes settlements, roads, railways, industry
etc. it increased from 4.95% to 7.29% in last few decades due to increasing population,
industrialization and urbanization.

Q13:What are the problems associated with indiscriminate use of resources? how
can it be solved?
Ans. Resources are vital for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life. It

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was believed that resources are the free gifts of nature. As a result, human beings used
them indiscriminately and this has led to the following major problems:
a. Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of few individuals.
b. Accumulation of resources in few hands, which in turn, divided the society into rich
and poor.
c. Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as
global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.
d. SOLUTION: an equitable distribution of resources has become essential for a sustained quality
of life and global peace. Resource planning is essential for sustainable existence of all forms of
life.

Q14: Distinguish between biotic and abiotic resources.

Ans.
BIOTIC RESOURCES ABIOTIC RESOURCES
These are obtained from biosphere i.e. living These are obtained from the non-living
resources. resources.
Some of these resources are renewable. They are non- renewable but some are
Recycled
Eg: flora and fauna Eg: rocks, minerals, air and water

Q15: Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources.

Ans.
RENEWABLE RESOURCES NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
Resources which can be renewed or Resources which cannot be renewed or
reproduced by physical, chemical and reproduced.
mechanical processes
They get renewed over a short period of They occur over a very long geological period
time. (millions of years).

They are unlimited and are not exhausted. They are limited in their availability and are
exhausted
These are further divided into continuous or These are divided into recyclable and non-
flow and biological. recyclable.

Eg: water, wind , forest, wildlife, solar energy Eg: minerals and fossil fuels.
.

Q16: distinguish between individual resources and national resources.

Ans.
INDIVIDUAL RESOURCES
These are owned by individuals privately
Many farmers own land which is allotted to
the government against the payment of
revenue.
In villages these are the people with land
ownership but many are landless. In urban
areas people own plots, houses, ponds,
NATIONAL RESOURCES
These resources belong to the nation
The country has legal powers to acquire
even private property for public good. At
times roads and canals are constructed by
acquiring the private property.
Urban Development Authorities get
empowered by the govt. to acquire land. all
minerals , water, forests, wildlife, land within

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water wells etc. the political boundaries and territorial water
belong to the nation.

Q17: Name four broad types of soils found in India. Mention the two characteristics of a
soil which are most important and widespread.
Ans. Four major types of soil found in India are
a. Alluvial soil
b. Black soil
c. Red and yellow soil
d. Laterite soil
Alluvial soil is the most important and widespread soil in India.
Two characteristics of alluvial soil:
a. This soil is formed by deposition of materials brought down by rivers
b. It is highly fertile. It is rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime.

Q18: State the diverse relief features of India and mention one significance of each.
Ans. India has diverse relief features namely mountains, plateaus and plains.
- PLAINS: about 43% of the land is plains which is agriculturally and industrially
productive.
- MOUNTAINS: mountains account for 30% of the total area and are the source of
many perennial rivers, promote tourism and development of horticulture.
- PLATEAUS: about 27% of the land area of the country are the plateaus which are the
storehouse of minerals, forest and fossil fuels. They form the backbone of the country’s
economy in promoting the development of industries.

Q19’ Resources are the functions of human beings’ Justify the statement
Ans The process of transformation of t he resources available in our environment involves
an interdependent relationship between nature, technology and institutions. Human beings
interact with nature through A The process of transformation of things available in our
environment involves an interdependent technology and create institutions to accelerate
their economic development .Human beings themselves are essential components of
resources .They transform the material available in our environment into resources and use
them.

Q20 ‘Resource planning is a complex process’. Justify

OR
Explain three important stages involved in the process of resource planning.
Ans Resource planning is a complex process which involves-:
i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves
surveying ,mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the
resources.
ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set
up for implementing resource development plans.
iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans

Q21 Write important features of laterite soil .

Ans i) The laterite soil develops in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall.
ii) This is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain.
iii) Humus content is low due to micro-organisms particularly the decomposers, like

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bacteria, get destroyed due to high temperature
iv) Laterite soils are suitable for cultivation with adequate doses of manures and
fertilizers.

Q22 Describe the characteristics of arid soils.

Ans i) Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
ii) They are generally sandy in texture and saline in nature.
iii) Due to the dry climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster and the soil lacks
humus and moisture.
iv) The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing
calcium content downwards. The kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons
restricts the infiltrations of water.
v) After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable as has been in the case of
Rajasthan.

Q23 Write important features of Red and Yellow soils

Ans i) Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall.
ii) These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline igneous and
metamphoric rocks.
iii) It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form
iv) These soils are found in parts of Orissa , Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle
Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats

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FOREST AND WILDLIFE

Biodiversity: The variety of flora and fauna in a given geographical area is called biodiversity of
that area.

Flora and Fauna in India

India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity, and
has nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world (estimated to be 1.6 million).

List of Critically Endangered Species:

Cheetah, pink-headed Duck, Mountain Quail, Forest Spotted Owl, madhucha insignis (wild
mahua), hubbardia heptaneuron (a grass species)

Number of Endangered Species: 79 species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of

amphibians, 1,500 plant species are considered endangered.

Classification Based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN):

A. Normal Species: If the population level of species is within normal range for their survival, it is
called normal species, e.g. cattle, pine, sal, rodents, etc.

B. Endangered Species: Species which are in danger of extinction are called endangered species,
e.g. black buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter
deer in Manipur), etc.

C. Vulnerable Species: If the population of a species has declined to such a level that it is likely to
become endangered; it is called vulnerable species, e.g. blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic
dolphin, etc.

D. Rare Species: If the population of a species so small that it can become vulnerable or
endangered, it is called rare species, e.g. Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert, fox,
hornbill, etc.

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E. Endemic Species: A species which found only in a particular geographical area is called an
endemic species, e.g. Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, mithun in Arunachal
Pradesh, etc.

F. Extinct Species: A species which no longer exists is called an extinct species. A species may be
extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth. Examples: Asiatic
cheetah, pink head duck, etc.

Causes of Depletion of Flora and Fauna:

Agricultural Expansion: According to the Forest Survey of India, over 262,000 sq km of forest
area was converted into agricultural land in India between 1951 and 1980. Moreover, a
substantial part of the tribal belts has been deforested or degraded by shifting cultivation.

Enrichment Plantation: Enrichment plantation was done to promote a few favoured species in
many parts of India. This practice involves plantation of a single commercially valuable species.
This leads to elimination of other species.

Development Projects: Large scale development projects have also contributed significantly to
the loss of forests. Over 5,000 sq km of forest was cleared for river valley projects since 1951.

Mining: Mining has also caused large scale depletion of flora and fauna in many areas. For
example; the ongoing dolomite mining is seriously threatening the Buxa Tiger Reserve in West
Bengal.

Unequal Access to Resources: Social inequality is another major factor to depletion of flora and
fauna. The rich people consume much more than the poor and thus cause a higher degree of
environmental damage.

Social Effect of Resource Depletion:

In many societies, it is the women who are responsible for collection of fuel, fodder, water and
other basic subsistence needs. Depletion of these resources means women need to work harder
to collect those resources. At some places, women may have to walk more than 10 km to collect
firewood. This causes serious health problems for women.

Deforestation induced flood and draught result in economic misery for the poor. Deforestation
also leads to loss of cultural diversity. The marginalized people who had been traditionally
dependent on forest for sustenance are now forced to look for other sources of livelihood. In
order to do so, they are uprooted from their traditional habitat and culture.

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The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972:
I n the 1960s and 1970s, the conservationists demanded some rules to protect the wildlife.
Conceding to their demand, the government enacted the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.
Under this act, an all India list of protected species was published. Hunting was banned to
protect the remaining population of some endangered species. Trade in wildlife was restricted
and the habitats of wildlife were given legal protection many national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries were established by various state governments and the central government. Several
projects were announced for protecting specific animals, e.g. Project Tiger.

Benefits of Conservation:
- Conservation helps in preserving ecological diversity and our life support systems; water, air
and soil.
- It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals.

Government's Categorization of Forests:

A. Reserved Forests: More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved forests.
These are considered as the most valuable from conservation perspective.

B. Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected forest. The protected
forests are protected from any further depletion.

C. Unclassed Forests: Forests which do not come under either of the above two categories are
called unclassed forests.

New Trends In Conservation Policy

Increase Biodiversity: The new trend in conservation policy is the focus on biodiversity rather
than on a few of its components. So, instead of just focusing on bigger mammals; like tiger and
lion, even insects are finding a place in conservation planning. New notifications were issued
under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986. As per them; several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles
and one dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species. Six species of plants were
added to the list in 1991.

Community and Conservation

- Many local communities have recognized that conservation can secure their long-term
livelihood. At many places, such communities are coordinating with government officials in
conservation efforts.
- At Sariska Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan), villagers have fought against mining by citing the
Wildlife Protection Act.
- In many villages, people are protecting habitats and are explicitly rejecting government
involvement. For example; the inhabitants of five villages in Alwar district of Rajastahn have
declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Soncuri’. They have declared their
own set of rules and regulation to protect the wildlife.
- Nature worship is an age old custom in the Hindu religion and in many tribes. Sacred groves
in forests are the result of this tradition. Such spots in forests are untouched by human
intervention.
- The Mundas and the Santhals of Chhota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and
kadamba (Anthocaphalus cadmba) trees. Similarly, the tribals of Orissa and Bihar worship

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the tamarind (Tamarinudus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica); as part of wedding rituals.
- Monkeys are considered the representatives of the Hindu god Hanuman. At most of the
places people do not harm monkeys or langurs because of this belief. In and around Bishnoi
villages in Rajasthan, chinkara, nilgai and peacocks are protected by the community and
nobody harms them.
- The Chipko Movement is a good example of community participation in conservation
programme. Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and
Navdanya have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of
synthetic chemicals are possible and economically viable.
- The Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme is another example of involvement of local
communities in forest management. This programme has been in practice in Orissa since
1988. Under this programme, the local villagers form some institutions and manage the
conservation activities. In lieu of that, they get the right to take and utilize some forest
resources.

PROJECT TIGER
- Project Tiger was launched in 1973; to protect tigers from becoming extinct.
- At the turn of the 20th century, the tiger population was around 55,000 which dwindled to
1,827 by 1973.
- Threats for Tiger Population: Poaching for trade, shrinking habitat, depletion of base prey
species, growing human population, etc.

Current Status: 27 tiger reserves covering 37,761 sq km.

Important Tiger Reserves: Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand), Sunderband National Park
(West Bengal), Bandhavgarh National Park (Madhya Pradesh), Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary
(Rajasthan), Manas Tiger Reserve (Assam) and Periyar Tiger Reserve (Kerala)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3MARKS)

1 “India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological
diversity” Support the statement with three facts.
Ans Three facts are -
i) India has about 8% of the total number species of plants and animals of the world
(estimated to be 1.6 million ).
ii) Over 81,000 species of fauna and 47,000 species of flora are found in our country.
iii) Of the estimated 47,000 species of flora 15,000 flowering species are endemic to India.

2 Attempt the classification of plants and animal species given by International

Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).Give suitable
examples of each.
Ans The different categories of existing plants and animal species based on the IUCN are
as follows:-
i) NORMAL SPECIES-Species whose population levels are in danger considered to

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be normal for their survival such as cattle, sal ,pine, rodents etc.
ii) VULNERABLE SPECIES-Species whose population has declined to levels from
where it is likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the negative
factors continue to operate such as Blue sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin
iii)ENDANGERED SPECIES-Species which are in danger of extinction. The survival
of such species is difficult if the negative factors that have led to a decline in their
population continue to operate. The examples are black buck, crocodile Indian wild ass,
sangai etc
iv) RARE SPECIES- Species with small population may move into the endangered or
vulnerable category if the negative factors effecting them continue to operate. The
examples are Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill.
v)ENDEMIC SPECIES-These are species which are only found in some particular
areas usually isolated by natural or geographical barriers such as Andaman teal,
Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, Mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.
vi) EXTINCT SPECIES-These are species which are not found after searches of
known or likely areas where they may occur. These species may be extinct from
local area, region ,country, continent or the entire earth. Examples are the Asiatic
cheetah, pink head duck.

3 When was ‘Project tiger’ launched? Write important features of this project.
Ans ‘Project Tiger’ was launched in 1973.
i) There are 27 tiger reserves in India covering an area of 37,761sq km
ii)Tiger conservation has been viewed not only as an effort to save endangered
species but with equal importance as a means of preserving biotypes off sizable
magnitude.
iii)Corbett National Park in Uttranchal, Sunderbans National Park in West
Bengal , Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam are some of the examples of the tiger
reserves in India

4 Differentiate between –Reserved forests and protected forests

Ans:
RESERVED FORESTS PROTECTED FORESTS
1. These are maintained for the purpose of 1. These forests are protected from
producing timber and other forest produce. Depletion.
2. More than half of the total forest land has 2. Almost one third of the total forest
been declared as reserved forest. area is declared as protected forest
3. Madhya Pradesh, Jammu-Kashmir, 3.Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal
Andhra Pradesh, Uttranchal, Kerala, Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan have
Maharashatra, Tamilnadu and West Bengal bulk of their forest under protected
have large under reserved forests forests

5 ‘The destruction of forest and wildlife is strongly co-related with the loss of
cultural diversity ”Justify the statement with suitable facts.
Ans The destruction of forest and wildlife has affected the livelihood of many communities who
are directly dependent on forests. They depend on forest for their food, medicine,
drink, livelihood culture and spirituality. In certain societies women are involved in fuel
collection, fodder for animals and water for their basic needs. Due to large scale
deforestation these forest products are not available to them and the life of these people, especi

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ally women is largely affected.
Women have to go in search of food, water, fuel over long distances leaving their family
for long time resulting in social tensions.
It has also resulted in severe droughts and floods which has affected these communities
very badly. These people live in extreme poverty which is the direct result of the
environmental degradation.

6. Why do we need to conserve our forests and wildlife?

Ans i) Conservation preserves the ecology diversity and our life support system-water, air
And soil.
ii) It also preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better growth of species and br
eeding. For example, in agriculture we are still dependent on traditional varieties of crop. Fisheri
es too are heavily dependent on the maintenance aquatic biodiversity.

7. Give some examples of flora and fauna conserved by people through their cultural
and religious practices.
Ans Examples of flora and fauna conserved by people through their cultural and religious
practices are following
i) The Mundas and Santhals of Chhotanagpur region worship mahua and kadamba
trees.
ii) The tribals of Orissa and Bihar worship the tamarind and the mango trees during
weddings.
iii) Other trees like tulsi, peepal and banyan are also considered sacred.
iv) Troops of macaques and langurs around many temples are fed daily and treated as
a part of temple devotees
v) In and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds of blackbuck, nilgai and peacock
can be seen as an integral part of the community and nobody harms them.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS(5 MARKS)

8. Write the steps taken by the government for the conservation of flora and fauna in
India.
Ans The following steps have been taken by the government conservation of flora and
fauna
i) The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was enacted in 1972 .An all-India list of protected
species was also published.
Hunting of endangered species was banned and trading in wildlife was restricted.
ii) National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries and Bird sanctuaries were established
iii) Special programmes like ‘Project Tiger’, ‘Project Rhino’ have been taken up to conserve these
species.
iv) Under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986 several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles have
been added to the list of protected species.
v) In 1991, for the first time plants were also added to the list , starting with six
species.

9. What are the negative factors that cause depletion of flora and fauna in India?
Ans The negative factors responsible for depletion of flora and fauna in India are-
i) During the colonial period due to the expansion of the railways, mining scientific and
commercial forestry and agriculture there was a huge loss of the Indian forests.
ii)Even after independence, agricultural expansion continued and between1951-1980

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according to the Forest Survey of India, over 26,200 sq km of forest area was converted
into agricultural land all over India.
iii) Substantial parts of the tribal belts, especially in the north- eastern and the central
India, have been deforested by shifting cultivation, a type of ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
iv) Large scale developmental projects like Narmada Sagar Project of Madhya Pradesh
would inundate 40,000 hectares of forest.
v) Mining is another important factor,mainly the Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal is
seriously threatened by dolomite mining.It has disturbed the natural habitat of many
species and migration route of animals,especially the great Indian Elephant.
vi)Many foresters and environmentalists hold the view that the greatest degrading factors behin
d the depletion of forest resources are grazing and fuel wood collection.

10. Analyse the various factors responsible for the decline in India’s biodiversity
Ans The various factors responsible for the decline in India’s biodiversity are following
i) Habitat destruction
ii) Hunting
iii) Poaching
iv) Over-exploitation
v) Environmental pollution
vi) Poisoning
vii) Forest fires
viii) Unequal access
ix) Inequitable consumption of resources
x) Differential sharing of responsibility for environmental well-being
For example an average American consumes 40 times more resources than an average
Somalian.
The richest 5% of Indian society probably cause more ecological damage due to the
amount they consume than the poorest 25%.Rich people share minimum responsibility for envir
onmental well-being.

11 Describe how communities have conserved and protected forest and wildlife in
India?
Ans The communities have conserved forest and wildlife in the following ways-
i) In Sariska tiger reserve.Rajasthan , villagers have fought against mining by
citing the Wildlife Protection Act.
ii) The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared
1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhirodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’ declaring their own set
of rules and regulations which do not allow hunting and are protecting the wildlife
against any outside encroachment.
iii) The famous ‘Chipko movement’ in the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
deforestation in several areas but has also shown that community afforestation with
indigenous species can be enormously successful.
iv) Farmers and citizen’s group like Beej Bachao Andolan inTehri and Navdanya
have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of
synthetic chemicals are possible and economically viable.
v) The Joint Forest Management (JFM)Programme is a good example of how local
communities were involved in the management and restoration of degraded forests.
The programme has been in formal existence since 1988 when the state of Orissa passed
the first resolution for joint forest management JFM depends on the formation of local

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institutions that undertake protection activities mostly on degraded forest land managed
by forest department. In return the members of these communities are entitled to
intermediary benefits like non timber forest products and share in the timber harvested by ‘succ
essful protection’.

WATER RESOURCES
Water: Some Facts and Figures:
- Out of total volume of water on earth; 97.5% exists in oceans and seas.
- About 2.5% of total water is available as freshwater.
- 70% of total freshwater is present as frozen ice in icebergs and glaciers.
- A little less than 30% of total freshwater is stored as groundwater.
- India receives about 4% of global precipitation.
- India ranks 133rd in the world in terms of water availability per person per annum.
- The total renewable water resources in India are estimated at 1,897 sq km per annum.
- It is predicted that large parts of India will join regions with absolute water scarcity; by 2025.

Water Scarcity:
- Overexploitation of water, excessive use and unequal access to water among different social
groups are the main causes of water scarcity.
- A large population needs ever more water for various purposes. Large scale farming also
needs lot of water for irrigation. While demand has been increasing, the process of natural
recharge of groundwater has suffered because of several reasons.
- Large scale deforestation has disturbed the natural recharge of groundwater at many places.
Construction of concrete buildings, factories and roads has also made the ground less
impervious to rainwater. This has almost totally stopped the percolation of rainwater to
recharge groundwater.
- Excess use of chemical fertilisers and insecticides has contaminated groundwater at many
places. The contamination is at such a high level that water has become unfit for human
consumption.
- Sewage and effluents are being discharged into rivers and ponds; without being treated.
This has turned most of the rivers into filthy drains.

Water Resource Management

India had a long tradition of building various structures to manage water resources. Irrigation
systems were built as early as during the Mauryan Empire.
At present, many multipurpose dam projects had been built in India. These dams serve many
purposes. They prevent flood by checking the flow of water. The water from the dams is used
through a system of canals to irrigate far flung areas. Dams are also used for electricity
generation. Moreover, drinking water is also supplied from the dams.
But dams have caused a lot of people being displaced from their ancestral lands. Additionally, a
vast tract of land gets submerged in the catchment area of dam. This results in large scale
environmental consequences. Due to these reasons, many movement groups have begun
protesting against building of large dams. Narmada Bachao Andolan is an example of one such
movement.

Rainwater Harvesting

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Most of the rainwater just flows off without percolating down the ground. This can be prevented
by using rainwater harvesting. Rainwater can be collected for future use or can be channelized to
recharge groundwater. Rooftop rainwater harvesting is ideal to be applied at small scale. Many
infrastructure projects; like Metro rail and flyovers have also started making provisions for
rainwater harvesting.

EXTRA QUESTIONS
Question -1 What is the situation regarding water scarcity in post independent India ?
Solution : Post -independent India witnessed intensive industrialisation and urbanisation ,
creating vast opportunities for us . Today , large industrial houses are as common placeas the
industrial units of many MNCs ( Multinational Corporations ) . The ever -increasing number of
industries has made matters worse by exerting pressure on existing freshwater resources .
Industries, apart from being heavy users of water, also require power to run them . Much of this
energy comes from hydroelectric power. Today, in India hydroelectric power contributes
approximately 22 per cent of the total electricity produced. Moreover, multiplying urban centres
with large and dense populations and urban lifestyles have not only added to water and energy
requirements but have further aggravated the problem . If you look into the housing societies or
colonies in the cities, you would find that most of these have their own groundwater pumping
devices to meet their water needs.

Question -2 What are the causes of water scarcity in available areas ?

Solution : This scarcity may be due to bad quality of water . Lately , there has been a growing
concern that even if there is ample water to meet the needs of the people, much of it may be
polluted by domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals, pesticides and fertilisers used in
agriculture , thus , making it hazardous for human use.

Question -3 Give a short note on Multi -purpose projects In India .

Solution : Multi -purpose projects, launched after Independence with their integrated water
resources management approach , were thought of as the vehicle that would lead the nation to
development and progress, overcoming the handicap of its colonial past . Jawaharlal Nehru
proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of modern India’; the reason being that it would
integrate development of agriculture and the village economy with rapid industrialisation and
growth of the urban economy .

Question -4 What were the different methods of traditional rain -water harvesting ?
Solution : There existed an extraordinary tradition of water -harvesting system. People had in-
depth knowledge of rainfall regimes and soil types and developed wide ranging techniques to
harvest rainwater , groundwater , river water and flood water in keeping with the local
ecological conditions and their water needs. In hill and mountainous regions , people built
diversion channels like the ‘guls ’ or ‘ kuls ’ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture . ‘ Rooftop
rain water harvesting’ was commonly practised to store drinking water , particularly in
Rajasthan . In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their
fields. In arid an semi-arid regions , agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage
structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the ‘ khadins ’ in Jaisalmer
and ‘Johads ’ in other parts of Rajasthan .

Question -5 Give a short note on Rooftop rainwater harvesting .

Solution : Rooftop harvesting was common across the towns and villages of the Thar. Rainwater

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that falls on the sloping roofs of houses is taken through a pipe into an underground tanka
( circular holes in the ground ) . It is built in the main house or in the courtyard . Water can be
taken from a neighbour ’ s roof through a long pipe . A hole is made through which rainwater
flows down into an underground tanka .

Question -6 State two objectives of rainwater harvesting ?

Solution :
1 . It reduces run -off of potable water back into the sea.
2 . It prevents water – logging in roads during rainy season.

Question -7 What are two measures of conservation of water resources?

Solution : Rainwater harvesting. Transfer of water from flood prone basins to drought prone
basins .

Question -8 Give four major uses of water .

Solution : 1. Drinking and domestic consumption like washing clothes .
2 . Irrigation of farm lands.
3 . Generation of Hydro -electricity .
4 . Cooling at home and in industrial establishments .

Question -9 What do you understand by underground water ? Mention two areas where
underground water is abundant .
Solution : Water resources that lie beneath the surface of the earth is called underground water
resources . These come into existence due to the seepage of ground water during rainy spells .
Northernplains and coastal regions have abundant underground water. This is because the plains
are flat and the rock strata are permeable .

Question -10 Name any Multi -purpose projects In India and give three contributions of that
project .
Solution : The Damodar Valley Project offers the following advantages:
1 ) Power station under that project provides 104 MW of Hydro electricity .
2 . The project provides 136 km of inland waterways through reservoirs and canals. Its canals
irrigate 4, 50, 000 hectares of agricultural land .

Question -11 What is a Multi -purpose project ? State two purposes , which are fulfilled by
multi –purpose projects .
Solution : Multi -purpose projects comprises of one or more dams erected to contain the free
flow of water, storage of water in artificially created reservoirs , power house for generation of
Hydro –electricity and feeder canals for irrigation.
1 ) They are designed to generate Hydro - electricity .
2 ) Store water for feeding irrigation channels .

Question -12 Give two reasons why precipitation is called primary source of water on earth .
Solution : Precipitation causes rains . The rainwater flow into rivers that are one of the primary
sources of water. Rainwater made available by precipitation seeps into ground creating ground
water reserves .

Question -13 Give 2 examples of over -exploitation of water resources.

Solution : Mineral water bottling plants and deep bore wells are two examples of over -

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exploitation of water resources .

Question -14 How much of the world ’ s water exist as fresh water ?
Solution : 2 . 5 % of the world’ s water exists as fresh water.

Question -15 Identify the sources of fresh water supply?

Solution : Precipitation , surface run - off and ground water are sources of fresh water supply .

Question -16 How has industrialisation affected the quality of river waters ?
Solution : Discharges of untreated effluents in the river by industrial units have polluted river
water.

Question -17 What are the social consequences of building big dams?
Solution : Big dam projects cause large scale displacement of people . The displaced people
have to give up their homes and their lands. The displaced people do not get the compensation
they are promised by the government and are put to a lot of hardship . The advantages of the
dam , such as better irrigation facilities , electricity and industrialisation are enjoyed by others ,
were as the displaced people are left defenceless . The dams have caused conflict between
people who have been displaced and those who have benefited .
Tribal people and farmers are involved in the Narmada Bachao Andolan and Tehri Dam Andolan
seeking justice for displacement .

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AGRICULTURE
TYPES OF FARMING IN INDIA
Primitive Subsistence Farming
This type of farming is still practised in few pockets of India. Primitive subsistence agriculture is
practised on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging
sticks, and family/community labour. This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural
fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown. It is a
‘slash and burn’ agriculture. Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food
crops to sustain their family. When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh
patch of land for cultivation. This type of shifting allows Nature to replenish the fertility of the
soil through natural processes; land productivity in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer
does not use fertilisers or other modern inputs. It is known by different names in different parts
of the country. It is known as jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram
and Nagaland; Pamlou in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district of Chattishgarh, and in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. This primitive form of cultivation is called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya
Pradesh, ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh, ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Orissa,
‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the Himalayan
belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, and ‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region.
Intensive Subsistence Farming
This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land. It is labour
Intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining
Higher production. Though the ‘right of inheritance’ leading to the division of land among
successive generations has rendered land-holding size uneconomical, the farmers continue to
take maximum output from the limited land in the absence of alternative source of livelihood.
Thus, there is enormous pressure on agricultural land.

Commercial Farming
The main characteristic of this type of farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs, e.g.
high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to
obtain higher productivity. The degree of commercialisation of agriculture varies from one
region to another. For example, rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but in Orissa, it
is a subsistence crop.

Plantation
Plantation is also a type of commercial farming. In this type of farming, a single crop is grown on
a large area. The plantation has an interface of agriculture and industry. Plantations cover large
tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant labourers. All the produce
is used as raw material in respective industries. In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana,
etc.. are important plantation crops. Tea in Assam and North Bengal coffee in Karnataka are
some of the important plantation crops grown in these states. Since the production is mainly for
market, a well developed network of transport and communication connecting the plantation

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areas, processing industries and markets plays an important role in the development of
plantations.

CROPPING PATTERN
India has three cropping seasons — rabi, kharif and zaid.

Rabi: Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from
April to June. Some of the important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.
Though, these crops are grown in large parts of India, states from the north and northwestern
parts such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttaranchal and Uttar
Pradesh are important for the production of wheat and other rabi crops. Availability of
precipitation during winter months due to the western temperate cyclones helps in the success
of these crops. However, the success of the green revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has also been an important factor in the growth of the above
mentioned rabi crops.

Kharif: Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and
these are harvested in September-October. Important crops grown during this season are paddy,
maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean. Some of the
most important rice-growing regions are Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan coast) along with Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar. Recently, paddy has also become an important crop of Punjab and Haryana.
In states like Assam, West Bengal and Orissa, three crops of paddy are grown in a year. These are
Aus, Aman and Boro.

Zaid: In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season during the summer
months known as the Zaid season. Some of the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are watermelon,
muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops. Sugarcane takes almost a year to grow.

Major Crops
Rice: It is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India. Our country is the second
largest producer of rice in the world after China. It is a kharif crop which requires high
temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In the areas
of less rainfall, it grows with the help of irrigation. Rice is grown in the plains of north and
north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions. Development of dense network of
canal irrigation and tubewells have made it possible to grow rice in areas of less rainfall such as
Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.

Wheat: This is the second most important cereal crop. It is the main food crop, in north and
north-western part of the country. This rabi crop requires a cool growing season and a bright
sunshine at the time of ripening. It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed
over the growing season. There are two important wheat-growing zones in the country – the
Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and black soil region of the Deccan. The major wheat
Producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya
Pradesh.

Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India. Though, these are known
as coarse grains, they have very high nutritional value. For example, ragi is very rich in iron,
calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage. Jowar is the third most important food crop with

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respect to area and production. It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly
needs irrigation. Maharashtra is the largest producer of jowar followed by Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil. Rajasthan is
the largest producer of bajra followed by Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. Ragi
is a crop of dry regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils.
Karnataka is the largest producer of ragi followed by Tamil Nadu. Apart from these states,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh are also important for
the production of ragi.

Maize: It is a crop which is used both as food and fodder. It is a kharif crop which requires
temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil. In some states like Bihar
maize is grown in rabi season also. Use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers and
irrigation have contributed to the increasing production of maize. Major maize-producing states
are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Pulses: India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. These
are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet. Arhar, urad, moong, masur, chana and peas
are major pulses of India. Pulses help in restoring soil fertility. That is why they are produce in
rotation with other crops. UP, MP, Rajasthan and Karnataka are major pulse producing states in
India.

Sugarcane: Sugarcane grows in hot and humid climate. It requires temperature range of 21° to
27° c and rainfall of 75 cm to 100 cm. Sugar can grow on variety of soils. After Brazil, India is the
second largest producer of sugarcane in the world. It is the main source of sugar, gur (jaggary),
khandsari and molasses. The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.

Oil Seeds: India is the largest producer of oilseeds in the world. Different oil seeds are grown
covering approximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area of the country. Main oil-seeds
produced in India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor seeds,
cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower. Most of these are edible and used as cooking mediums.
However, some of these are also used as raw material in the production of soap, cosmetics
and ointments.
Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced in the
country. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of groundnut followed by Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra – linseed and mustard are rabi crops. Sesamum is a kharif
crop in north and rabi crop in south India. Castor seed is grown both as rabi and kharif crop.

Tea: Tea cultivation is an example of plantation agriculture. It is also an important beverage crop
introduced in India initially by the British. Today, most of the tea plantations are owned by
Indians. The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and
fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter. Tea bushes require warm and moist
frost-free climate all through the year. Frequent showers evenly distributed over the year ensure
continuous growth of tender leaves. Tea is a labour intensive industry. It requires abundant,
cheap and skilled labour. Tea is processed within the tea garden to restore its freshness. Major
tea producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala. Apart from these, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh
and Tripura are also tea-producing states in the country. India is the leading producer as well as
exporter of tea in the world.

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Coffee: India produces about four per cent of the world’s coffee production. Indian coffee is
known in the world for its good quality. The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is
produced in the country. This variety is in great demand all over the world. Initially its cultivation
was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills.

Others: India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits. Mangoes of Maharashtra,

Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee
(Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra,
apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are in great
demand the world over.

Horticulture Crops: India is the largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. India
produces about 13 per cent of the world’s vegetables. It is an important producer of pea,
cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.

Non-Food Crops
Rubber: It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and
Subtropical areas. It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and
temperature above 25°C. Rubber is an important industrial raw material. It is mainly grown in
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicabar islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.
India ranks fifth among the world’s natural rubber producers.

Cotton: India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant. Cotton is one of the main
raw materials for cotton textile industry. India is the third-largest producer of cotton in the
world. Cotton grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. It requires
high temperature, light rainfall orirrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth
. It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Major cotton-producing states are –
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab,
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

Jute: It is known as the golden fibre. Jute grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood
plains where soils are renewed every year. High temperature is required during the time of
growth. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa and Meghalaya are the major jute producing states. It
is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts. Due to its high
cost, it is losing market to synthetic fibres and packing materials, particularly the nylon.

Bhoodan – Gramdan & Land Reforms

Vinoba Bhave spread the awareness about donating surplus land to the landless. This was a
precursor of abolition of Zamindari system. ‘Land reform’ was the main focus of our First Five
Year Plan. The right of inheritance had already lead to fragmentation of land holdings
Necessitating consolidation of holdings. The laws of land reforms were enacted but the laws of
Implementation was lacking or lukewarm. The Government of India embarked upon introducing
agricultural reforms to improve Indian agriculture in the 1960s and 1970s. The Green Revolution
based on the use of package technology and the White Revolution (Operation Flood) were some
of the strategies initiated to improve the lot of Indian agriculture. But, this too led to the concent
ration of development in few selected areas. In states like Punjab, UP, proper implementation of
land reform has led viable size of plot. The right size leads to scale economy and better crop

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management leading to optimum production. Therefore, in the 1980s and 1990s, a
comprehensive land development programme was initiated, which included both institutional
and technical reforms. Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire and
disease, establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing loan
facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest were some important steps in this direction.
Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other schemes
introduced by the Government of India for the benefit of the farmers. Moreover, special
weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers were introduced on the radio and
television. The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and
procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and
middlemen.

Current Scenario: The growth rate in agriculture is decelerating which is an alarming situation.
Today, Indian farmers are facing a big challenge from international competition and our
government is going ahead with reduction in the public investment in agriculture sector
particularly in irrigation, power, rural roads, market and mechanisation. Subsidy on fertilisers is
decreased leading to increase in the cost of production. Moreover, reduction in import duties on
agricultural products have proved detrimental to agriculture in the country. Farmers are
withdrawing their investment from agriculture causing a downfall in the employment in
agriculture.
Agriculture has been the backbone of the Indian economy though its share in the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) has registered a declining trend from 1951 onwards; yet its
share in providing employment and livelihood to the population continues to be as high as
63 per cent in 2001.
The declining share of agriculture in the GDP is a matter of serious concern because any decline
and stagnation in agriculture will lead to a decline in other spheres of the economy having wider
implications for society.
Considering the importance of agriculture in India, the Government of India made concerted
efforts to modernise agriculture. Establishment of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),
agricultural universities, veterinary services and animal breeding centres, horticulture
development, research and development in the field of meteorology and weather forecast, etc.
were given priority for improving Indian agriculture. Apart from this, improving the rural
infrastructure was also considered essential for the same.

FOOD SECURITY
If any segment of our population does not have this access, that segment suffers from lack of
food security. The number of people who do not have food security is disproportionately large in
some regions of our country, particularly in economically less developed states with higher
incidence of poverty. The remote areas of the country are more prone to natural disasters and
uncertain food supply. In order to ensure availability of food to all sections of society our
government carefully designed a national food security system. It consists of two components
(a)buffer stock and
(b) public distribution system (PDS).

Public Distribution System: PDS is a programme which provides food grains and other essential
commodities at subsidised prices in rural and urban areas. India’s food security policy has a
primary objective to ensure availability of food grains to the common people at an affordable
price. It has enabled the poor to have access to food. The focus of the policy is on growth in
agriculture production and on fixing the support price for procurement of wheat and rice, to

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maintain their stocks. Food Corporation of India (FCI) is responsible for procuring and stocking
food grains, whereas distribution is ensured by public distribution system (PDS).

The FCI procures foodgrains from the farmers at the government announced minimum support
price (MSP). The government used to provide subsidies on agriculture inputs such as fertilizers,
power and water. These subsidies have now reached unsustainable levels and have also led to
large scale inefficiencies in the use of these scarce inputs. Excessive and imprudent use of
fertilizers and water has led to waterlogging, salinity and depletion of essential micronutrients in
the soil. The high MSP, subsidies in input and committed FCI purchases have distorted the
cropping pattern. Wheat and paddy crops are being grown more for the MSP they get. Punjab
and Haryana are foremost examples. This has also created a serious imbalance in inter-crop
parities.
In PDS consumers are divided into two categories :
• Below poverty line(BPL) and
• Above poverty line (APL),
with the issue price being different for each category.
However, this categorisation is not perfect and a number of deserving poor have been excluded
from the BPL category. Moreover, some of the so called APL slip back to BPL, because of the
failure of even one crop and it is administratively difficult to accommodate such shifts.

Suggestion for Future: Each district and block can be made self sufficient in food grain
production if government provides proper agricultural infrastructure, credit linkages and also
encourages the use of latest techniques. Instead of concentrating only on rice or wheat, the food
crop with a better growth potential in that particular area must be encouraged. Creation of
necessary infrastructure like irrigation facilities, availability of electricity etc. may also attract
private investments in agriculture. The focus on increasing food grain production which should
be on a sustainable basis and also Free trade in grains will create massive employment and
reduce poverty in rural areas.

Shifting Agricultural Pattern:

There has been a gradual shift from cultivation of food crops to cultivation of fruits, vegetables,
oil-seeds and industrial crops. This has led to the reduction in net sown area under cereals and
pulses. With the growing population of India, the declining food production puts a big question
mark over the country’s future food security. The competition for land between non-agricultural
uses such as housing etc. and agriculture has resulted in reduction in the net sown area. The
productivity of land has started showing a declining trend. Fertilisers, pesticides and insecticides,
which once showed dramatic results, are now being held responsible for degrading the soils.
Periodic scarcity of water has led to reduction in area under irrigation. Inefficient water
management has led to water logging and salinity.

Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture

Under globalisation, particularly after 1990, the farmers in India have been exposed to new
challenges. Despite being an important producer of rice, cotton, rubber, tea, coffee, jute and
spices our agricultural products are not able to compete with the developed countries because
of the highly subsidised agriculture in those countries.
Change in cropping pattern for example from cereals to high-value crops will mean that India will
have to import food. During 1960’s this would have been seen as a disaster. But if India imports
cereals while exporting high-value commodities, it will be following successful economies like
Italy, Israel and Chile.

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These countries exports farm products (fruits, olives, speciality seeds and wine) and import
cereals.
EXTRA QUESTIONS
Question 1 Name the 3 sectors of activities done by people .
Solution : The work or activities done by the people can be classified into 3 Sectors – Primary ,
secondary and tertiary .

Question 2 What are the activities under the secondary sector ?

Solution : All activities connected with the manufacturing of goods with natural resources can be
classified under Secondary activities . Manufacturing of steel , baking of bread and weaving of
cloth are examples of this sector of activities .

Question 3 How was the word ‘ agriculture , coined?

Solution : The word agriculture is the English adaptation of the Latin word ‘ agricultura’. ‘Ager’
means field and ‘ cultura ’ means cultivation ; in the strict sense ‘ agricultura ’ means "tillage of
the soil .

Question 4 What is meant by arable land ?

Solution : Geographically , arable land is an agricultural term , meaning land that can be used for
growing crops.

Question 5 What are the different kinds of cultivation ?

Solution : Agriculture, Sericulture , Pisciculture , Viticulture and Horticulture are the different
kinds of cultivation .
i . Agriculture is cultivation on the soil – growing crops and rearing livestock.
ii . Sericulture is rearing of silk worms to extract silk .
iii . Pisciculture is breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and ponds .
iv . Viticulture is cultivation of grapes.
v . Horticulture is growing vegetables , flowers and fruits for commercial use.

Question 6 How is farming classified?

Solution : Farming can be broadly classified into 2 categories , namely Subsistence Farming and
Commercial Farming

Question 7 Write a brief note on Intensive subsistence farming .

Solution : Subsistence farming is practised to meet the needs of the farmer ’ s family . Low levels
of technology and household labour are used to produce a small output. In Intensive subsistence
the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour . More than one
crop is grown annually , on the same plot , as the climate is favourable and the soil is fertile . Rice
is the main crop ; other crops include wheat , maize, pulses and oilseeds .
Intensive subsistence agriculture is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon
regions of south, southeast and east Asia.

Question 8 What is Nomadic herding ?

Solution : Nomadic herding is practiced in the semi - arid and arid (dry ) regions of Sahara,
Central Asia and some parts of India , like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir .
In nomadic farming, herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and water,
along a definite route. The nomads move from place to place due to the restraints of the climate
and land.

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Sheep, camel, yak and goats are most commonly reared by the nomads. These animals provide
milk, meat, wool , hides and other products to the herders and their families .
In the drier parts of Asia, especially Southwest Asia, most rural people make a living by raising
livestock.
Many are nomads who move with their herds of animals over large territories, constantly
seeking good supplies of grass and water. The people live simply and carry their tents and
belongings with them. They rear animals such as goats, sheep, camels, and yaks.

Question 9 What is the difference between Subsistence farming and Commercial farming ?
Solution : In commercial Farming crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in the market ,
that is, for commercial purposes , while in Subsistence farming crops are grown mainly for the
farmer ’ s family needs.

Question 10 What are the 3 categories of Commercial farming ?

Solution : The three categories of Commercial farming are Commercial Grain Farming ; Mixed
Farming and Plantation Agriculture.

Question 11 What is mixed cropping or mixed farming ?

Solution : Mixed cropping involves the simultaneous growing of two or more crops intermingled
on the same land . Mixed farming is the combining of two independent agricultural enterprises
on the same farm . A typical case of mixed farming is the combination of crop enterprise with
dairy farming , that is, crop cultivation with livestock farming . Mixed farming may be treated as
a special case of diversified farming . This particular combination of enterprises, support each
other and add to the farmer ’ s profitability.

Question 12 What are the advantages in mixed cropping ?

Solution : The advantages in mixed cropping are ……
1 . Greater stability of yield over different seasons
2 . Better use of growth resources
3 . Better control of weeds , pests , and diseases
4 . One crop may provide physical support to another one
5 . One crop provides shelter to the other crop
6 . Erosion control through providing continuous leaf cover over the ground surface
7 . Benefit to small farmers of limited means .

Question 13 How can one increase agricultural production ?

Solution : Agricultural production can be increased by increasing area under cultivation and by
increasing the number of crops grown in a year. Agricultural production can be also be increased
by improving irrigational facilities and using fertilizers. Use high yielding variety of seeds and
machinery in cultivation increase crop yield.

Question 14 Write a note on Munna Lal and his farm – land .

Solution : Munna Lal’ s farmland is fertile and he grows two crops in a year - wheat or rice and
pulses . He purchases high yielding varieties of seeds from the market every alternate year. He
rents a tractor for ploughing his field and irrigates it from a tube - well near his farm for which he
pays a rent . Munna Lal also has two buffaloes and a few hens and he sells the milk in the
cooperative store located in the nearby town . All the members of the family help him in various
farm activities . Munna Lal takes the advice of government agricultural officers and officers in the
co- operative society regarding farming methods and on the type of fodder for his animals,

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safety measures to protect the health of the livestock . Sometimes , he takes credit from a bank
or the agricultural co - operative society to buy seeds and farm implements. As Munna Lal does
not have the facilities to store his crop he sells it in the local mandi at a nominal rate.

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Minerals: A homogenous, naturally occurring substance with definable internal structure is called
mineral.

Types of Minerals
1. Metallic
a. Ferrous (containing iron): Iron ore, manganese, nickel, cobalt, etc.
b. Non-ferrous: Copper, lead, tin, bauxite, etc.
c. Precious: Gold, silver, platinum, etc.
2. Non-metallic: Mica, salt, potash, sulphur, granite, limestone, marble, sandstone, etc.
3. Energy Minerals: Coal, petroleum and natural gas

Mode of occurrence of minerals:

1. In igneous and metamorphic rocks: The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger
occurrences are called lodes. They are usually formed when minerals in liquid/molten and gaseous forms
are forced upwards through cavities towards the earth’s surface. Examples: tin, copper, zinc, lead, etc.
2. In sedimentary rocks: In these rocks, minerals occur in beds or layers. Coal, iron ore, gypsum, potash
salt and sodium salt are the minerals found in sedimentary rocks.
3. By decomposition of surface rocks: Decomposition of surface rocks and removal of soluble
constituents leaves a residual mass of weathered material which contains ores. Bauxite is formed in this
way.
4. As alluvial deposits: These minerals are found in sands of valley floors and the base of hills. These
deposits are called placer deposits. They generally contain those minerals which are not corroded by
water. Examples; gold, silver, tin, platinum, etc.
5. In ocean water: Most of the minerals in ocean water are too widely diffused to be of economic
importance. But common salt, magnesium and bromine are mainly derived from ocean waters.

Iron Ore
India is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron upto
70%. This iron ore is valuable for the electrical industry because of its excellent magnetic properties.
Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore; in terms of usage. The iron content of hematite is
50-60%.

Fig: Iron ore in India

Major Iron Ore Belts in India

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A. Orissa Jharkhand Belt: Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts of Orissa have
high grade hematite ore. Additionally, hematite iron ore is mined in Gua and Noamundi in Singhbhum
district of Jharkhand.

B. Durg Bastar Chandrapur Belt: This belt lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. The Bailadila range of
hills in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh have very high grade hematite ore. This hilly range has 14
deposits of super high grade hematite ore. Iron from these mines is exported to Japan and South Korea
via Vishakapatnam port.

C. Bellary Chitradurga Chikmaglur Tumkur Belt: This belt lies in Karnataka. The Kudremukh mines
located in the Western Ghats are a 100 percent export unit. The ore from these mines is transported as
slurry through a pipeline to a port near Mangalore.

D. Maharashtra Goa Belt: This belt inculdes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. The
ores in these mines are not of very high quality. They are exported through Marmagao port.

Manganese
Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy. It is also used in
making bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.

Fig: Manganese ore in India

Copper
Copper is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries. The Balaghat mines in
Madhya Pradesh produce 52% of India’s copper. Rajasthan is the next leading producer with about 48%
share. Copper is also produced in the Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.

Aluminium
Aluminium is lightweight yet strong and hence is used in a variety of applications. Amarkantak plateau,
Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni are the main areas of bauxite deposits. Orissa is the
leading producer of bauxite in India with 45% share. Panchpatmali in Koraput district is the most
important centre of bauxite deposit in Orissa.

Mica
Mica is a mineral which is made up of a series of plates or leaves. The mica sheets can be so thin that a
thousand of them can be layered into a few centimetre thick mica sheet. Mica has excellent di-electric
strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage. Mica is widely used
in electric and electronic industries.
Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma-Gaya-Hazaribagh
belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer of mica. Ajmer in Rajasthan and Nellore in Andhra Pradesh are
the other important producers of mica.

Hazards of Mining
Mining is a hzaradous industry; both for the workers and for the residents. The Miners have to work
under tough conditions where no natural light is available. There is always a risk of collapse of mine roof,

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inundation with water and fire. The areas around mines face the problem of too much dust from the
mines. Slurry from mines damages the roads and the farmland. Houses and clothes become dirty more
often than in other areas. Miners are at great risk of getting afflicted with pulmonary disorders. Cases of
respiratory tract diseases are very high in mining areas.
Conservation of Minerals
It takes millions of years for the formation of minerals. Compared to the present rate of consumption, the
replenishment rate of minerals is very slow. Hence, mineral resources are finite and non-renewable. Due
to this, it is important that we conserve the mineral resources.

Energy Resources

Conventional Energy Resources: Firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity
(both hydel and thermal)

Non-conventional Energy Resources: Solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.

Firewood and cattle dung cake: As per estimates, more than 70% of energy need in rural households is
met by firewood and cattle dung cake. A decreasing forest area is making it difficult to use firewood.
Dung cake can be put to better use in the form of manure and hence its use should also be discouraged.

Coal:
India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial energy requirements. Depending on the
degree of compression during its formation, there are varieties of coal.

a. Lignite: It is a low grade brown coal. It is soft and has high moisture content. Neyveli in Tamil Nadu has
the main reserves of lignite coal. This type of coal is used for electricity generation.

b. Bituminous coal: Coal which was formed because of increased temperature and was buried very deep
is called bituminous coal. This is the most popular coal for commercial use. High grade bituminous coal is
ideal for use in metallurgy.

c. Anthracite coal: This is the highest quality hard coal.

In India, coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages. The Gondwana coal was formed over 200
million years ago. The tertiary deposits are about 55 million years old. The major sources of Gondwana
coal are located in the Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhan). In this belt; Jharia, Raniganj and Bokaro
are important coalfields. Coal deposits are also present in the Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha
valleys.
Tertiary coal is found in the north-eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

Petroleum
After coal, the next major energy resource in India is petroleum. Petroleum is a major source of fuel for
various uses. Petroleum also provides raw materials for various manufacturing industries; like plastic,
textiles, pharmaceuticals, etc.
Most of the petroleum in India occurs in anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary
age. The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow. The intervening
non-porous layers prevent the oil from rising or sinking. Petroleum is also found in fault traps between
porous and non-porous rocks. Gas usually occurs above the oil because it is lighter than oil.
Mumbai High produces about 63% of India’s petroleum, Gujarat produces 18% and Assam 13%.
Ankeleshwar is the most important oil field in Gujarat. Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India.
Important oil fields of Assam are Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan.

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Natural Gas
Natural gas is found alongwith or without petroleum. It is used as fuel and also as industrial raw material.
Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari Basin. Gulf of Cambay,
Mumbai High and Andaman Nicobar islands are also important areas with large reserves of natural gas.
The 1700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassein with the fertiliser,
power and industrial complexes in western and northern India. Natural gas is mainly used by the fertiliser
and power industries. Now-a-days, use of CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) is increasing as vehicle fuel in
the country.

Electricity
Electricity is generated mainly by two methods; by running water which drives hydro turbines and by
burning other fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines. Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley
Corporation, Kopili Hydel Project, etc. are major hydroelectric producers in the country. At present, there
are over 300 thermal power stations in India.

Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Nuclear Energy: Nuclear energy is obtained by altering the structure of atom. When the structure of an
atom is altered, too much energy is released in the form of heat. This heat is utilised to generate electric
power. Uranium and Thorium are used for generating atomic power. These minerals are available in
Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan. The Monazite sand of Kerala is also rich in Thorium.

Solar Energy: Photovoltaic technology is used to convert solar energy into electricity. The largest solar
plant of India is located at Madhapur near Bhuj. Solar energy holds great promises for the future. It can
help in minimizing the dependence on firewood and animal dung cakes in rural areas. This will also help in
conservation of fossil fuels.

Wind Power: India now ranks as a “Wind Super Power” in the world. The wind farm cluster in Tamil Nadu
(from Nagarcoil to Madurai) is the largest cluster in India. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala,
Maharashtra and Lakshadweep are also important centres of wind power production.

Biogas: Biogas can be produced from shrubs, farm waste, and animal and human waste. Biogas is more
efficient than kerosene, dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants can be set up at municipal, cooperative
and individual levels. The gobar gas plants provide energy and also manure.

Tidal Energy: Floodgate dams are built across inlets. The water flows into the inlet during high tide and
gets trapped when the gate is closed. Once the tide recedes, the gates are opened so that water can flow
back to the sea. The flow of water is used to run the turbine to generate electricity. A 900 mw tidal
energy power plant is set up by the National Hydropower Corporation in the Gulf of Kuchchh.

Geo Thermal Energy: We know that the inside of the earth is very hot. At some places, this heat is
released on the surface through fissures. Groundwater in such areas becomes hot and rises up in the
form of steam. This steam is used to drive turbines. Two experimental projects have been set up in India
to harness geothermal energy. They are; the Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the
Puga Valley in Ladakh.

NCERT Questions
1. Distinguish between the following in not more than 30 words.
a. Ferrous and non-ferrous minerals
Answer: Metallic minerals which contain iron are called ferrous minerals, e.g. iron ore, manganese, nickel,
cobalt, etc. On the other hand, metallic minerals which do not contain iron are called non-ferrous

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minerals, e.g. copper, bauxite, tin, etc.

b. Conventional and non-conventional sources of energy

Answer: Sources of energy which have been in use since a long time are called conventional sources of
energy, e.g. coal, firewood, petroleum, hydel energy, etc. Sources of energy which have come into use
recently are called non-conventional sources of energy, e.g. solar energy, wind energy, nuclear energy,
etc.

2. What is a mineral?
Answer: A homogenous, naturally occurring substance with definable internal structure is called mineral.

3. How are minerals formed in igneous and metamorphic rocks?

Answer: In igneous and metamorphic rocks: The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger
occurrences are called lodes. They are usually formed when minerals in liquid/molten and gaseous forms
are forced upwards through cavities towards the earth’s surface. Examples: tin, copper, zinc, lead, etc.

4. Why do we need to conserve mineral resources?

Answer: It takes millions of years for the formation of minerals. Compared to the present rate of
consumption, the replenishment rate of minerals is very slow. Hence, mineral resources are finite and
non-renewable. Due to this, it is important that we conserve the mineral resources.

5. Describe the distribution of coal in India.

Answer: In India, coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages. The Gondwana coal was formed
over 200 million years ago. The tertiary deposits are about 55 million years old. The major sources of
Gondwana coal are located in the Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhan). In this belt, Jharia, Raniganj
and Bokaro are important coalfields. Coal deposits are also present in the Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and
Wardha valleys. Tertiary coal is found in the north-eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh and Nagaland.

6. Why do you think that solar energy has a bright future in India?
Answer: Solar energy holds great promises for the future. It can help in minimizing the dependence on
firewood and animal dung cakes in rural areas. This will also help in conservation of fossil fuels.

EXTRA Questions
1. Give three examples of metallic and three examples of non -metallic minerals .
Answer: Metallic minerals are - Iron- ore, Copper , Manganese, Nickel.
Non – Metallic Minerals – Limestone, Dolomite , Mica .

2. Name four important iron ore -producing states of India .

Answer: The four iron - ore producing states are :
1 . Chattisgarh. 2 . Jharkhand.
3 . Orissa. 4 . Karnataka .

3. Name four manganese ore - producing states of India.

Answer: The four manganese producing states are
(I) Karnataka , (2 ) Orissa, (3 ) Madhya Pradesh , (4 ) Maharashtra .

4. Name four bauxite- producing states .

Answer: The Bauxite producing state are :(1) Jharkhand, (2) Orissa, (3) Gujarat, (4 ) Maharashtra.

5. Name three states which are known for the production of mica .
Answer: Mica producing states are : (1 ) Jharkhand , (2 ) Bihar, (3 )Andhra - Pradesh .

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6. What are commercial sources of energy ?
Answer: The commercial sources of energy are : Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas, Hydro –electricity and
Nuclear energy .

7. What are conventional sources of energy ?

Answer: The conventional sources of energy are Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas and Electricity .

8. Name six non - commercial sources of energy .

Answer: Non - commercial source of energy are fire wood , charcoal, cowdung and agricultural wastes,
wood coal and babool wood .

9. Name three most important coal producing states of India .

Answer: Three important coal producing states are (1 ) Jharkhand, (2 ) Orissa and (3 ) West Bengal.

10. Mention three areas where petroleum is found in India.

Answer: Gujarat , Mumbai High and Assam are three areas of petroleum .

11. What is Anthracite?

Answer: Anthracite is the highest quality of hard coal .

12. List four non - conventional energy resources .

Answer: Solar energy , wind power, biogas and geo - thermal energy are non -conventional energy
resources .

13. Suggest two ways of conserving minerals .

Answer: Recycling of metals and discovering new substitutes for metals are ways of conserving minerals .

14. Distinguish Between Metallic and Non -metallic minerals.

Answer:

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15. Distinguish Between Commercial and Non -Commercial Energy

Answer:

16. Distinguish between Conventional and Non -Conventional Sources of Energy.

Answer:

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17. Distinguish between Anthracite and Bituminous Coal

Answer: Anthracite and Bituminous Coal

18. Distinguish between Natural Gas and BioGas

Answer:

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19. Describe the distribution of iron ore in India .

Answer: Iron – ore is the backbone of modern cultivation . It is used for manufacturing machines and
tools . India has about 20 % of the world reserves of iron ore. Most of the iron - ore mined in the country
came from Chhatisgarh , Jharkhand , Orissa , Goa and Karnataka . Some well known iron - ore mines are in
Durg and Dantiwar- a district of Chattisgarh , Singhbhum district of Jharkhand and Sundargarh , Keonjhar
and Mayurbhanj district of Orissa , North Goa , Chikmagalaur and Bellary district of Karnataka .

20. Describe the distribution of coal in India .

Answer: In Jharkhand, the largest producer where Jharia, Bokaro , karampur , Palamu are the major coal
fields .
In West Bengal , Raniganj, Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling are the coal fields .
In Chhatisgarh , Sarguja, Bilaspur , Raigarh and Bastar districts are coal fields .
M .P . has coal fields in Chhindwara district .
In Maharashtra – Chanda is the main coalfield .

21. Why do you think that solar energy has a bright future in India?
Answer: It is true that solar energy has bright future in India because
a . India is blessed with plenty of solar energy because most part of the country receive bright
monsoonsunshine .
b . India has developed technology to use solar energy for cooking , water heating , space heating , crop
drying etc .
c . It is most abundant, inexhaustible and universal source of energy .
d . India is tropical country.
e . It is pollution free .

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MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Classification of Manufacturing Industry

Manufacturing: Production of goods in large quantities after processing the raw materials into more
valuable products is called manufacturing.

Importance of Manufacturing
- Manufacturing industries help in modernizing agriculture; which forms the backbone of our economy.
Apart from this, manufacturing industries also reduce the heavy dependence of people on agricultural
income. This becomes possible because of creation of new jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors.
- Industrial development helps in eradication of unemployment and poverty.
- Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce and brings in much needed foreign
exchange.
- A country with high level of manufacturing activities becomes prosperous.

Contribution of Industry to National Economy

The share of manufacturing sector in the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) has been stagnant at 17% over
the last two decades. The total contribution of industry to the GDP is 27% out of which 10% comes from

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mining, quarrying, electricity and gas.
The growth of the manufacturing sector had been 7% in the last decade. Since 2003, the growth rate has
been 9 to 10% per annum. The desired growth rate over the next decade is 12%.
The National Manufacturing Competitiveness Council (NMCC) has been set with the objectives of
improving productivity through proper policy interventions by the government and renewed efforts by
the industry.

Industrial Location
Some of the factors which affect the industrial location are as follows:
a. Availability of raw materials b. Availability of labour
c. Availability of capital d. Availability of power
e. Availability of market f. Infrastructure
Sometimes, industries are located in or near cities. Cities provide markets and also provide services like
banking, insurance, transport, labour, consultants, etc. Many industries tend to come together to make
use of the advantages of an urban centre. Such centre is then called as agglomeration economy.
In the pre-independence period, most of the manufacturing units were located in places which were near
the ports, e.g. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, etc. As a result, these belts developed as industrial urban
centres surrounded by huge agricultural rural hinterland.

Classification Of Industries:

On the basis of raw materials:

a. Agro Based Industries: Cotton, woolen, jute, silk textile, rubber, sugar, tea, coffee, etc.
b. Mineral Based Industries: Iron and steel, cement, aluminium, petrochemicals, etc.
According to their main role:
a. Basic or Key Industries: These industries supply their products or raw materials to manufacture other
goods, e.g. iron and steel, copper smelting, aluminium smelting.
b. Consumer Industries: These industries produce goods which are directly used by consumers, e.g. sugar,
paper, electronics, soap, etc.

On the basis of capital investment:

a. Small Scale Industry: If the invested capital is upto Rs. one crore, then the industry is called a small scale
industry.
b. Large Scale Industry: If the invested capital is more than Rs. one crore, then the industry is called a
large scale industry.

On the basis of ownership:

a. Public Sector: These industries are owned and operated by government agencies, e.g. SAIL, BHEL, ONGC,
etc.
b. Private Sector: These industries are owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals, e.g.
TISCO, Reliance, Mahindra, etc.
c. Joint Sector: These industries are jointly owned by the government and individuals or a group of
individuals, e.g. Oil India Limited.
d. Cooperative Sector: These industries are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw
materials, workers or both. The resources are pooled by each stakeholder and profits or losses are shared
proportionately. AMUL which is milk cooperative is a good example. The sugar industry in Maharashtra is
another example.

Based on the bulk and weight of raw materials and finished goods:
- Heavy Industries: Iron and steel.
- Light Industries: Electronics

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Textile Industry
The textile industry contributes 14% to industrial production in India. In terms of employment generation,
this industry is the second largest after agriculture. 35 million persons are directly employed in the
textiles industry in India. The contribution of textiles industry to GDP is 4%. This is the only industry in the
country which is self-reliant and complete in the value chain.

Cotton Textiles: Cotton textiles were traditionally produced with hand spinning and handloom weaving
techniques. Power-looms came into use after the 18th century. During the colonial period, the
competition of mill-made cloth from England destroyed the Indian textiles industry.
At present, there are 1600 cotton and synthetic textile mills in India. Almost 80% of them are in the
private sector. The rest are in the public sector and cooperative sector. Additionally, there are several
thousand small factories with four to ten looms.

Location of Cotton Textile Industry: This industry was earlier concentrated in the cotton belt of
Maharashtra and Gujarat. Availability of raw materials, port facilities, transport, labour, moist climate, etc.
were in favour of these locations. The industry provides a source of livelihood to farmers, cotton boll
pluckers and workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and
sewing. This industry supports many other industries; like chemical and dyes, mill stores, packaging
materials and engineering works.
Spinning still continues to be centralized in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. However, weaving is
highly decentralized and there are many weaving centres in the country.

India exports cotton yarn to Japan. Cotton goods are also exported to USA, UK, Russia, France, East
European countries, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka and African countries.
At around 34 million, India has the second largest installed capacity of spindles in the world; after China.
India accounts for one fourth of the world trade in cotton yarn. However, India’s share in garment trade
in the world is only 4%. Our spinning mills are globally competitive and can use all the fibres we produce.
But the weaving, knitting and processing units cannot use much of the high quality yarn produced in the
country.

Problems in cotton textile industry: Erratic power supply and obsolete machinery are the major
problems. Low output of labour and stiff competition; with the synthetic fibre are the other problems.

Jute Textiles
India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods in the world. It is the second largest exporter of
jute; after Bangladesh. Most of the 70 jute mills in India are located in West Bengal; mainly along the
bank of Hooghly. The jute industry is in a narrow belt which is 98 km long and 3 km wide.

Location advantages of Hooghly basin: Proximity of the jute producing areas, inexpensive water
transport, good rail and road network, abundant water for processing raw jute and cheap labour from
West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh.
The jute industry directly supports 2.61 lakh workers. It also supports 40 lakh small and marginal farmers
who are engaged in cultivation of jute and mesta.
Jute industry is facing challenge from synthetic fibre and also from other competitors like Bangladesh,
Brazil, Philippines, Egypt and Thailand. But the internal demand has been rising because of government

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policy of mandatory use of jute packaging. The National Jute Policy was formulated in 2005 with an
objective to increase productivity, improve quality and ensure good prices for the jute farmers. Due to
growing global concern for environment friendly and biodegradable material; the future of jute looks
bright. USA, Canada, Russia, UAE, UK and Australia are the main markets.

Sugar Industry
India is the second largest producer of sugar in the world. It is the largest producer of gur and khandsari.
There are over 460 sugar mills in the country. They are spread over Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty percent
mills are in UP and Bihar. This industry is seasonal and hence is more suited to the cooperative sector.
In recent years, there has been a growing tendency to shift and concentrate in the southern and western
states; especially in Maharashtra. The cane produced in this region has higher sucrose content. The cooler
climate of this region ensures a longer crushing season.

Challenges for Sugar industry: Seasonal nature of industry, old and inefficient methods of production,
transport delay and the need to maximize the use of baggase are the major challenges for this industry.

Mineral Based Industries

Iron and Steel Industry

Iron is required for making machineries for all other industries hence it is the basic industry. Due to this,
production and consumption of steel is often regarded as the index of a country’s development.
India is 9th among the world crude steel producers and produces 32.8 million tons of steel. India is the
largest producer of sponge iron. But per capita consumption of steel is only 32 kg per annum.

At present, there are 10 primary integrated steel plants in India. Additionally, there are many mini steel
plants in the country. SAIL (Steel Authority of India Limited) is the major public sector company in this
sector, while TISCO (Tata Iron and Steel Company) is the major private sector company in this industry.
Most of the iron and steel industries are in the Chhotanagpur plateau region. This region has plenty of
low cost iron ore, high grade raw materials, cheap labour and good connectivity through railways and
roadways.

Reasons for underperformance of Iron and steel Industry in India:

a. High cost and limited availability of coking coal
b. Low productivity of labour
c. Erratic energy supply
d. Poor infrastructure

Aluminium Smelting
Aluminium smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India. Aluminium is often
turned into alloy and then used for making various products.
There are 8 aluminium smelting plants in India, located in Orissa (NALCO and BALCO), West Bengal, Kerala,

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Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. India produced over 600 million tones of
aluminium in 2004.

Chemical Industries
The chemical industry contributes about 3% to the GDP. The chemical industry of India is the third largest
in Asia and is at twelfth position in the world.
Inorganic Chemicals: Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash and caustic soda are the inorganic
chemicals. Sulphuric acid is used to manufacture fertilisers, synthetic fibres, plastics, adhesives, paints,
dye stuffs. Soda ash is used to make glass, soaps and detergents, paper, etc.

Organic Chemicals: These include petrochemicals. Petrochemicals are used for manufacturing synthetic
fibres, synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals. Organic plants are located near
oil refineries or petrochemical plants.
The chemical industry is usually its own largest consumer.

Fertiliser Industry
Fertiliser industry is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilisers, phosphatic fertilisers and
ammonium phosphate and complex fertilisers. Complex fertilisers have a combination of nitrogen (N),
phosphate (P) and potash (K). Potash is entirely imported because India does not have any reserves of
commercially viable potash or potassium compounds.
India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilisers. There are 57 fertiliser units which
manufacture nitrogenous and complex nitrogenous fertilisers. Out of them, 29 units manufacture urea
and 9 manufacture ammonium sulphate as by-product. There 68 small units which produce single
superphosphate.

Cement Industry
Cement industry requires bulky raw materials like limestone, silica, alumina and gypsum. There are many
cement plants in Gujarat because of proximity to ports.
There are 128 large and 323 mini cement plants in India.
Improvement in quality has found the Indian cement a readily available market in East Asia, Middle East,
Africa and South Asia. This industry is doing well in terms of production as well as export.

Automobile Industry
Almost all types of vehicles are manufactured in India. After liberalization in 1991, many automobile
manufacturers set up their base in India. With the launch of contemporary models, India became an
attractive market for automobiles. At present, there are 15 manufacturers of cars and multi-utility
vehicles, 9 of commercial vehicles, 14 of two and three-wheelers. Delhi, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai,
Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore, Hyderabad, Jamshedpur, Bangalore, Sanand, Pantnagar, etc. are the major
centres of automobile industry.

Information Technology and Electronics Industry

Bangalore is often termed as the electronic capital of India. Mumbai, Pune, Delhi, Hyderabad, Chennai,
Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore are the other important centres. There are 18 software technology
parks in the country and they provide single window service and high data communication to software
experts.
This industry had generated a large number of employments. Upto 31 March 2005, over one million
persons were employed in the IT industry. Because of fast growth of BPO (Business Process Outsourcing);
this sector has been a major earner of foreign exchange.

Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation

Air Pollution: High proportion of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide create air
pollution. Suspended particulate matters also create problems. Smoke is emitted from chimneys of

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various factories. Some industry also pose the risk of leak of hazardous chemicals; the way it happened
during the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. Air pollution has adverse effect on human health, animals, plants,
buildings, and the atmosphere as a whole.

Water Pollution: Organic and inorganic industrial wastes and effluents cause water pollution. Paper,
pulp, chemical, textile, dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries, etc. are the main culprits of water
pollution.

Thermal Pollution of water: It occurs when hot water from factories or thermal plants is drained into
rivers and ponds before cooling. This plays havoc with the aquatic life.

Radioactive Waste: Waste from nuclear power plants contains highly radioactive materials and it needs
to be properly stored. Any leakage of radioactive material can cause short term and long term damages
to humans as well as to other life forms.

Noise Pollution: Noise pollution can result in constant irritation, hypertension and hearing impairment.
Factory equipments, generators, electric drills, etc. are the major sources of noise pollution.

Preventing Environmental Degradation by Industry:

- Water should be reused and recycled in the industry. This will help in minimizing the use of freshwater.
- Rainwater harvesting should be promoted.
- Hot water and effluents should be treated before being released in rivers and ponds.

NCERT Questions
1. Name any three human factors for the location of an industry.
Answer: Three human factors which affect the industrial location are as follows:
Labour, Capital &Market

2. What are basic industries? Give an example.

Answer: The basic industries supply their products or raw materials to manufacture other goods, e.g. iron
and steel, copper smelting, aluminium smelting.

3. Name the important raw materials used in the manufacturing of cement?

Answer: Limestone, silica, alumina and gypsum

4. How are integrated steel plants different from mini steel plants? What problems does the industry
face? What recent developments have led to a rise in the production capacity?
Answer: An integrated steel plant does all the activities involved in the value chain of steel manufacturing.
Such plant begins from making steel from iron ore and end up in making steel products which are needed
by the industry. Mini steel plants, on the other hand, buy finished steel from larger plants and produce
various goods from that; like utensils, tools, etc.

5. How do industries pollute the environment?

Answer: Industries mainly pollute the air and water. Factories emit smoke which contains harmful gases.
These gases cause air pollution. Factories produce effluents and release them into rivers and pond. Thus,
water pollution is cause by factories. Many factories; like thermal power plant; also cause thermal
pollution of water by releasing hot water into rivers and ponds. Additionally, factories also play a major
role in soil pollution.

6. Discuss the steps to be taken to minimise environmental degradation by industry?

Answer: Preventing Environmental Degradation by Industry:
- Water should be reused and recycled in the industry. This will help in minimizing the use of
freshwater.

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- Rainwater harvesting should be promoted.
- Hot water and effluents should be treated before being released in rivers and ponds.
- Chimneys should be fitted with electrostatic precipitators to prevent release of suspended
particulate matters.

EXTRA Questions

1. Name the three physical factors that affect location of industries .

Answer: The three factors are
a . Availability of raw materials .
b . Power resources
c . Favorable climate.

2. Name three human inputs that control location of industries.

Answer: Human inputs that control location of industries is: 1. Labour 2. Market 3. Transport facilities .

3. What are light industries ?

Answer: Industries that use light raw materials and produce light goods are called light industries.
Example: Industries manufacturing sewing machine and electric fans.

4. Name four important cotton textile centres of Maharashtra.

Answer: The cotton textile centres of Maharashtra are : 1. Mumbai, 2. Solapur, 3. Pune, 4. Nagpur.

5. Name three major air pollutants .

Answer: Air borne dust, smoke and undesirable gases are three major air pollutants .

6. What is ‘ manufacturing?
Answer: Manufacturing is the production of goods in large quantities by processing from raw material to
more valuable products .

7. List four agro based industries .

Answer: Sugar, edible oil , cotton and silk are agro based industries .

8. Mention 4 raw materials needed for a cement industry .

Answer: Lime stone , silica , alumina and gypsum are the raw materials needed for a cement industry.

9. Name two most important sugar producing states of India .

Answer:
Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra .

10. Name two iron and steel producing plants each of Karnataka and West Bengal .
Answer: Iron and steel plants of Karnataka are – Bhadravati and Vijayanagar , West Bengal - Durgapur
and Burnpur .

11. Name five electronic goods producing centres of India .

Answer: Five electronic goods producing centers are Banglore , Hyderabad , Delhi , Mumbai , Chennai .

12. What is the annual production of cement in the country at present?

Answer: 131 million tones production of cement per annum in India .

13. Why are most of the jute mills of India located in West Bengal?
Answer:
1 . About 90 % of India’ s jute is produced in the Ganga - Brahmaputra delta. Hence there is abundant and

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regular supply of jute .
2 . Coal is obtained from Raniganj coalfields , which is less the 200 km away.
3 . Hooghly river provides fresh water in abundance it the industry for washing jute and jute goods .
4 . Cheap skilled and unskilled labour is available from the densely populated states of W .Bengal, Bihar,
and U.P .
5 . Cheap water transportation with a network of roads and railways help in collection of raw materials
and distribution of finished goods .
6 . Cheap and adequate hydel power is available from the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
7 . Kolkata provides good port facilities for the import of machinery and export of finished jute products .
8 . There is no dearth of finances required to be invested .

14. Describe briefly the distribution of railway equipments industries in India.

Answer: The railway equipments industries are at different places.
The steam engines , diesel engines and electric engines are manufactured at Chittaranjan in the West
Bengal, Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh and Jamshedpur in Jharkhand. Rails and sleeper bars are manufactured
at different steel plants . Coaches are manufactured at Parambur , Bangalore , Kapurthala and Kolkata .

15. Why is the iron and steel industry located in Peninsular India only?
Answer: Iron - ore, coking coal and limestone are the basic raw material for the iron and steel industry .
Iron and steel industry is located near the iron and coal deposits particularly at Jamshedpur in Bihar or in
the Chhotanagpur area , bordering West Bengal , Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh , because of the
following reasons:
1 . All the raw materials required for iron and steel industry like iron - ore, coking coal and the limestone
are available in this area .
2 . Because all these things are heavy and bulky , the location of this industry is therefore , governed by
the close proximity to raw materials . Bulky and heavy raw materials exert much pressure to locate the
industry nearby i .e ., in the Chhotanagpur area . Jamshedpur , Bokaro and Durgapur etc , are all situated
in this area .
3 . Means of transport , like railways and roads , also pass through this area on stupendous scale , so
manufactured goods can easily be distributed within the country and also exported to other countries .
4 . Fourthly , if the iron and steel industries are near the iron and coal mines , the labour problem is also
solved to a great extent . The labour and other facilities are easily available there.

16. Describe briefly the distribution of silk textile industry in India .

Answer: Distribution of Silk Textile Industry in India
1 . Mulberry, tasar , chanderi and munga silk are major silk varieties that are produced in India.
2 . There are 90 big and small silk mills, producing silk goods in the country.
3 . More than 90 % of the country’ s silk production comes from Karnataka , West Bengal, Jammu and
Kashmir .
4 . Main silk producing centers are . (I ) Bungler , Kolar, Mysore and Belgaum in Karnataka .
(ii ) Murshabad and Bankure in West Bengal .
(iii ) Anantnag , Baramula and Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir .

17. Describe the distribution of ship -building industry in India.

Answer: Ship building Industry in India
1 .Ship building is a large industry, which needs huge investment of capital.
2 . At present, Vishakapattanam, Kolkatta , Kochi, Mumbai and Marmugao are major ship building centres
of the country . All these centres are in public sector .
3 .There are also private sector shipyards . They look after the local needs of the people .
4 . Vishakapattanam produces the ship of maximum size of 1 , 00 , 000 DWT (Dead weight Tonnage) and
Kochi produces the ship of maximum size of 50 , 000 DWT .
5 .Seventeen dry docks are also engaged in the repairs of ships in the country .

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18. How does industrial pollution degrade environment ?
Answer: Industries have increased pollution and degraded environment. Industries create four types of
pollution mainly air , water , land and noise . The smoke emitted by the industry pollutes the air and
water very badly. Air pollution is caused by the presence of a higher proportion of undesirable gases such
as carbon monoxide and sulphur oxide.
Source of water pollution are numerous . Most important are the industrial effluent that discharge into
rivers . They are both organic and inorganic . They pollute the water. Unwanted loud noise is also
pollution. It arises from industries and other means of transport. Noise causes impairment of hearing .

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY

Transport plays an important role in the economy. Because of transport raw materials reach the factory
and finished products reach to the consumer. The pace of development of a country depends upon the
production of goods and services as well as their movement over space. Therefore, efficient means of
transport are pre-requisites for fast development.

Apart from transport, the ease and mode of communications, like telephone and internet makes
seamless flow of information possible.

Today, India is well-linked with the rest of the world despite its vast size, diversity and linguistic and socio-
cultural plurality. Railways, airways, water ways, newspapers, radio, television, cinema and internet, etc.
have been contributing to its socio-economic progress in many ways. The trades from local to
international levels have added to the vitality of its economy. It has enriched our life and added
substantially to growing amenities and facilities for the comforts of life.

Roadways
India has one of the largest road networks in the world, aggregating to about 2.3 million km at present. In
India, roadways have preceded railways. They still have an edge over railways in view of the ease with
which they can be built and maintained. The growing importance of road transport vis-à-vis rail transport
is rooted in the following reasons;
a. construction cost ofroads is much lower than that of railway lines,
b. roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography,
c. roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as such can traverse mountains such as the
Himalayas,
d. road transport is economical intransportation of few persons and relatively smaller amount of goods
over short distances,

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e. it also provides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much lower,
f. road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of transport such as they provide a link between
railway stations, air and sea ports.
In India, roads are classified in the following six classes according to their capacity

Golden Quadrilateral: The government has launched a major road development project linking Delhi-
Kolkata- Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane Super Highways. The North-South corridors linking
Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu), and East-West Corridor connecting Silcher
(Assam) and Porbander (Gujarat) are part of this project. The major objective of these Super Highways is
to reduce the time and distance between the mega cities of India. These highway projects are being
implemented by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).

National Highways: National Highways link extreme parts of the country. These are the primary road
systems and are laid and maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD). A number of
major National Highways run in North-South and East-West directions.

State Highways: Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters are known as State
Highways. These roads are constructed and maintained by the State Public Works Department (PWD) in
State and Union Territories.

District Roads: These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district. These
roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad.

Other Roads: Rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns, are classified under this
category. These roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana. Under
this scheme special provisions are made so that every village in the country is linked to a major town in
the country by an all season motorable road.

Border Roads: Apart from these, Border Roads Organisation a Government of India undertaking
constructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of the country. This organisation was established in
1960 for the development of the roads of strategic importance in the northern and northeastern border
areas. These roads have improved accessibility in areas of difficult terrain and have helped in the
economic development of these area. The Indian Railways is the largest public sector undertaking in the
country. The first train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in 1853, covering a distance of 34 km.
concrete or even bitumen of coal, therefore, these are all weather roads. Unmetalled roads go out of use
in the rainy season.

Road Density
The length of road per 100 sq. km of area is known as density of roads. Distribution of road is not uniform
in the country. Density of all roads varies from only 10 km in Jammu & Kashmir to 375 km in Kerala with
the national average of 75 km (1996-97). Road transportation in India faces a number of problems.
Keeping in view the volume of traffic and passengers, the road network is inadequate. About half of the
roads are unmetalled and this limits their usage during the rainy season. The National Highways are
inadequate too. Moreover, the roadways are highly congested in cities and most of the bridges and
culverts are old and narrow.

Railways
Railways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India. Railways also make
it possible to conduct multifarious activities like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage along with
transportation of goods over longer distances. Apart from an important means of transport the Indian
Railways have been a great integrating force for more than 150 years. Railways in India bind the economic
life of the country as well as accelerate the development of the industry and agriculture.

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Rail Network: The Indian Railway have a network of 7, 031 stations spread over a route length of 63, 221
km. with a fleet of 7817 locomotives, 5321 passenger service vehicles, 4904 other coach vehicles and 228,
170 wagons as on 31

Development of Railways:
The Indian Railway is now reorganised into 16 zones. The distribution pattern of the Railway network in
the country has been largely influenced by physiographic, economic and administrative factors.
The northern plains with their vast level land, high population density and rich agricultural resources
provided the most favourable condition for their growth. However, a large number of rivers requiring
construction of bridges across their wide beds posed some obstacles. In the hilly terrains of the
peninsular region, railway tracts are laid through low hills, gaps or tunnels. The Himalayan mountainous
regions too are unfavourable for the construction of railway lines due to high relief, sparse population
and lack of economic opportunities. Likewise, it was difficult to lay railway lines on the sandy plain of
western Rajasthan, swamps of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and
Jharkhand. The contiguous stretch of Sahyadri could be crossed only through gaps or passes (Ghats). In
recent times, the development of the Konkan railway along the west coast has facilitated the movement
of passengers and goods in this most important economic region of India. It has also faced a number of
problem such as sinking of track in some stretches and land slides.
Today, the railways have become more important in our national economy than all other means of
transport put together. However, rail transport suffers from certain problems as well. Many passengers
travel without tickets. Thefts and damaging of railway property has not yet stopped completely. People
stop the trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this causes heavy damage to the railway.

Pipelines:
Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on the transportation map of India. In the past, these were
used to transport water to cities and industries. Now, these are used for transporting crude oil,
petroleum products and natural gas from oil and natural gas fields to refineries, fertilizer factories and big
thermal power plants. Solids can also be transported through a pipeline when converted into slurry. The
far inland locations of refineries like Barauni, Mathura, Panipat and gas based fertilizer plants could be
thought of only because of pipelines. Initial cost of laying pipelines is high but subsequent running costs
are minimal. It rules out trans-shipment losses or delays.
There are three important networks of pipeline transportation in the country.
A. From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni and Allahabad. It has
branches from Barauni to Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to Maurigram and Guwahati to Siliguri.
B. From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and Sonipat. It has
branches to connect Koyali (near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and other places.
C. Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh, via Vijaipur in Madhya
Pradesh. It has branches to Kota in Rajasthan, Shahajahanpur, Babrala and other places in Uttar Pradesh.

Waterways
Waterways are the cheapest means of transport. They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky
goods. It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode of transport. India has inland navigation
waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of these only 3,700 km are navigable by mechanised boats.
The following waterways have been declared as the National Waterways by the Government:

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a. The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km)-N.W. No.1
b. The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km)-N.W. No.2
c. The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Komman, Udyogamandal and Champakkara canals-205
km) – N.W. No.3
The other viable inland waterways include the Godavari, Krishna, Barak, Sunderbans, Buckingham Canal,
Brahmani, East-west Canal and Damodar Valley Corporation Canal.

Major Sea Ports

With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is dotted with 12 major and 181 medium and minor ports. These
major ports handle 95 per cent of India’s foreign trade. Kandla in Kuchchh was the first port developed
soon after Independence to ease the volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in the wake of loss of Karachi
port to Pakistan after the Partition.

Kandla is a tidal port. It caters to the convenient handling of exports and imports of highly productive
granary and industrial belt stretching across the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour. The Jawaharlal Nehru
port was planned with a view to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a hub port for this region.
Marmagao port (Goa) is the premier iron ore exporting port of the country. This port accounts for about
fifty per cent of India’s iron ore export.

New Mangalore port, located in Karnataka caters to the export of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh
mines. Kochi is the extreme south-western port, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a natural
harbour.

On the east coast, is the port of Tuticorin, in Tamil Nadu. This port has a natural harbour and rich
hinterland. Thus, it has a flourishing trade handling of a large variety of cargoes to even our neighbouring
countries like Sri Lanka, Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions of India.

Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of the country. It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the
volume of trade and cargo.
Vishakhapatnam is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port. This port was, originally, conceived as
an outlet for iron ore exports.
Paradip port located in Orissa, specialises in the export of iron ore.
Kolkata is an inland riverine port. This port serves a very large and rich hinterland of Ganga- Brahmaputra
basin. Being a tidal port, it requires constant dredging of Hoogly. Haldia port was developed as a
subsidiary port, in order to relieve growing pressure on the Kolkata port.

Airways:
The air transport was nationalised in 1953. On the operational side, Indian Airlines, Alliance Air (subsidiary
of Indian Airlines), private scheduled airlines and non- scheduled operators provide domestic air services.
Air India provides international air services. Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. Provides helicopter services to Oil
and Natural Gas Commission in its off- shore operations, to inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like
the north-eastern states and the interior parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal.
Indian Airlines operations also extend to the neighbouring countries of South and south-east Asia and the
Middle east.
It can cover very difficult terrains like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense forests and also long oceanic
stretches with great ease.

Communication
Personal communication and mass communication including television, radio, press, films, etc. are the
major means of communication in the country.

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Indian Post: The Indian postal network is the largest in the world. It handles parcels as well as personal
written communications. Cards and envelopes are considered first–class mail and are airlifted between
stations covering both land and air. The second–class mail includes book packets, registered newspapers
and periodicals. They are carried by surface mail, covering land and water transport. To facilitate quick
delivery of mails in large towns and cities, six mail channels have been introduced recently. They are
called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and
Periodical Channel.

Telephone: India has one of the largest telephone networks in Asia. In order to strengthen the flow of
information from the grassroot to the higher level, the government has made special provision to extend
twenty-four hours STD facility to every village in the country. There is a uniform rate of STD facilities all
over India. It has been made possible by integrating the development in space technology with
communication technology.

Mobile Telephones: India is one of the fastest growing mobile network in the world. Mobile phones have
changed the way Indians conducted business. Now even low income group people like vegetable vendors,
plumbers and carpenters get better business because they are connected through mobile phones.

Mass Comunication: Mass communication provides entertainment and creates awareness among
people about various national programmes and policies. It includes radio, television, newspapers,
magazines, books and films. All India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety of programmes in national,
regional and local languages for various categories of people, spread over different parts of the country.
Doordarshan, the national television channel of India, is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the
world. It broadcasts a variety of programmes from entertainment, educational to sports, etc. for people
of different age groups.

Newspapers: India publishes a large number of newspapers and periodicals annually. They are of
different types depending upon their periodicity. Newspapers are published in about 100 languages and
dialects. Largest number of newspapers published in the country are in Hindi, followed by English and
Urdu.

Films: India is the largest producer of feature films in the world. It produces short films; video feature
films and video short films. The Central Board of Film Certification is the authority to certify both Indian
and foreign films.

International Trade
Trade between two countries is called international trade. It may take place through sea, air or land
routes. Advancement of international trade of a country is an index to its economic prosperity. It is,
therefore, considered the economic barometer for a country.

Export: When the goods are sent to other country for sale it is called as export.

Import: When the goods come from other country to be sold in India it is called import.
Balance of Payment: This is the difference between export and import of a country. When export is
higher than import then this is a situation of favourable balance of payment. On the other hand when the
import is hihger than export then this is a situation of unfavourable balance of payment.

Indian Commodities Witnessing growth in share in Export:

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Major Imports to India

Bulk imports as a group registered a growth accounting for 39.09 per cent of total imports. This group
includes fertilizers (67.01 per cent), cereals (25.23 per cent), edible oils (7.94 per cent) and newsprint (5.51
per cent).
International trade has under gone a sea change in the last fifteen years. Exchange of commodities and
goods have been superseded by the exchange of information and knowledge.
India has emerged as a software giant at the international level and it is earning large foreign exchange
through the export of information technology.

Tourism as a Trade
Foreign tourist’s arrivals in the country witnessed an increase of 23.5 per cent during the year 2004 as
against the year 2003, thus contributing Rs 21,828 crore of foreign exchange. Over 2.6 million foreign
tourists visit India every year. More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry.
Tourism also promotes national integration, provides support to local handicrafts and cultural pursuits. It
also helps in the development of international understanding about our culture and heritage.

NCERT Solution
Answer the following questions in one word:
1. Northern terminal of the North-south corridor.
Answer: Srinagar

2. The name of National Highway No.2.

Answer: Grand Trunk Road

3. The headquarter of the southern railway zone.

Answer: Chennai

4. The rail gauge with a track width of 1.676 m.

Answer: Broad gauge

5. The southern terminal of the National Highway No.7.

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Answer: Kanyakumar

Answer the following questions:

1. State any three merits of roadways.

Answer: Three merits of roadways are as follows:
a. Construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines,
b. Roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography,
c. Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as such can traverse mountains such as the
Himalayas.

2. Where and why is rail transport the most convenient means of transportation?
Answer: Rail transport is the most convenient means of transport all over the country. It is especially
suited to long distance travel by people and also for transportation of goods in bulk. A train can carry a
large number of people or large bulks of goods at one go. Thus, cost of transportation per unit becomes
quite less compared to other modes of transport.

3. What is the significance of the border roads?

Answer: Border roads play significant role in connecting the inaccessible areas along the border to the
rest of the country. Border roads also have strategic importance because they provide a channel to carry
soldier and artilleries in case of a threat on the border.

4. What is meant by trade? What is the difference between international and local trade?
Answer: Business activity between two or more parties is called trade. The trade within the country is
called local trade or domestic trade. The trade between two countries is called international trade.

5. Why are the means of transportation and communication called the lifelines of a nation and its
economy?
Answer: Means of transport provide seamless movement of goods and people and thus facilitate various
economic activities. Means of communication help in flow of information which is necessary for proper
management of supply chain and financial transactions. Thus, means of transport and communication put
life into a nation and its economy. Hence, they are called the lifelines of a nation and its economy.

6. Write a note on the changing nature of the international trade in the last fifteen years.
Answer: Some of the changes in the international trade in the last fifteen years are as follows:
Bulk imports as a group registered a growth accounting for 39.09 per cent of total imports. This group
includes fertilizers (67.01 per cent), cereals (25.23 per cent), edible oils (7.94 per cent) and newsprint (5.51
per cent).
International trade has under gone a sea change in the last fifteen years. Exchange of commodities and
goods have been superseded by the exchange of information and knowledge.
India has emerged as a software giant at the international level and it is earning large foreign exchange
through the export of information technology.

EXTRA Questions
1. Why is transport a necessity ?
Answer: Transport is necessary to carry passengers and goods from one place to another .

2. Name five means of transport .

Answer:
There are five types of transport systems in India : roadways, railways , pipelines , waterways and airways.

3. Why is communication a necessity of life ?

Answer: Communication is an essential requirement of human life. No one can live without interacting

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with others . Earlier communication between people was less and only face to face .
Now it has increased and the modes of communication have also changed . The increase in population
and the change in the modes of communication are the result of increased human movement and
transport of materials and goods . Today , we are living in the age of communication , using telephone ,
television , films and Internet . Even books , magazines and newspapers are the important means of
communication. Various means of transport and communication have reduced distances, bringing the
world closer.

4. Name different categories of the means of communication .

Answer: The means of communication are divided into two categories. They are means of personal and
mass communication . In the former, we include postcard, letter, telegram, telephone , and now,
Internet . The latter includes books, journals, magazines , newspapers , radio , television , and films. These
are of two types : (a )print media (i .e ., books, newspapers ) and (b )electronic media (i.e ., radio ,
television , films, computers).

5. What is mass communication ?

Answer: Mass communication plays a vital role in creating awareness among the people about various
national programmes and policies . These provide healthy entertainment as well. Important means of
mass communication are radio , television , newspapers including magazines , books and films. These
means communicate with several people at a time, and , hence, are called means of mass communication.

6. Why is railway so important today ?

Answer: The railways are the main artery of inland transport in India (Fig . 6 .3 ). It is the lifeline of the
country for large - scale movement of traffic – freight and passengers. The railways are 150 years old in
India . The total length of railways is about 63 , 000 km . With this length , India has the second largest
railway network in Asia. The Indian railways carry 40 , 000 lakh passengers and 4 , 000 lakh tonnes of
goods a year. It is the largest public sector undertaking of the country .

7. The Great Plains has more railways than the Himalayan Mountains. Why ?
Answer: The distribution pattern of the railway network in the country has been influenced by
physiographic, economic and administrative factors . Level land of the great plains of India, with high
density of population and rich agriculture and greater industrial activity , have favoured development of
railways in these areas . Flood plains of Bihar and Assam , and the rugged topography of the Himalayan
region , have very few railway lines . Sparsely populated sandy deserts of Rajasthan and hilly tracts of the
Sahyadri are unfavourable for the development of railways .

8. What are the problems of railways today ?

Answer: Railway transport suffers from certain problems as well . Many passengers travel without tickets .
They pull chains unnecessarily, which leads to late running of trains . People stop trains , which causes
heavy losses to the Railways . Thefts and damaging of Railway property have not yet stopped completely.

9. What are national highways ?

Answer: National highways connect one state with another and are of national importance . These roads
are constructed and maintained by the central government. There is about 52 , 000 km of national
highways.

10. What are Expressway national highways ?

Answer: The Expressway national highways have been planned to meet the requirement of fast
movement of traffic in the country.

11. Name the places, which will be connected by golden quadrilateral Expressway highways .
Answer: Golden Quadrilateral, connecting Delhi , Mumbai , Chennai, Kolkata and Delhi , will have a length
of 5846 km .

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12. Write the advantages of pipeline transportation for petroleum and natural gas .
Answer: Pipelines are now used for transportation of crude oil , petroleum products and natural gas from
oil and natural gas fields to refineries, fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants. Such thermal
power plants can now be constructed in a much shorter time and very close to their markets.

13. Name any four international airports of India .

Answer: Chennai , Kolkata, Delhi and Bombay

14. Name two inland waterways of India .

Answer:
1 . The Ganga river , between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km ).
2 .The Brahmaputra river , between Sadiya 3 . Dhubri (891 km ).
4 . The West - coast canal , between Kollam and Kottayam (168 km).

15. Name the major ports on the east coast of India

Answer: Kolkata / Haldia , Paradip , Vishakhapatnam , Chennai , Ennore and Tuticorin are the major ports
located on the east coast of India.

16. Name the states where Mormugao, New Mangalore , Paradip and Tuticorin ports are located.
Answer: Mormugao – Goa
New Mangalore – Karnataka
Paradip – Andhra Pradesh
Tuticorin – Tamil Nadu

17. Name three means of mass communication .

Answer: Books , magazines and newspapers are the three means of communication.

18. What is meant by favourable balance of trade ? Whether India ’s foreign trade is favourable ?
Answer: If the value of exports is more than the value of imports , it is called a favourable balance of
trade.

19. Distinguish between Personal Communication and Mass Communication .

Answer: Personal Communication is the means of communication between individuals.
Mass Communication is the means of communication reaching up to the masses , including doordarshan ,
radio , press , films, etc . Mass communication plays a vital role in creating awareness among the people
about various national programmes and policies .

20. Describe the importance of communication in modern days .

Answer: Modern life is so complex that one has to depend on others. The same is true of the countries as
well. No country today can prosper without the co- operation and assistance of others. This requires
movement of goods and materials between countries . Trade provides us with our necessities and also
adds to amenities and comfort of life.

21. Describe various types of roads of India.

Answer: The different types of roads in India are the national highways, state highways, district roads,
village roads and border roads . Besides these , there are international highways, and free ways free ways
(express ways).

22. What has been the content and direction of India’s International Trade, and mention the major sea
ports of India . ?
Answer: India has been mainly exporting goods to countries in Asia, Western Europe and America . These
countries account for our imports also.

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Manufactured goods like , gems and jewellery , ready made garments, agricultural products and mineral
ores are our main exports .
Imports include petroleum products , precious stones, gold silver and chemicals.
The major seaports on the east coast are Kolkatta and Vishakhapattinam and on the west coast the major
ports are Mumbai and Mangalore .

POWER SHARING
Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves sharing power with
those affected by its exercise, and who have to live with its effects. All communities, social
groups get their say in the governance. People have a right to be consulted on how they are to
be governed. A legitimate government is one where citizens acquire a stake in the system;
through participation.

Power Sharing in India:

India is a democratic country. People of India elect their representative through direct franchise.
After that, people’s representatives elect the government to make or amend rules & regulations
and to carry out day to day functioning of governance.

One basic principle of democracy is that people are the source of all political power. In a
democracy, people rule themselves through institutions of self- governance. In a good
democratic government, due respect is given to diverse groups and views that exist in a society.
Everyone has a voice in the shaping of public policies. Therefore, it follows that in a
democracy political forms of power sharing should be distributed among as many citizens as
possible.

Need of Power Sharing

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a. Power sharing helps in reducing the conflict between various social groups. Hence, power
sharing is necessary for maintaining social harmony and peace.
b. Power sharing helps in avoiding the tyranny of majority. The tyranny of majority not only
destroys the minority social groups but also the majority social group.
c. People’s voice forms the basis of a democratic government. Hence, power sharing is essential
to respect the spirit of democracy.
d. Avoiding conflict in society and preventing majority tyranny are considered as prudential
reasons for power sharing. Maintaining the spirit of democracy is considered as the moral reason
for power sharing.

Forms of Power Sharing:

Power Sharing in Different Organs of Government:

Power is shared among different organs of government, such as the legislature, executive and
judiciary. This type of distribution can be called the horizontal distribution of power. This type of
power sharing allows different organs of government placed at the same level to exercise
different powers.

Such a separation ensures that unlimited power is not vested in any organ of the government.
This ensures a balance of power among various institutions. The executive enjoys official power
but is answerable to the legislature. The legislature has the right to make or amend laws but it is
answerable to the people. The judiciary is independent and ensures that the law of the land is
obeyed by legislature and executive.
Power Sharing at Different Levels:

Power can be shared among governments at different levels. Usually a central government is
responsible for the entire nation and state governments are responsible for different units of the
federation. There is clear cut demarcation on subjects which come under the union government
and those which come under the state government. However, there are some
subjects which come under the concurrent list, i.e. both state and central governments exercise
power on such subjects.

Power Sharing Among Social Groups:

Power may also be shared among different social groups. In a diverse country; like India; there
are various social, linguistic and caste groups and power is shared among each group. For
example; people from the minority communities, OBCs, and SC & ST are given reservation so
that there could be adequate representation for them in the government machinery.

Power Sharing Among Various Pressure Groups:

Power sharing among various political parties is more apparent for most of the people. Usually
the largest political party or the largest political coalition becomes the ruling party. The other
parties form the opposition. While opposition is not in power, it is responsible for
seeing to it that the ruling party functions as per the wishes of the people. Heads of various
committees comes from various political parties; which is another way of sharing power among

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different political parties.

Pressure groups also get their share in power. For example; the trade unions, ASSOCHAM,
students’ union, etc. get some power by certain mechanisms. Representatives of these
associations become part of many decision making bodies and thus enjoy their share of power.

EXTRA QUESTIONS

QUES.1 Describe the major forms of power sharing in modern democracies.

ANS. MAJOR FORMS OF POWER SHARING (p.s.):
1. between different forms of govt. (horizontal p.s.)
- Legislative
- Executive
- Judiciary
In a democracy, power is shared among different towers of the govt. such as legislature,
executive and judiciary. Each organ has its own powers and checks the powers of others.
For e.g. in India the ministers exercise powers but they are responsible towards the
parliament. Similarly, although judges are appointed by the executive, they can check the
functioning of executive or laws made by the legislature. This arrangement is called the
system of checks and balances.
2. at different levels (vertical description of power)
-Union Govt.
- State Govt.
- Local Govt.
A union govt. for the entire country and a state govt. for the states which is also called the
federal form of govt.
3. Power sharing among different social groups such as religions and linguistic groups.
This is known as community govt. This type of arrangement is meant to give space in govt.
and administration to diverse social groups who would otherwise feel alienated from the
govt.
4. Political parties, pressure groups and movements
- They control those in power. In democracies, there is a competition among the political
parties. In long run, the power is shared among political parties which can directly be by forming
alliance or coalition govt. They also have a share in governmental power either
through participation in governmental committees or bringing influence on decision making.

QUES.2 What were the Causes of ethnic struggles in Belgium?

ANS. Belgium is a small country in Europe sharing its borders with Dutch, France and
Germany. It has a population a little over 10 million and ethnic composition of the country is com
plex.
I. Of Belgium’s total population, 59% live in Flemish region and speak the Dutch language.
Another 40% live in Wallonia region and speak French. Remaining 1% of Belgians speak
German.
II. In the capital city of Brussels, 80% speak French while 20% are Dutch speaking.
III. The minority French speaking community is relatively rich and powerful so the majority
Dutch community showed resentment against it. This led to tension between the Dutch and
French speaking communities in 1950s-1960s.
IV. The conflict between the Dutch speaking and French speaking was more severe in

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Brussels because here, the Dutch speaking people were majority in Belgium but a minority
in Brussels. Therefore, the ethnic struggle in Belgium originated from tensions between
Dutch and French community in Belgium.

QUES.3 What were the methods adopted by the Belgium leaders to resolve the ethnic c
onflict in Belgium?
OR
What do you understand by accommodation in Belgium?
ANS. The Belgium leaders recognized the existence of regional difference and cultural
diversities. Between 1970-1993, the constitution was amended 4 times so as to work out an arra
ngement which would satisfy everybody. Following steps were taken:
I. Equal number of ministers from both the groups-so that no single community can take
decisions unilaterally.
II. More powers to state govt.-under the new power sharing arrangement, many powers of
central govt. were given to state govt. for 2 regions of the country.
III. Equal representation at state and central level-a separate govt. was set up at Brussels
where both communities had equal representation.
IV. Formation of community govt.-apart from central and state govt., a third form of govt.
was to be introduced which was elected by people belonging to 1 community i.e. Dutch,
French and German and no matter this govt. would have power to discuss cultural , cultural
and language related issues.

QUES.4 Discuss the reasons responsible for the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka?
ANS. Sri Lanka is an island nation in south Asia located about 31 km of southern coast of
India. It has a diverse population of 20 million people.
1. The Sinhalese community forms the majority of population. Among Tamils there are
2 subgroups:
- Srilankan Tamils
- Tamils of Indian origin
They contribute about 18% of Srilankan population of which 13% are Srilankan Tamils and
5% are Indian Tamils.
2. Besides this diversity, there are 7% christens in Srilanka who belong to Tamil or Sinhala
community. The Sinhalese community is Buddhist where Tamils are either Hindu or Muslims
3. The ethnic struggle in Srilanka originated from the dominance of Sinhalese people in
Government administration by virtue of their majority.

QUES.5 What were the reasons that led to the rise of majoritarian in Sri Lanka?
OR
What are the features of majoritarian in Sri Lanka?
OR
Describe the main features of the act of 1856 in Sri Lanka.
ANS. Sri Lanka emerged as an independent country in 1948, The new government of Sri Lanka ad
opted a series of majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala supremacy in the following ways:
i. In 1956, an act was passed under which Sinhala was recognized as Sri Lanka official
language. No consideration was given to Tamil language.
ii. The government followed preferential policies which favored Sinhala applicants for
universities, positions and government jobs.
iii. The new constitution stipulated that state would protect and promote Buddhism

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All these government measures increased the feeling of alienation among Sri Lankan Tamils
And they felt that government’s constitution denied them equal political rights,
discriminated with them in terms of jobs and ignored their interests, as a result the
relationship between Sinhala and Tamils strained over time.

QUES.6 What were the results of the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka?
OR
What are the features of civil war in Sri Lanka?
ANS.
i. Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for recognition of Tamil as an official
language, regional autonomy, the equality of opportunities in government jobs and
education. There demand for more autonomy to provinces populated by Tamils was
repeatedly denied.
ii. By 1980s, several political organizations were formed demanding an independent Tamil
state in northern and eastern parts of Srilanka.
iii. The distrust between 2 communities turned into a wide spread conflict. It soon turned
into a civil war resulting in death of many people of both the communities.
iv. Many families were forced to leave their country as refugees and many more lost their
livelihood.
v. The civil war was a terrible attack to social, cultural and economic life of the country.

FEDERALISM
Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority
and various constituent units of the country. Usually, a federation has two levels of government.
One is the government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of
common national interest. The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that
look after much of the day-to- day administering of their state. Both these levels of governments
enjoy their power independent of the other.

The Indian Federation:

The word ‘federation’ has not been used in the constitution of India, but the Indian Union was
formed on the basis of federalism.

The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government. The Union
Government or Central Government represents the Union of India and the State governments
represent the provinces. Later, a third tier was added in the federation; with the formation of
Panchayats and Municipalities.

Key Features of Federalism:

A. There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.

B. Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in

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specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
C. The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the
constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally
guaranteed.
D. The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of
government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government.
E. Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of
government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of
government in the exercise of their respective powers.
F. Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial
autonomy.
G. The federal system thus has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote unity of the country,
while at the same time accommodate regional diversity.

Therefore, two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism. Governments at
different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing. They should also trust that each
would abide by its part of the agreement. An ideal federal system has both aspects: mutual trust
and agreement to live together.

Balance of Power:

The exact balance of power between the central and the state government varies from one
federation to another. This balance depends mainly on the historical context in which the
federation was formed.

There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed; which are as follows:

a. Coming together federations: This type of federation exists in the USA, Switzerland and
Australia. Independent states came together on their own to form a bigger unit so that they
could increase their security; while maintaining their sovereignty. In this type of federation, the
constituent states have equal power and are stronger vis-à-vis the central government.

b. Holding together federation: This type of federation exists in India, Spain, Belgium, etc. In this
case, power is shared among various social groups to accommodate a huge diversity. In this type
of federation, the central government is more powerful than the state government. Different
constituents of the federation may have unequal powers. Some units are granted special powers,
e.g. the case of Jammu & Kashmir in India.

List of Jurisdiction:

Union List: Union List includes subjects of national importance; such as defence of the country,
foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency. They are included in this list because we
need a uniform policy on these matters throughout the country. The Union Government alone
can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the Union List.

State List: State List contains subjects of State and local importance such as police, trade,
commerce, agriculture and irrigation. The State Governments alone can make laws relating to
the subjects mentioned in the State List.

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Concurrent List: Concurrent List includes subjects of common interest to both the Union
Government as well as the State Governments, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage,
adoption and succession. Both the Union as well as the State Governments can make laws on the
subjects mentioned in this list. If their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union
Government will prevail.

Residuary List: Anything out of purview of above mentioned list is taken as residuary subject.
Union Government has the power to legislate on these subjects.

Special Status: Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution. Many provisions of the Indian
Constitution are not applicable to this State without the approval of the State Assembly. Indians
who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy land or house here. Similar special
provisions exist for some other States of India as well.

Union Territories: There are some units of the Indian Union which enjoy very little power. These
are areas which are too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged
with any of the existing States. These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the capital city
of Delhi, are called Union Territories. These territories do not have the powers of a State. The
Central Government has special powers in running these areas.

This sharing of power between the Union Government and the State governments is basic to the
structure of the Constitution. It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement.
The Parliament cannot on its own change this arrangement. Any change to it has to be first
passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority. Then it has to be
ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States.

Reasons for Success of Federalism in India

Linguistic States: The creation of Linguistic States was the first and a major test for democratic
politics in our country. This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived
in the same State. Some States were created not on the basis of language but to recognise the
differences based on culture, ethnicity or geography, e.g. Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand.

Language policy: A second test for Indian federation is the language policy. Our Constitution did
not give the status of national language to any one language. Hindi was identified as the official
language. But Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 40 per cent of Indians. Therefore, there
were many safeguards to protect other languages. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages
recognised as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution. Hindi was not imposed on non-Hindi
areas for most of the period after the independence.

Centre-State relations: Restructuring the Centre-State relations is one more way in which
federalism has been strengthened in practice.

Situation during Congress Monopoly:

For a major period; after independence; same party was in power in both centre and states in

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most parts of the country. Those were the days of Congress monopoly in India. In those days, the
central government often undermined the rights of the state governments. Many states were
brought under President’s rule at slight pretext of assertiveness from the state government.

Situation in the Era of Coalition Government:

After 1989, the pattern has shifted to multi-party coalition government at the centre. As a result
a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Governments has
developed. It can be said that now the federalism is more developed in India.

Linguistic diversity of India

As per the latest Census Report, 1991 of India held in 1991 there are 1500 distinct languages.
These languages were grouped together under some major languages. For example languages
like Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Bundelkhandi, Chhattisgarhi, Rajasthani, Bhili and many others were
grouped together under ‘Hindi’. Even after this grouping, the Census found 114 major languages.
Of these 22 languages are now included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution and are
therefore called ‘Scheduled Languages’. Others are called ‘non- Scheduled Languages’. In terms
of languages, India is perhaps the most diverse country in the world.

Decentralisation in India:

A vast country like India cannot be run only through two-tiers of government as discussed above.
Some of the Indian states are bigger than independent countries of Europe. The population of
Uttar Pradesh is more than that of Russia. These states are internally very diverse in terms of
variety of dialects, eating habits and culture.

Hence, a need for creating a third tier of government was always being felt. There are many local
issues which can only be solved by a local governing body. It is also possible to ensure direct
participation of people in such a governing body.

A major step towards decentralisation was taken in 1992. The Constitution was amended to
make the third-tier of democracy more powerful and effective. The local governing bodies were
given constitutional status.
a. Now it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
b. Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for the
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
c. At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
d. An independent institution called the State Election Commission has been created in each
State to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
e. The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local
government bodies. The nature of sharing varies from State to State. Rural local government is
popularly known by the name panchayati raj.
f. Each village, or a group of villages in some States, has a gram panchayat. This is a council
consisting of several ward members, often called panch. The president of the panchayat is called
sarpanch.
g. Members of a panchayat are directly elected by the all the adults who are living in the
panchayat.

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h. The local government structure goes right up to the district level. A few gram panchayats are
grouped together to form what is usually called a panchayat samiti or block or mandal. The
members of this representative body are elected by all the panchyat members in that area. All
the panchayat samitis or mandals in a district together constitute the zilla (district) parishad.
Most members of the zilla parishad are elected. Members of the Lok Sabha and MLAs of that
district and some other officials of other district level bodies are also its members. Zilla parishad
chairperson is the political head of the zilla parishad.

Similarly, local government bodies exist for urban areas as well. Municipalities are set up in
towns. Big cities are constituted into municipal corporations. Both municipalities and municipal
corporations are controlled by elected bodies consisting of people’s representatives. Municipal
chairperson is the political head of the municipality. In a municipal corporation such an officer is
called the mayor.

EXTRA QUESTIONS

Question-1What is Federalism?
Solution: Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central aut
hority and various constituents of the country. Federalism usually has a two level government i.e
. central and the state government.
or
Federalism is the advocacy of federal political orders, where the final authority is divided
between sub-units and a centre. Unlike a unitary state, sovereignty is constitutionally split
between at least two territorial levels so that units at each level have final authority and can act
independently of the others in some area. In such a case citizens have political obligations to two
authorities. The allocation of authority between the sub-unit and centre may vary. The federal
system thus has dual objectives that is to safeguard and promote unity of the country and
accommodate regional diversity. Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of
power sharing. An ideal federal system has both aspects; mutual trust and agreement to live
together.

Question-2What makes India a Federal Country?

Solution: India is a nation with many languages, religions and regions. It emerged as an
independent nation after a long and painful partition. Several princely states became a part of
the country soon after independence. India was declared as a Union of States, by the
Constitution. The Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism. The Constitution earlier
provided a two-tier system of government, the Union Government (Central Government),
representing the Union of India and the State governments. Later, Panchayats and Municipalities
were added as a third tier of federalism. All these different forms of government enjoy separate
jurisdiction.

Question-3Write a brief note on the language policy adopted in India.

Solution: The ‘Language policy’ was the second test for Indian federation. No language was given
the status of national language by our Constitution. Hindi was identified as the official language.
But only about 40 percent of Indians have Hindi as their mother tongue. Therefore, 21 other
languages besides Hindi, are recognized as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution. A
candidate in an examination conducted for the Central Government positions may opt to take
the examination in any of these languages. States too have their own official languages. Much of

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the government work takes place in the official language of the concerned State. The flexibility
shown by Indian political leaders helped our country avoid any conflict based on languages.

Question-4Write a brief note on village councils.

Solution: Village Councils looked after the affairs of the village, had police and judicial powers
and were the lines of contact with higher authorities on matters affecting the villages. Custom
and religion elevated them to a sacred position of authority. These Councils were the pivot of
administration, the centre of social life, and, above all, a focus of social solidarity.

Question-5What are the dual objectives of Federalism?

Solution: The dual objectives of Federalism are to safeguard and promote unity of the country
and to accommodate regional diversity.

Question-6What are the duties of a Central and State governments?

Solution: The duties of the Union or Central Government include subjects of national importance
such as defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency. This is
because, a uniform policy on these matters will be maintained throughout the country. All the
laws pertaining to the above duties must be given only by the Union Government. The duties of
the State Governments include subjects of the State and local importance such as police, trade,
commerce, agriculture and irrigation. All the laws pertaining to the above duties must be given
only by the State Governments. Some aspects have to be taken care of, by both, the Union
Government as well as the State Governments. They are education, forest, trade unions,
marriage, adoption and succession. Both governments can make laws on these subjects. If their
laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union Government will prevail.

Question-7 What is the special status the state of Jammu and Kashmir enjoys?
Solution: Jammu and Kashmir enjoys a special status. It has its own Constitution. Many
provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this State without the approval of the
State Assembly. Indians who are not permanent residents of this State cannot buy land or house
here. Similar special provisions exist for some other States of India as well.

Question-8 Why is India called a Federal country?

Solution: 1. Division of power-In India constitution has divided the powers of
Union and state govt. in accordance of the following lists:
a. Union list- subjects of national importance like defence, foreign affairs, railways, post and
telegraph etc. are included in the union list. Only union govt. can pass laws on subjects
mentioned in this list as these are important for the whole country. This list has 97 subjects.
b. State list- it has 66 subjects on which the state govt. has passed laws. E.g. police, local govt.,
trade, agriculture.
c. Concurrent list- it has 47 subjects which are of common concern to both union and state list
and both can make laws on subjects mentioned in these lists. However, if there is conflict
between centre and state over a subject, then central and union law will be effective. This list
includes subjects like civil and criminal procedures, economic planning, education structure etc.
d. Residuary list of powers- Matters which are not included in any list are known as
residuary powers. The central government has been given the power to legislate on
residual subjects.

2. Three Tier System

In India, we have a three tier system of government, i.e union government, state government,

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local government.

3. No equal power to all administrative units.

There are some units of Indian union, which enjoy very little power. These are areas which are
too small to become independent states and cannot be merged with any of the existing states.
These areas, like Chandigarh or Lakshadweep are called union territories. These territories do
not have the power of state. The central government has special powers in running these areas.

4. Consent of both level of government

The constitution cannot be changed unilaterally by one level of the government. Any change or
amendment to constitution has to be first passed by both the houses of parliament with at least
2/3rd majority. After this majority, it has to be ratified by state legislatures of at least half the
total states.

5. Supremacy of judiciary
In Indian federation, the judiciary is supreme. Any dispute between center and state are to be
referred to the Supreme Court and its verdict is final

6. Separate source of income

There are separate sources of income for central and state governments e.g. income tax, excise
duty etc. are collected by union govt. whereas slam revenue, slam duty etc. are collected by
state govt.

Question-9 Discuss the key features of a federal government?

Solution: a. Two or more levels of govt.: it is a system of govt. in which power is divided
between central authority and various constituent units. E.g. in India, there are three levels of
govt. i.e. union state and local.
b. Separate jurisdiction: different tiers of the govt. govern the same citizen but each tier has its
own jurisdiction (area of working and control) in specific matters of taxation, legislation and
administration.
c. Specification of jurisdiction: the jurisdiction of different levels of govt. are specified in the
constitution so that existence and authority of each level of govt. is constitutionally guaranteed.
d. Rigid constitution: the fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be changed by one
level of the govt. Such changes require consent of both the levels of govt.
e. Separate sources of income: sources of revenue for each level of govt. are clearly
specified to ensure financial autonomy.
f. Dual objective: federal system has dual objective for:-
i. To safeguard and promote unity of the country
ii. To accommodate the regional diversity
g. Supremacy of judiciary
In federal government judiciary is given supremacy over the above organ of the
government for:
i. Protecting the constitution
ii. Interpreting the constitution
iii. Deciding the dispute between center and state

Question-10 How is federalism practised in India?

Solution: Constitutional provisions are necessary for the success of federalism but these are not
sufficient. The nature of democratic policies adopted by the governments from time to time has

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played a vital role in making federalism successful.

a) Linguistic States: - After independence in 1950, the boundaries of several old states were
changed to create new states. This was done to ensure that people, who spoke same language,
shared common culture or geography could live in same state. Some national feared that this
would lead to disintegration of the country and but experience has shown that formation of
linguistic states has made the country united, stronger and made administration easier.

b) Language Policy: - Our constitution did not give the status of national language to any one of
the language. Hindi was identified as official language but central government did not impose
Hindi on the states which spoke different languages. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages
recognised as scheduled languages by the constitution. Most of the states have their own official
languages, which are used in the offices. According to the constitution, use of English for official
purposes was discontinued in 1965 which was not liked by some states. So the central
government agreed to continue the use of English along with Hindi for official purposes. The
flexibility showed by the Indian political leaders helped india to avoid the kind of situation that
Sri Lanka finds itself in.

c) Centre – State Relationships: - Restricting of centre – state relations has strengthened the fed
eralism. For a long time, the same political party ruled at both the centre and most of the state.
In those days, the central government would often misuse the constitution to dismiss the state
government which was controlled by their rivalries. After 1990, the coalition government
became common at centre i.e. no single party got a clear majority in Lok Sabha and major nation
al parties along with the regional parties joined their hands together to form a government at
centre. This led to new culture of power sharing and respect for autonomy of the state
government. The Supreme Court also issued judgements which made it difficult for the central
government to dismiss state government in arbitrary manner.

Question-11What is the difference between federation and unitary governments?

Solution:
Federal System Unitary System
1. The central government cannot orde 1. Either there is only one level of
r the state government to do somethin government or the sub units are
g. subordinate to the central government.

2. The state government has the power 2. The central government can pass or
s of its own for which it is not answera ders to the provincial or the local gover
ble to the central government. nment.

Both the governments are separately

answerable to the people.

Question-12 What is decentralisation?

Solution: When power is taken away from the central and state government and given it to the
local government is called decentralisation.

Question-13 What is the basic idea behind decentralization?

Solution: a) Large number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local level.

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b) People have a better knowledge of problems in their locality.
c) Better ideas on where to spend the money.
d) On how to manage things more efficiently.
e) People participate directly in decision making.

Question-14 What steps were taken by the government to promote decentralization?

Solution: The year 1992 was a landmark year in which constitution was amended to make third
tier of the government more powerful in following ways: -
a) Constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to government local bodies.
b) Seats are reserved for SC/ST/OBC.
c) 1/3rd seats were reserved for women.
a) State election commission was formed to contact Panchayat and Municipal election.
b) State government had to share some powers and revenue with local government bodies.

Question-15 What are the advantages of the local government?

Solution: a) It has helped to deepen the democracy in our country as more people can
participate.
b) Increased women’s representation and voice in our democracy.

Question-16 What are the drawbacks associated with local government?

a) Elections are held regularly, but gram sabhas are not held regularly.
b) Most of the state governments have not transferred significant powers to the local
government.
Nor have they given adequate resources.

DEMOCRACY AND DIVERSITY

Diversity in Society:
The presence of different socio-economic group, different religious groups, different linguistic
groups, different cultural groups and different caste groups can be termed as diversity in society.

India is a perfect example of diverse nation. In India, people of almost all major religion of this
world can be found. There are thousands of languages, variety of food habits, all hues of
costumes and myriad variety of cultures and subcultures in India.

Diversity as perfect stimulus to politics: As per Darwin's theory of evolution it is the survival of
fittest. Human beings need to prosper economically; in their endeavour to survive. The economic
prosperity ultimately leads to social upgradation. History is full of example when some
economically stronger social group tried to dominate the comparatively weaker sections. This
was done to ensure uninterrupted control over resources and power.

Political manifestation of social diversity depends on three factors, which are as

follows:

a. How people perceive their identities. If people see their identity in singular or exclusive term,
it becomes difficult to accommodate social diversity.

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b. How political leaders raise the demands of any community.
c. How the government reacts to the demands of a community. If the government
accommodates the demand of a particular community in a justified way, it does wonders for the
politics.

As per the caste system of ancient Hindu scriptures, society was divided into four classes based
on area of work. Nobody is sure what was the situation originally but over a period of time this
developed into a caste and class system which was strictly based on one's birth in a particular
caste.

The so-called upper caste people controlled every economical resource and lower caste people
were oppressed to prevent them from developing in the socio-economic order.
Partly because of British influence and partly because of liberal policies followed by successive
governments in India more and more people started getting access to modern methods of
education. Apart from this, the fourth estate, media increased political awareness among vast
sections of the society.

These things must have done wonders for political awakening of the downtrodden masses. This
awakening is bearing fruit, which is evident from rise of strong regional leaders who don't belong
to the upper caste.

As you know, democracy is about giving every stakeholder a say in the governance. So now it can
be said that India is finally evolving as a true democracy, because now almost all sections of
society is having a representation in the Government.

Government's Steps to Include Fringe groups into Mainstream:

After independence, the constitution makers made two radical provisions, which were to frame
India's destiny in the right direction.
A. The first provision was to give the right to vote to every adult citizen of this country. Many
experts in those days laughed at the idea. The reason given was a highly illiterate population was
not fit to use the right judiciously.
B. The second provision was to give reservation to the Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes to
include them in the mainstream of the life of the nation.

These two provisions helped to grow the level of political awareness amongst the people of
hinterland. In fact it took hundreds of years for developed countries like US and UK to provide
voting rights to women. And the disheartening fact is till none of the women could become the
President of USA. Till a few days ago no president of US was black.

It can be said that India has seen many examples of people from the oppressed classes rising up
to the high posts in country. The President’s post had been graced by people from the minority
communities; like Muslim and Sikh. Some Dalits had also become the President of India. India
has seen a woman Prime Minister and a Woman President. India has also seen a Sikh as the
Prime Minister.

EXTRA QUESTIONS

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Question -1 Who led the Civil rights movement in the USA?

Solution : Martin Luther King led the Civil rights movement in the USA .

Question -2 What difference does migration make to social homogeneity ?

Solution : Migrants bring their own culture with them making the society heterogeneous .

Question -3 Give two examples to show that political competition along religious and ethnic
lines can lead to disintegration .
Solution : Partition of India and the disintegration of Yugoslavia are the examples that political
competition along religious and ethnic lines can lead to disintegration .

Question -4 Give one example to show that we all have more than one identity and can belong
to more than one social group .
Solution : Two persons may belong to the same community , but one person may be rich and the
other person may be poor . They belong to the same community but not to the same social
group.

Question -5 What are the origins of Social Differences ?

Solution : Birth is the main cause for social differences . There may be many drawbacks in it , as
one cannot change this . We belong to a community simply because we were born into it. We
experience the social differences based on accident of birth in our everyday lives .
Social differences exist due to gender differences ; physical attributes and due to different
physical abilities or disabilities .
A few differences are based on our choices . Education, profession and economic standards also
create social difference . All these lead to formation of social groups that are based on individual
choices .

Question -6 What are the three important factors in the outcome of politics of social divisions?
Solution : The first and foremost factor is for people to see their identities as multiple and
complementary to the national identity . This helps them to stay together . People in our country
should think of themselves as Indian as well as belonging to a state or a language group or a
social or religious community .
The second factor depends on how political leaders raise the demands of any community. The
demands should be within the constitutional framework and not at the cost of another
community .
The third factor depends on how the demands of different groups are met by the government.
The demands of minority community should also be and the rulers should be willing to share
power.

Question -7 Social diversities in a country need not be seen as a source of danger. Discuss .
Solution : Political expression of social divisions can be healthy and is very normal in a
democracy . This proves as a bridge of understanding between various disadvantaged and
marginal social groups , as it allows expressing their grievances and getting the government to
attend those aspects at the earliest.
When one social group expresses itself, it challenges the other groups to do the same .
Democracy is strengthened by this .
But a positive attitude towards diversity and a willingness to accommodate does not come about
easily . People who feel segregated must fight this . This fight should take the democratic path,

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and the people should voice their demands in a peaceful and constitutional manner and seek a
fair position through elections .

Question-8. Discuss three factors that determine the outcomes of politics of social divisions.
solution: Political manifestation of social diversity depends on three factors, which are as follows:
How people perceive their identities. If people see their identity in singular or exclusive term, it
becomes difficult to accommodate social diversity.
How political leaders raise the demands of any community.
How the government reacts to the demands of a community. If the government accommodates
the demand of a particular community in a justified way, it does wonders for the politics.

Question-9. When does a social difference become a social division?

Solution: When social difference leads to exclusionist approach among people. It leads to social
division. In case of India, the upper caste people had historically controlled almost all the
resources and had tried to exclude the dalits and lower caste people from enjoying the benefits
of economic development. This led to social division in the country.

Question-10 How do social divisions affect politics? Give two examples.

Solution: Politics of a country cannot remain untouched by social divisions. Political parties will
always try to represent some social community and would continue to raise their voices. This
results in emergence of a leader or a political group which represents a particular social group.
For example; the emergence of BSP (Bahujan Samaj Party) happened because its founders took
up the cause of the dalits.

GENDER RELIGION AND CASTE

Sexual Division of Labour: A system in which all work inside the home is either done by the
women of the family, or organised by them through the domestic helpers.

Feminist Movements: Various movements which are aimed at ensuring equal rights for women
are called feminist movement.
Political expression of gender question helped a lot to improve women’s role in public life.
Although the Indian society is still a patriarchal society, yet women are now working in many
fields.

Women face disadvantage, discrimination and oppression in various ways:

a. The literacy rate among women is only 54 per cent compared with 76 per cent among men.
b. The percentage of women in highly paid jobs is still very small. At many workplaces, women
are paid less than men for the same job. An Indian woman usually works more hour than an
average man on a daily basis.
c. Many Indian parents prefer to have a male child. A girl child is killed before her birth in many
cases. This has led to an eschewed sex ratio in India.
d. There are many reports of harassment against women; both on the domestic front and
outside the home.

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Women’s political representation:

The political representation of women had been very poor in the Indian legislatures. Even in the
cabinet, the number of women ministers is very low.
One-third of seats in local government bodies have been reserved for women candidates. This
has helped in increasing women’s representation in panchayats and municipalities.
A bill for providing one-third reservation in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies has been
pending in the Parliament for more than a decade. Political parties are yet to arrive at consensus
on this issue.

Women in national parliaments in different regions of the world

Religion & Politics:

Religion also plays an important role in politics. In some countries, politicians promote the cause
of the majority religious group at the cost of the minorities. This produces a dangerous trend of
majority tyranny.

Communalism: When one religion is pitted against another; by the political class, this is called
communalism or communal politics.
Communalism can take various forms in politics:
a. Many people think of their religion as superior to all other religions. Such people often try to
dominate the people from other communities. This can result in people from the minority
community to form a separate political unit.
b. Sometimes, sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeal, etc. are used to instill a sense
of fear among people of a particular community. This is done with an attempt to polarize people
on communal lines.
c. Communalism can also take the ugly form of communal violence, riots and massacre.

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Percentage of Different Religions in Indian Population (REF: census India)

Secular state
a. The Constitution of India declares that India is a secular state. Unlike some of the neighbouring
countries, there is no official religion for the Indian state.
b. The constitution gives the people the freedom to practice a religion of their choice. The
Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.
c. The Indian constitution, however, allows the state to intervene in the matters of religion
whenever there is a need to ensure equality within religious communities.

Caste and politics

Social division on the lines of caste is unique to India. The caste system of the present has
evolved from the varna system which was based on occupations and on the principle that an
occupation passed from one generation to another. Members of a particular caste usually have a
sense of belonging to their own community. Some castes are accorded a higher status compared
to many other castes.

Current Status of Caste Related Prejudice:

A. Due to various socio-economic changes, social division on the basis of caste has been blurring
in recent times. Economic development, large scale urbanization, literacy, occupational mobility
and weakening of the position of landlords in villages have helped in blurring the caste-based
divisions.
B. Caste is still an important parameter when it comes to finalizing marriages. But in most of the
other spheres of life, caste effect is apparently waning in India.
C. People from the upper caste had traditionally better access to the education and hence they
have done well in economic development. People from the oppressed castes are still lagging
behind in socio-economic development.

Caste in Politics
a. Most of the political parties keep the caste calculation in mind while fielding a candidate from
a particular constituency.
b. Each caste group is trying to get a bigger pie of the political power by asserting its identity in
various ways.
c. Since there are so many castes, hence various caste groups have also evolved their own
coalition to get leverage in political bargaining.
d. The caste groups can be broadly divided into ‘backward’ and ‘forward’.
e. Exclusive attention to caste can produce negative results. Caste divisions often lead to social
conflict and even violence.

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Caste inequality today
a. Economic inequalities exist on the basis of caste. The upper caste people are usually well off,
the backward classes come in between and the dalits and adivasis are at the bottom.
b. The percentage of people below poverty line is much higher among the lowest castes.

NCERT questions
Answer the following questions:
1. Mention different aspects of life in which women are discriminated or disadvantaged in
India.
Answer: Some of the examples of discrimination against women are as follows:
- The literacy rate among women is only 54 per cent compared with 76 per cent among men.
- The percentage of women in highly paid jobs is still very small. At many workplaces, women
are paid less than men for the same job. An Indian woman usually works more hour than an
average man on a daily basis.
- Many Indian parents prefer to have a male child. A girl child is killed before her birth in many
cases. This has led to an eschewed sex ratio in India.
- There are many reports of harassment against women; both on the domestic front and
outside the home.

2. State different forms of communal politics with one example each.

Answer: Many people think of their religion as superior to all other religions. Such people often
try to dominate the people from other communities. This can result in people from the minority
community to form a separate political unit. In countries; like Sri Lanka, Nepal and Pakistan; a
particular religion is the official religion and this practice is propagating majority tyranny.
Sometimes, sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeal, etc. are used to instill a sense of
fear among people of a particular community. This is done with an attempt to polarize people on
communal lines. Many news articles appear related to fanning communal tension from time to
time.

3. State how caste inequalities are still continuing in India.

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Answer: Economic inequalities exist on the basis of caste. The upper caste people are usually
well off, the backward classes come in between and the dalits and adivasis are at the bottom.
The percentage of people below poverty line is much higher among the lowest castes.

4. State two reasons to say that caste alone cannot determine election results in India.
Answer: If a particular constituency has a particular caste in significant number, then most of the
political parties try to field their candidate from that caste. Votes from that caste then get
divided along different political affiliations. There are many instances when a sitting legislator
loses election in spite of the caste equation in favour of him. Most of the political parties focus
on a combination of many castes rather than on a single caste; in order to strike a winning
arithmetic. These things suggest that caste alone cannot determine election results in India.

5. What is the status of women’s representation in India’s legislative bodies?

Answer: Women’s reservation is very poor in Parliament and state legislatures. Number of
women legislatures is not more than 10%. However, the number of women representatives in
local governing bodies has increased because of 33% reservation. At present, there are about 10
lakh women in local bodies.

6. Mention any two constitutional provisions that make India a secular state.
Answer: The Constitution of India declares that India is a secular state. Unlike some of the
neighbouring countries, there is no official religion for the Indian state.
The constitution gives the people the freedom to practice a religion of their choice. The
Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.

EXTRA QUESTIONS
Question -1 What does gender division refer to ?
Solution : Gender division refers to the unequal roles assigned to men and women by the
society .

Question -2 Name 2 countries where participation of women in public life is very high.
Solution : Sweden and Norway are the 2 countries where participation of women in public life is
very high.

Question -3 Mention 2 essential characteristic of a secular state.

Solution : A secular state allows its citizens to practise and propagate any religion or not follow
any religion at all . The constitution of the state prohibits any discrimination on the basis of
religion.

Question -4 What is meant by caste hierarchy?

Solution : Caste hierarchy is a grading of groups from the highest to the lowest castes , for
example , the Brahmins to the untouchables .

Question -5 What is Communalism ?

Solution : The term Communalism is widely used across South Asia to describe the systematic
misuse of religion for political purposes . It represents the processes of political construction of
community identities along religious lines. Communal politics represents one’s own religious
community in an antagonistic relationship with 'the other religious community. 'Socially
engineered prejudice, tension and conflict between religious communities constitute
communalism . Communalism Combat stands for equal respect to all religions and is opposed to

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the cynical manipulation of faith in the pursuit of power ; therefore , we are opposed to both
majority and minority communalism .

Question -6 Write a brief note on the Hindu caste system .

Solution : The Hindu caste system reflects Indian occupational and socially defined hierarchies .
Ancient Sanskrit sources divide society into four major categories , priests or Brahmin, warriors
or Kshatriya, traders or Vaishya and labourers or the Shudra . In addition to these castes we also
have the "untouchables. "
The Indian society is divided into thousands of jatis, which are local groups based on occupation.
Despite economic modernisation and laws countering discrimination against the lower end of
the caste structure and outlawing "untouchables," the caste system remains an important
source of social identification and a potent factor in the political life of the country .

Question -7 What are the positive aspects of caste system in Indian politics?
Solution : The caste system plays different kinds of roles in politics. In some situations ,
expression of caste differences in politics gives many disadvantaged communities the space to
demand their share of power. In this aspect caste politics has helped people from Dalits and
Backward Castes to gain better access to decision making.
Several political and non - political organisations have been demanding and agitating for an end
to discrimination against particular castes , for more dignity and more access to land , resources
and opportunities .
Caste privilege and solidarity provide a kind of safety net. This will probably change as economic
competition intensifies ; but caste assertion largely precludes class solidarity .

POPULAR STRUGGLES &MOVEMENT

Mobilisation and Organisations:
Political Parties: Some organizations directly participate in the democratic process. These organizations
are called political parties. They contest elections and aim to form government.
Pressure Groups: Some organizations indirectly participate in the democratic process. These
organizations are called interest groups or pressure groups.

Pressure Groups and Movements

Pressure groups do not aim to form or run the government. When people of common occupation,
interest aspirations or opinions come together; in order to achieve a common objective; they form
pressure groups. These pressure groups carry on popular movements in order to meet their objectives. It
is not necessary that all the pressure groups go on creating popular movements rather many of them
work in closely knit groups.
Some examples of popular movements in India are: Narmada Bachao Andolan, Movement for Right to
Information, Anti-liquor Movement, Women’s Movement, Environmental Movement.

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Sectional Interest Groups and Public Interest Groups

Sectional Interest Groups: Usually interest groups seek to promote the interests of a particular section
or group of society. Trade unions, business associations and professional (lawyers, doctors, teachers, etc.)
bodies are some examples of this type. They are sectional because they represent a section of society:
workers, employees, businesspersons, industrialists, followers of a religion, caste group, etc. Their
principal concern is the betterment and well being of their members, not society in general.
Public Interest Groups: These second type of groups are called promotional groups or public interest
groups. They promote collective rather than selective good. They aim to help groups other than their own
members. Trade Unions, Students’ Union, Ex-Armymen Association, etc. are examples of public interest
groups.

Pressure Groups' and Movements' Influence on Politics:

Public Sympathy: They try to gain public support and sympathy for their goals and their activity. For this,
they carry information campaigns, organise meetings, file petitions, etc. Many of them also try to
influence the media to get more attention.
Protest Activity: They often organise protest activity. Protest activities include like strikes or disrupting
government programmes. Strikes and disruptions are utilized to pressurize the government to take note
of their demand.
Lobbying: Business groups often employ professional lobbyists or sponsor expensive advertisements.
Some persons from pressure groups or movement groups may participate in official bodies and
committees that offer advice to the government. Some professional bodies; like ASSOCHAM and
NASSCOM are examples of such groups.
Influence on Political Parties: The interest groups and movement try to influence political parties. They
usually have a particular political ideology and political position on major issues. A pressure group can be
directly or indirectly linked to a political party.
a. Most of the trade unions and students’ unions in India are directly affiliated to some or the other major
political party. The activists of such pressure groups are usually the activists or leaders of the party.
b. Sometimes, political parties grow out of movements. Asom Gana Parishad is a good example. It
originated from students’ movement in Assam which was against the ‘outsiders’ working in Assam. The
two main political parties of Tamil Nadu; DMK and AIADMK; originated because of a long drawn social
reform movement during the 1930s and 1940s. The latest entrant; the AAP is another example; which
originated from the RTI movement.
c. But in most of the cases, the relationship between political parties and interest or movement groups is
not so direct. They usually take positions which are opposed to each other. However, they maintain
dialogue and negotiation. Many issues raised by movement groups are often taken up by political parties.
Many new leaders in the political parties come from interest or movement groups.

Critical Analysis of Influence of Pressure Groups:

a. Many arguments are forwarded against pressure groups. Many thinkers say that since a pressure group
champions the cause of a small section of society; so it should be viewed with caution. Democracy is not
about narrow interests of a particular section but a larger interest of the overall society. Unlike political
parties, a pressure group is not answerable to the people and hence they may not have a broader
perspective in mind. There can be many examples of pressure groups which are sponsored by powerful
business lobbyists or by some international agencies. They should be treated with caution.
b. Many people argue in favour of pressure groups. They say that putting pressure on the government is
always positive for the deepening of democracy. The political parties often tend to forget the real
concerns of people; in their pursuit of power. The role of pressure group is to awaken them from their
slumber.
c. It can be said that pressure groups play the balancing role among various political ideologies and

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usually highlight the real concerns of people.

NCERT Questions
Answer the following questions:

1. In what ways do pressure groups and movements exert influence on politics?

Answer: Pressure groups and movements exert influence on politics in following ways:
a. By gaining public support and sympathy for their cause
b. By staging protest activities to pressurize the government
c. By making lobbies

2. Describe the forms of relationship between pressure groups and political parties?
Answer: Generally, there is no direct relationship between pressure groups and political parties. They
usually take positions which are opposite to each other. But dialogue and negotiations do exist between
them. Many new leaders of the political parties come from a pressure group.

3. Explain how the activities of pressure groups are useful in the functioning of a democratic
government.
Answer: The activities or pressure groups are useful in deepening the democracy. They help in raising the
voice of ordinary citizens against powerful lobbyists from the business. Their actions and tactics may
seem to be disruptive but they create a balance between the powerful ruling and business classes and the
powerless common man.

4. What is a pressure group? Give a few examples.

Answer: Organizations which influence the policies of the government are pressure groups. A pressure
group is different to a political party because it is not directly answerable to the people. Moreover, the
pressure group does not control or stake a share in political power. Narmada Bachao Andolan, Trade
Unions, Lawyers’ Association, etc. are examples of pressure groups.

5. What is the difference between a pressure group and a political party?

Answer: A political party is directly answerable to the people, while a pressure group is not. A political
party either controls power or stakes a claim in power, while a pressure group does not do so.

EXTRA Questions

1. What led to the Movement for Democracy in Nepal in the year 200
Answer: In Nepal the real power was exercised by the popularly elected representatives and the King was
only the head of the state . King Birendra, accepted this transition from absolute monarchy to
constitutional monarchy , but in 2001 , he was killed in a mysterious massacre of the royal family .
The new king of Nepal , King Gyanendra , who was not prepared to accept democratic rule, took
advantage of the weakness and unpopularity of the democratically elected government and in February
2005 , he dismissed the then Prime Minister and dissolved the popularly elected Parliament .
Nepal , witnessed a popular movement in April 2006 . The aim of the movement of April 2006 was the
regaining of popular control over the government from the King.

2. What are Sectional Interest Groups and Public Interest Groups ?

Answer: Interests of a particular section or group of society are promoted by the sectional interest
groups . They are trade unions, business associations and professional bodies like lawyers, doctors and
teachers . Since they represent a section of society , they are sectional . The betterment and well being of
their members is their principle concern and they do not aim at the betterment of the society in general .
Promotional groups or public interest groups aim to help groups other than their own members .
Members of a public interest group undertake activities that benefit them as well as others . Since its
principle concern is with social justice and social equality for the entire society , it addresses the problems

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of its members who suffer discrimination .

3. Write a brief note on Movement Groups and give an example .

Answer: The groups involved with movements include a very wide variety. Most of the movements of
such groups are issue - specific movements that seek to achieve a single objective within a limited time
frame . Others are more general or generic movements that seek to achieve a broad goal in the very long
term .
Narmada Bachao Andolan in India is a good example of this kind of movement . The specific issue of this
movement was the displacement of the people by the creation of Sardar Sarovar dam on the Narmada
River . Its objective was to stop the dam from being constructed . It gradually became a wider movement
that questioned all such big dams and the model of development that required such dams . Though these
movements tend to have a clear leadership and some organization, their active life is usually short .

POLITICAL PARTIES
A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the
government. They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promote the
collective good.
A political party tries to convince people that its policies are better than others’ policies. They try to win
elections so that they can implement their policies.
Thus, parties reflect fundamental political divisions in a society. Parties are about a part of the society and
thus involve PARTISANSHIP. Thus a party is known by which part it stands for, which policies it supports
and whose interests it upholds. A political party has three components:
- The Leaders
- The Active Members and
- The Followers

Functions of Political Party:

The main function of a political party is to occupy political offices and exercise political power. For
achieving this, a political party performs following functions:

Contesting Elections: Political parties contest elections. A political party nominates its candidate for the

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electoral contest in various constituencies.

Policies: Political parties put forward different policies and programmes so that the voters can choose
from them. A political party brings a large number of similar opinions under one umbrella. These opinions
are channelized to form policies and programmes. The policies and prgrammes of the RULING PARTY are
expected to be followed by the government.

Making Law: Political parties play a decisive role in making laws for the country. You may be aware that
it is the legislature which passes a law after proper debate. As most of the members belong to political
parties, so a political party has direct say in law making for the country.

Formation of Government: Political parties form and run governments. The executive body is formed by
people from the ruling party. Various political leaders are assigned different ministries to carry out the
task of governance.

Playing Opposition: A party which does not get majority or come under the majority coalition, needs to
play the role of opposition.

Shaping Public Opinion: Political parties shape public opinion. They do so by raising and highlighting
issues in the legislature and in the media. The activists of a political party are spread all over the country.
These activists raise public awareness for their party’s perspective.

Providing Access to Government Machinery: Political parties provide people access to government
machinery and welfare schemes implemented by governments. Parties need to be responsive to people’s
needs and demands. This helps them in winning the election.

Necessity of Political Party:

If there were no political party, then each and every candidate would be independent. Current strength
of the Lok Sabha is 543. Imagine a situation when none of the 543 members can be brought to think alike
on a particular issue. This would lead to a total chaos. An independent candidate would always be more
interested in the specific needs of his constituency and would seldom think about the larger interest of
the nation. A political party is necessary to bring diverse people on a common platform, so that bigger
issues can be taken care of.
The democracy which is being practiced all over the world is called representative democracy. In this
system, governance is done through people’s representative because it is impossible for each citizen to
directly participate in governance. The need for representative democracy has given rise to political
parties.

Multi-party System Vs Two-party System

In some countries only one party is allowed to control and run the government, e.g China. These are
called one-party systems. This cannot be a good option because this is not a democratic option. Any
democratic system must allow at least two parties to compete in elections and provide a fair chance for
the competing parties to come to power.
In some countries, power usually changes between two main parties. Such a party system is called two-
party system. The United States of America and the United Kingdom are examples of two-party system.
If several parties compete for power, and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of coming to
power either on their own strength or in alliance with others, we call it a multi-party system. Thus in India,
we have a multi-party system. During the heydays of the Congress in India, it used to be single party
government at the centre. But after the 1996 general elections, no single party has been able to secure
even a simple majority. Subsequent central governments have thus been formed by coalition of like-
minded political parties.
The multi-party system is apparently very messy and it often leads to political instability. But we should

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acknowledge the fact that it allows various interests and opinions to enjoy political representation.

Evolution of Party System in a Country

A particular party system takes time to evolve in a country. It depends on the nature of society, social and
regional diversities. It also depends on its history of politics and its system of elections. India is a country
of huge geographical and social diversity. Such diversity may not be easily accommodated by two or even
three parties. It is quite natural that a multi-party system has evolved in India. We should keep in mind
that each system has its pros and cons.

Popular Participation in Political Parties:

In India the common perception is, political parties are facing a crisis because they are very unpopular
and the citizens are indifferent to political parties.
The available evidence shows that this belief is only partly true for India. The evidence, based on a series
of large sample surveys conducted over several decades, shows that:
a. Political parties do not enjoy much trust among the people in South Asia. The proportion of those who
say their trust in political parties is ‘not much’ or ‘not at all’ is more than those who have ‘some’ or ‘great’
trust.
b. The same is true of most other democracies as well. Political parties are one of the least trusted
institutions all over the world.
c. Yet the level of participation in the activities of political parties was fairly high. The proportion of those
who said they were members of some political party was higher in India than many advanced countries
like Canada, Japan, Spain and South Korea.
d. Over the last three decades the proportion of those who report to be members of political parties in
India has gone up steadily.
e. The proportion of those who say they feel ‘close to a political party’ has also gone up in India in this
period.

National Political Parties:

Every party in the country has to register with the Election Commission. While the Commission treats all
parties equally, it offers some special facilities to large and established parties. These parties are given a
unique symbol – only the official candidates of that party can use that election symbol. Parties that get
this privilege and some other special facilities are ‘recognised’ by the Election Commission for this
purpose. That is why these parties are called, ‘recognised political parties’.

State Party: A party that secures at least 6 per cent of the total votes in an election to the Legislative
Assembly of a State and wins at least two seats is recognised as a State party.

National Party: A party that secures at least six per cent of total votes in Lok Sabha elections or
Assembly elections in four States and wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha is recognised as a national
party.
According to this classification, there were six national recognised parties in the country in 2006.

A. Indian National Congress (INC): This is popularly known as the Congress Party. This is one of the oldest
parties of the world and was founded in 1885. The Congress Party had played a dominant role in Indian
politics at the national and state level for several decades after India’s Independence. Since the first
general elections in 1952, the Congress party had been in power continuously till 1977. After that, it came
back to power in 1980 and remained till 1989. The Congress Party once again came back to power in 1991
for another five years. Congress Party came back in power in 2004 and completed two terms in office, i.e.
ten years.

B. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP): This party was founded in 1980 by reviving the erstwhile Bharatiya Jana
Sangh. Building a strong and modern India is the main goal of this party. The BJP wants to promote
cultural nationalism (or ‘Hindutva). This party wants full territorial and political integration of Jammu and

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Kashmir with India, a uniform civil code and a ban on religious conversions. It support base increased
significantly in the 1990s. The Party came to power in 1998 and remained in power till 2004. This party
stormed back to power in centre in 2014.

C. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP): This party was formed in 1984 under the leadership of Kanshi Ram. The
party seeks to represent and secure power for the bahujan samaj which includes the dalits, adivasis, OBCs
and religious minorities. This party has good presence in Uttar Pradesh and has been in power in UP for a
couple of terms.

D. Communist Party of India - Marxist (CPI-M): This party was founded in 1964. Marxism- Leninism is the
main philosophy of this party and it supports socialism, secularism. The party enjoys strong support in
West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, especially among the poor, factory workers, farmers, agricultural
labourers and the intelligentsia. The CPI has off late slipped in its hold over public and has lost power in
West Bengal and Kerala.

E. Communist Party of India (CPI): This party was formed in 1925. It has the same philosophy as CPI (M).
Became weak after the split in the party in 1964 that led to the formation of the CPI(M). Significant
presence in the states of Kerala, West Bengal, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Its support base
had gradually declined over the years. It secured about 1.4 per cent votes and 10 seats in the 2004 Lok
Sabha elections. Advocates the coming together of all left parties to build a strong left front. Initially
supported the UPA government from outside, but withdrew support in late 2008.

F. Nationalist Congress Party (NCP): This party was formed in 1999 following a split in the Congress party.
The party espouses democracy, Gandhian secularism, equity, social justice and federalism. This is a major
party in Maharashtra and has a significant presence in Meghalaya, Manipur and Assam.

Rise of Regional Parties: Many regional parties have grown in prominence over the last three decades.
This is a sign of expansion and deepening of democracy in India. Many regional satraps are very strong in
their states. Samajwadi Party, Biju Janata Dal, AIADMK, DMK, etc. are examples of regional parties.

Challenges to political parties:

Some of the challenges which the political parties face are as follows:

Lack of Internal Democracy: In most of the political parties, the power is concentrated in the hands of
one or a handful of leaders. Ordinary members of the party cannot even dream of rising to the top. The
top leadership is often disconnected with the grassroots workers. Loyalty to the policies and principles of
the party has less value than the loyalty to the top leadership.

Dynastic Succession: The top positions in many political parties are usually controlled by members of one
family. A person born in a particular family becomes the leader by virtue of his birth; which is not the sign
of a healthy democracy. This tendency is present in most of the political parties in India. This is not the
case in India alone, but in many other countries as well.

Money and Muscle Power: Winning an election is the ultimate challenge for a political party. For this, a
political party leaves no stone unturned and spends huge sum of money on electioneering. Parties often
take help of criminals and goons to terrorise voters and polling officers.

Being a Meaningful Choice: Most of the political parties sound similar to one another. Very few political
parties give any real alternative. People have no choice than choosing the better of the two evils. In some
states, the party in power just changes every five year but people seldom experience change on the
ground.

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Way to Reform Political Parties:
Following are some of the recent efforts and suggestions in our country to reform political parties and its
leaders:
1. Anti-defection Law: This law was passed during Rajiv Gandhi's Premiership. The law says that if any
MLA or MP changes parties, he or she will lose the seat in the legislature. This new law has helped bring
defection down. At the same time this has made any dissent even more difficult. MPs and MLAs have to
accept whatever the party leaders decide.

2. Details of Property and Criminal Proceedings During Nomination: It is mandatory for every candidate
who contests elections to file an AFFIDAVIT giving details of his property and criminal cases pending
against him. The new system has made a lot of information available to the public. But there is no system
of check if the information given by the candidates is true.

3. Mandatory Organizational Elections and IT Returns: The Election Commission passed an order making
it necessary for political parties to hold their organisational elections and file their income tax returns.
The parties have started doing so but sometimes it is mere formality.

Suggestions for Future:

a. A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties.
b. It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, about one-third,
to women candidates.
c. There should be state funding of elections. The government should give parties money to support their
election expenses. This support could be given in kind: petrol, paper, telephone etc. Or it could be given
in cash on the basis of the votes secured by the party in the last election.
There are two other ways in which political parties can be reformed and they are; people’s pressure and
people’s participation.

NCERT Questions
Answer the following questions:
1. State the various functions political parties perform in a democracy
Answer: Functions of political parties are as follows:
a. Political parties contest elections
b. They form and run governments
c. A party which loses the election plays the role of the opposition
d. Parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes implemented by the
government.
e. Parties shape public opinion, formulate laws and make policies

2. What are the various challenges faced by political parties?

Answer: The various challenges faced by political parties are as follows:
a. Lack of internal democracy
b. Dynastic succession
c. Money and muscle power
d. Being a meaningful choice

3. Suggest some reforms to strengthen parties so that they perform their functions well?
Answer: Some suggestions for future reforms of political parties are as follows:
A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties.
It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, about one-third,
to women candidates.
There should be state funding of elections. The government should give parties money to support their
election expenses. This support could be given in kind: petrol, paper, telephone etc. Or it could be given
in cash on the basis of the votes secured by the party in the last election.

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4. What is a political party?

Answer: A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in
the government.

5. What are the characteristics of a political party?

Answer: Parties reflect fundamental political divisions in a society. Parties are about a part of the society
and thus involve PARTISANSHIP. Thus a party is known by which part it stands for, which policies it
supports and whose interests it upholds. A political party has three components, viz. leaders, active
members and followers.

EXTRA Questions

1. What are the two major questions that come to ones mind when we talk about political parties?
Answer:
The two major questions that come to our mind when we talk about democracies are , why do we need
parties and how many parties are good for a democracy .

2. How many parties are registered with the Election commission of India ?
Answer:
There are over 750 political parties registered with the Election commission of India .

3. Mention the three major components of Political Parties .

Answer:
The three major components of a political party are its leaders, the active members of the party and its
followers .

4. What are the criteria set by the Election Commission of India for Political Parties ?
Answer:
The Election Commission of India has set certain criteria for Political Parties . National parties must secure
at least 6 % of the vote in the Lok Sabha elections or 6 % of the vote in the election to at least 4 different
state assemblies . They must win at least 4 seats in the Lok Sabha .
State parties must secure at least 6 % of the vote in an assembly election . They must win at least two
seats in the assembly election .

5. Write a brief note on the Indian national congress .

Answer:
The Indian National Congress was started in 1885 . It was the dominant party of Indian politics at the
national level and to a large extent at the state level for a long time. Since 1989 its influence has declined ,
but it still maintains a presence across the entire country . The party has seen many splits over the years .
Ideologically , the party is centrist. It is neither leftist nor rightist . It supports secularism and economic
growth with a human face , especially towards the weaker sections of the society .

6. Write a brief note on State Parties in India .

Answer:
Parties which have their presence only in the state level are called State parties. These include parties
with national level political organisation , but which have succeeded in only a few states . Samajwadi
party , Rashtriya Janata Dal, Samata Party are examples of state parties with a national presence .
Most state parties consciously maintain a strong state - specific identity , like Biju Janata Dal and the Mizo
National Front .
Over the last few decades , state or regional parties has grown considerably . Since 1996 , every
government at the national level has been a coalition of parties headed usually by one national party .
This has led to strengthening of the federal structure of our government.

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7. Write a brief note on Bharatiya Janata Party and the Bahujan Samaj Party .
Answer:
Bharatiya Janata Party
The Bharatiya Janata Party was started in 1980, from the erstwhile Bharatiya Jana Sangh . Its support base
grew rapidly in the 1990 s . Earlier , it was limited to the north and western parts of the country, but now
it has a nearly pan-Indian base .
Ideologically , the party is rightist . It wants to build a strong , modern India by drawing inspiration from
ancient culture and values . It wants full territorial and political integration of Jammu and Kashmir with
India , a uniform civil code for all people living in the country irrespective of religion , and ban on religious
conversions .
Bahujan Samaj Party
The Bahujan Samaj Party was founded in 1984. It has its main base in the state of Uttar Pradesh and
substantial presence in neighbouring states like Madhya Pradesh , Chhattisgarh , Uttarakhand , Delhi and
Punjab . this party formed governments in Uttar Pradesh several times by taking the support of different
parties at different times .
Ideologically , the party seeks to represent and secure power for the bahujan samaj which includes the
dalits , adivasis , OBCs and religious minorities .

8. What are the different types of political party system?

Answer:
There are three major systems in political parties. They are (a ) the one Party system, (b) the Two party
system, (c ) the Multi - party system
One - party system : In China , only the Communist Party is allowed to rule . This is not a good option
since it is not a democratic system. A democratic system must have at least two parties and each party
must have a fair chance of forming the government.
Two - party system : Although there may be many parties in the country, only the two largest ones have a
realistic chance of forming the government. This is seen in the USA .
Multi - party system : Several parties compete for power and each has a chance of coming into power on
its own , or in alliance with others. We see this in India.

OUTCOMES OF DEMOCRACY
Accountable, responsive and legitimate government
The most basic outcome of democracy is that it produces a government that is accountable to the citizens,
and responsive to the needs and expectations of the citizens.
Democratic government can apparently be less efficient than a non-democratic government. This happens
because a non-democratic government does not need to arrive at consensus among a diverse set of
people. Democracy functions on the basis of deliberation and negotiation and hence decisions are often
delayed. But this does not mean that a democratic government is less efficient.
A non-democratic government may be able to take decisions in non time. But one needs to assess if those
decisions are acceptable to the masses or are they really solving people’s problems.
A democratic government is more transparent than a non-democratic government. A citizen has the right
to know the processes which were followed while taking a decision in a democratic government. Thus, a
democratic government is more accountable and responsive to its citizens.
A democratic government is legitimate government because it is elected by the people. This is the reason
that democratic governments are thriving in most of the countries.

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Economic growth and development:
Data for the fifty years between 1950 and 2000 suggests that dictatorships have slightly higher economic
growth. In most of the democracies, the economic growth is somewhat slower. But there are many
democratic countries which are among the economic superpowers of the world. This shows that
economic growth does not depend on the form of government only. Other factors also decide the trend of
economic growth; like population size, global situation, cooperation from other countries, economic
priorities of the country, etc.
When we look at several other positive outcomes; alongwith a reasonable economic growth; then
democracy is always better than dictatorship.

Reduction of inequality and poverty:

Economic inequality has been increasing all over the world. In India, a larger portion of the population is
poor and the number of rich people is less. Moreover, there is a large difference in the income of rich and
the poor. In most of the countries, democracy has failed in reducing economic inequalities.

Accommodation of social diversity:

Every society is full of diversities and conflicts are bound to happen among various sections. It is
impossible to fully rule out the possibility of conflicts. Bu democracy normally develops a procedure by
which there can be a healthy competition among different sections of the society. People can learn to
respect the differences and learn to resolve conflicts in an amicable manner. In most of the democratic
countries, social diversity is accommodated peacefully. There can be some examples where social
diversity is still a big problem; like in case of Sri Lanka.

Dignity and freedom of the citizens:

Democracy has succeeded in ensuring the dignity and freedom of its citizens. Let us take example of India.
There are many social groups which had faced a long history of oppression. Due to democratic process, a
sizeable portion of these people have been able to move up the social ladder and are in a position to
assert themselves.

Equality of Women
Because of democracy, women could be able to wage a struggle for staking their claim to equality. In most
of the democratic countries, women have succeeded in getting equal status in the society. This is not the
case in most of the autocracies.

Caste Inequalities
Caste based inequalities had been quite predominant in India. But thanks to the democratic process, such
cases have reduced to a bare minimum. People from all castes can be seen in every sphere of life.

NCERT Questions

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the conditions under which democracies accommodate social diversities?
Asnwer: Conflicts arising out of social diversity is not possible to be completely eliminated. Yet such
conflicts are kept at the minimum possible level in a democracy. Democracy builds on consensus in which
interests of various sections of the society are respected and catered to. Thus, social diversities are
accommodated in a democracy.
Give arguments to support or oppose the following assertions:

2. Industrialised countries can afford democracy but the poor need dictatorship to become rich.
Asnwer: Although examples of many countries under dictatorship suggest that economic growth can be
good in such countries, yet some democracies are also in sound economic health. Many poor countries of

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the past have progressed under democratic rule, although the growth may have been slow. Looking at the
cost benefit analysis, it can be said the even for a poor country, democracy is always a better option
rather than dictatorship to strive for becoming rich.

3. Democracy can’t reduce inequality of incomes between different citizens.

Asnwer: This is a true reality that inequality of incomes cannot be reduced between different citizens; no
matter which type of government system is in place. Even the past experience of socialism in Russia and
China suggest that it is almost impossible to create a society where everyone is equal in terms of
economic power. The same holds true for democracy also.

4. Government in poor countries should spend less on poverty reduction, health, education and spend
more on industries and infrastructure.
Asnwer: While it is always prudent to spend on industries and infrastructure for better employment
generation, the role of social security cannot be ignored. There are many people who are so poor and
oppressed that they need some sort of help to improve their condition. Poverty eradication, health
benefits and education schemes should always be in place for such people. A proper balance should be
struck in spending on social security and on industries.

5. In democracy all citizens have one vote, which means that there is absence of any domination and
conflict.
Asnwer: In theory, it is true that the formula of one person one vote negates the effect of domination and
conflict. But in the real world, a society can be very complex. It is a basic instinct of people or a group of
people to dominate others at the very first opportunity. Similarly, conflicts are bound to arise in the
society. However, democracy minimizes the effect of such tendency to a certain extent.

6. How does democracy produce an accountable, responsive and legitimate government?

Answer: The democratically elected government is answerable to people. If a government does not
function as per the wishes of the people, it would lose the next elections and would be thrown out of
power. Hence, it needs to be accountable to people. Similarly, the government has to be responsive to the
problems and aspirations of people; otherwise people would choose the next better alternative when the
opportunity comes. The government is elected by the majority of the people and hence is a legitimate
government.

EXTRA Questions

1. Gives reasons why a democratic government is preferred to other forms of governments.

Answer: Democracy promotes equality among its citizens . It enhances the dignity of the individual and
people are free to make decisions . In a democracy conflicts are solved amicably and there is room to
correct mistakes. These are the reasons why a democracy is preferred to other forms of governments.

2. What are the main features of a democracy?

Answer: Democracies have a formal constitution; they hold elections , have political parties and
guarantee rights to its citizens .

3. What is the basis of democracy and what are its advantages ?

Answer: Democracy is based on the idea of deliberation and negotiation . Deliberation and negotiation
have an advantage as they ensure that the decisions taken are acceptable to all the people .

4. Mention a few factors that determine the economic growth of a country.

Answer: The factors that determine the economic growth of a country are …
(i ) Population
(ii ) Size

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(iii ) Natural resources
(iv ) Relationship with other countries
(v ) Global situation
(vi ) Geographic position
(vii) Economic policies of the government .

5. What are the challenges faced by democratic governments?

Answer: Democratic governments face the challenge of expansion. The basic principle of a democratic
government has to be established across all the regions , different social groups and various institutions .
Greater power should be delegated to local governments. Federal principles have to be extended to all
the units of the federation . Women and minority groups should be included in decision making.
Strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy should happen so that people can realise
their expectations of democracy .
Different societies have different expectations from different democracies .So , each country has to deal
in a unique way to face the challenge , people in that particular country face . If this is to be done peoples ’
participation is necessary and the control and influence of the rich and powerful people have to be toned
down .

6. Write a brief note on freedom and dignity to citizens in democratic and non - democratic countries .
Answer: The dignity and freedom of the individual is well preserved in a democracy . It is natural that
every individual wants to receive respect from fellow beings . Often conflicts arise among individuals
because some feel that they are not treated with due respect .
In non - democratic countries people do not enjoy freedom as they have always been dominated . They
have been treated as sub- ordinates .
In democratic and non - democratic countries we find that men dominated the society . Women had to
struggle for equal treatment in society . In India we find that female feticide is still prevalent in villages .
In modern democracies the laws have ensured that women are treated equally in society . In a non -
democratic set up , this is not possible as the principle of individual freedom and dignity is not a legal or
moral force.
In India caste inequalities is another problem that the fibre of democracy faces . Atrocities and
discriminations against certain castes still continue in India . The Indian government is taking all steps the
set this right . This is possible in a democratic set up , as the laws of the country are against inequality of
caste . Many reservation policies are in force in India, to uplift the people of the lower castes.
A democracy transforms people from the status of a subject into that of a citizen.

7. The prime duty of any democratic government is to reduction inequality in wealth among its citizens
and eliminates poverty. Discuss.
Answer:
- The development strategies of a democracy should always work towards the goal of reducing the gap
between the rich and the poor .
- Economic growth should ensure that wealth is distributed in such a way that all citizens of the country
will have a share and lead a better life .
- In a democracy it is possible to provide equal opportunity to all the citizens to prosper because
democracies are based on political equality as all individuals have equal right in electing their
representatives.
- In practise we find that democracies have not been able to bridge the gap between the rich and the
poor . In most democracies a small number of rich enjoy a highly disproportionate share of wealth
while the poor find it difficult to meet the basic needs of life , such as food , clothing , house ,
education and health .
- It is the duty of a democratic country to lift the poor from the clutches of poverty , for all citizens have
equal rights in a democracy. Programmes , for the upliftment of the poor are necessary. Free
education , free health care is very necessary in poor democracies . India is implementing many
schemes for the upliftment of the poor . The gap between the poor and the rich is slowly becoming

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narrower in India.

8. A democratic government has to be accountable , responsive and legitimate government . Discuss.

Answer:
Democracy is based on the idea of deliberation and negotiation . They ensure that the decisions taken are
acceptable to all the people .
Democracies are accountable to its citizens . That is, all decision making has to be transparent . This factor
is missing from a non - democratic government . In a democracy , citizens also take part in decision making.
Democracies are responsible for the decisions they make . If a wrong decision is made , it is the duty of
the government to rectify it. In a non -democratic government, decisions are taken by a single person and
the question of rectification does not arise , even if it is a wrong decision .
Deliberation and negotiation cause delay . So in a democracy there is a possibility of delay when some
major decisions have to be taken. This delay may be costly . The cost of time that democracy pays is
perhaps worth it as the decision will be acceptable to all.
Democracies follow a constitution , so they are legitimate . The laws of the country are applicable to
everyone, even to the government members . Free and fair elections are held in democracies and the
people have the power to eliminate parties they are not happy with, in the next election . In a non -
democratic government this is not possible as elections are not held .
Democracies have to be responsive. The government should function in a transparent manner and the
common man should be able to approach the government to address his grievances .

9. Does dictatorship always lead to higher economic growth ?

Answer: Dictatorship has not produced higher economic growth in developing countries .

10. Mention to factors that we have to look for while evaluating democracy in a system ?
Answer: The 2 factors that we should look for are , are the elections fair and regular and are the citizens
involved in the decisions the government takes.

11. Compare democracies and non -democratic countries on the basis of economic growth .
Answer: On an average dictatorial regimes have a slightly higher economic growth rate . Poor
democracies and non - democratic countries have the same economic growth rate .
When we consider the economic growth , only in democracies , we find a terrible imbalance among the
citizens .
South Africa and Brazil – the difference between the rich and the poor is enormous
Denmark and Hungary – the economic standard is more balanced .

12. Write a brief note on the status of women in democratic and non -democratic countries.
Answer: In democratic and non - democratic countries we find that men dominated the society . Women
had to struggle for equal treatment in society . In India we find that female feticide is still prevalent in
villages.
In modern democracies the laws have ensured that women are treated equally in society . In a non -
democratic set up , this is not possible as the principle of individual freedom and dignity is not a legal or
moral force.

13. What should the government do to lift the poor from the clutches of poverty?
Answer: It is the duty of a democratic country to lift the poor from the clutches of poverty, for all citizens
have equal rights in a democracy . Programmes , for the upliftment of the poor are necessary. Free
education, free health care is very necessary in poor democracies. India is implementing many schemes
for the upliftment of the poor. The gap between the poor and the rich is slowly becoming narrower in
India.

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CHALLENGES TO DEMOCRACY
Meaning of Challenge:
A challenge is not just any problem. We usually call only those difficulties a ‘challenge’ which are
significant and which can be overcome. A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for
progress. Once we overcome a challenge we go up to a higher level than before.

Foundational Challenge:
Different countries face different kinds of challenges. At least one fourth of the globe is still not under
democratic government. The challenge for democracy in these parts of the world is very stark. These
countries face the foundational challenge of making the transition to democracy and then instituting
democratic government. This involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping
military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional state. For example,
Nepal was under Monarchy till recent times. Now Nepal has changed to a democratic system. Certain
mindsets and systems will take years to change as they have taken years to develop. Nepal is a very good
example of foundational challenge of democracy.

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Challenge of Expansion:
Most of the established democracies face the challenge of expansion. This involves applying the basic
principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions.
Ensuring greater power to local governments, extension of federal principle to all the units of the
federation, inclusion of women and minority groups, etc., falls under this challenge. This also means that
less and less decisions should remain outside the arena of democratic control. Most countries including
India and other democracies like the US face this challenge. In India certain socio-economically backward
groups have yet to get the political powers. Additionally, some north-eastern states have not yet fully
integrated with the mainstream India. These are examples of challenge of expansion of democracy.

Deepening of Democracy
The third challenge of deepening of democracy is faced by every democracy in one form or another. This
involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy. This should happen in such a way
that people can realise their expectations of democracy. But ordinary people have different expectations
from democracy in different societies. In the early nineties, when T N Sheshan became the Chief Election
Commissioner, he brought about a revolutionary change of disciplining political parties. This in turn
ensured fairer elections. This is an example of strengthening a particular political institution.
From above descriptions it is clear that different country face different kinds of challenges to democracy.
These challenges depend on what stage of social development the country is. Solutions to these
challenges also depend on a particular country’s unique situation. It can be said that there is no pre-
prescribed method to tackle the challenge faced by a democracy.

NCERT Questions
Answer the following questions:

1. Writing your own definition of a good democracy.

Answer: A country, with a government that has been elected freely and equally, by all its citizens , is a
good Democracy . It is a system of government based on the principle of majority decision - making. A
democracy is the control of an organization by its members , who have a free and equal right to
participate in the decision - making processes .
"Democracy is like the experience of life itself - always changing , infinite in its variety, sometimes
turbulent and all the more valuable for having been tested for adversity. " - Jimmy Carter, American
President, in his speech to the Indian Parliament .

2. Features of a democracy.
Answer: 1 . A democracy should have the power to change its rulers if they are not good.
2 . It should reduce social and economic difference among all its citizens .
3 . All people should have equal rights and opportunities irrespective of their caste creed or religion
4 . Minorities have to be included in the decision making process
5 . Gender discrimination should not be encouraged
6 . Money power should not play a role during elections
7 . The government should work within the frame of the constitution .

EXTRA Questions

1. Mention the three main challenges faced by a democracy.

Answer: The three main challenges are the Foundational challenge , the Challenge of expansion and the
challenge of Deepening of democracy .

2. What does deepening democracy mean ?

Answer: Deepening democracy means strengthening institutions that help people ’ s participation in
governance.

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3. What is involved in foundational challenge in a democracy?

Answer: Bringing down the existing non -democratic government is the foundational challenge involved.

4. Which law empowers the people to act as watch dogs of the government in a democracy?
Answer: Right to Information Act is the law that empowers the people to act as watch dogs of the
government in a democracy

5. Mention the three main challenges faced by a democracy.

Answer: The three main challenges are the Foundational challenge , the Challenge of expansion and the
challenge of Deepening of democracy .

6. What are reforms?

Answer: When challenges are there, they should be faced and resolved . To resolve challenges we need
reforms . These reforms are called ‘ democracy reform’ or ‘ political reform’
As all the countries do not face the same challenges , reforms also differ according to the need.
Challenges have to be faced at the grass root level that is at the State and local level .

7. What are the challenges faced by non -democratic countries?

Answer: The main challenge faced by non -democratic governments is the foundational challenge of
making the transition to democracy. They have to institute a democratic government by bringing down
the existing non -democratic regime and keeping the military from controlling the government. It has to
establishing a sovereign and functional state .

8. Write a brief note on the statue of the Goddess of Democracy .

Answer: The Goddess of Democracy was a 10 metre high statue created during the Tiananmen Square
protests of 1989 , in China . It was inspired by New York’ s Statue of Liberty . It was constructed from
styrofoam and papier - mâché in only four days by students of the Central Academy of Fine Arts .
It was erected in Tiananmen Square on 30 May, facing the large portrait of Mao Zedong on Tiananmen
Gate , and was destroyed by the army during the massacre on 4 June.

9. What are the challenges faced by democratic governments?

Answer: Democratic governments face the challenge of expansion. The basic principle of a democratic
government has to be established across all the regions , different social groups and various institutions .
Greater power should be delegated to local governments. Federal principles have to be extended to all
the units of the federation . Women and minority groups should be included in decision making.
Strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy should happen so that people can realise
their expectations of democracy .
Different societies have different expectations from different democracies .So , each country has to deal
in a unique way to face the challenge , people in that particular country face . If this is to be done peoples ’
participation is necessary and the control and influence of the rich and powerful people have to be toned
down .

10. What do we mean by challenge of expansion?

Answer: The challenge of expansion involves applying the basic principle of democratic government
across all the regions , different social groups and various institutions . Greater power should be given to
local governments. Federal principles have to be extended to all the units of the federation . Women and
minority groups should be include in the decision - making process. That is less and less decisions should
remain outside the arena of democratic control . Most countries including India and other democracies
like the US face this challenge .

11. What do we mean by challenge of deepening of democracy?

Answer: The challenge of deepening of democracy is faced by all the democracies across the globe . It

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involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy . This should happen in such a way
that people can realise their expectations of democracy . People have different expectations from
democracy in different societies. Therefore, this challenge takes different meanings and paths in different
parts of the world . The challenge is to strengthen the institutions that help people ’ s participation and
control .
The challenge is also to bring down the control and influence of the rich and powerful people in making
governmental decisions .

12. What are the Guidelines for political reforms in India ?

Answer: Four important guidelines have to be kept in mind when political reforms are carried out . When
laws are being revised the government has to be carefully to ensure that wrong political practises are not
encouraged . Laws alone cannot resolve challenges ; democratic reforms are to be carried out mainly by
political activists , parties, movements and politically conscious citizens .
Any legal change must carefully look at what results it will have on politics. Sometimes the results may be
counter -productive . Generally , laws that seek to ban something are not very successful in politics. Laws
that give politicians incentives to do good things have more chances of working .
Political reforms should empower people to carry out democratic reforms . The Right to Information Act
is a good example of a law that empowers the people to find out what is happening in government and
act as watchdogs of democracy . Such a law helps to control corruption and supplements the existing laws
that banned corruption and imposed strict penalties .
Democratic reforms should be carried out through political practice. They should strengthen democratic
practices . Political reforms are of no use if they are not implemented . So , political reforms should be
formulated , with implementation as the focal factor.

WORK LIFE AND LEISURE

Work Life and Culture
Characteristics of City: Ancient cities developed when food became surplus to support a wide
range of non-food producers. Cities were the centres of political power, administrative network,
trade and industry, religious institutions and intellectual activity. The cities supported various
social groups.

Industrialization and the Rise of the Modern City of England

Many decades after the beginning of the industrial revolution, most Western countries were
largely rural. In the early industrial cities of Britain, most of the people were migrants from rural
areas.
By 1750, one out of every nine person of England and Wales lived in London. It was a big city with
a population of about 675,000. Between 1810 and 1880, the population of London multiplied
fourfold; increasing from 1 million to about 4 million.

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The city of London was a powerful magnet for migrant populations; although there was no large
factory in London. The London dockyard was among the major employer. Additionally, large
numbers of people were employed in clothing and footwear, wood and furniture, metals and
engineering, printing and stationary and precision products.
During the First World War (1914 – 1918), manufacturing of motor cars and electrical goods
began in London and this marked the beginning of large factories in the city. Over due course of
time, about one-third of all jobs in the city were created in these factories.

Marginal Groups
When the city of London grew in size, crime also flourished. As per estimates, about 20,000
criminals were living in London in the 1870s. Many people who failed to find gainful employment
often resorted to petty crimes. Sometimes, the crime provided a better source of earning than
doing some of the low paying jobs in the small factories.
Many women, who were employed in the factories during war years, lost their jobs and were
forced to work within households. Many of them tried to earn by renting their homes or by
other activities; like tailoring, washing or matchbox making.
Many poor children were forced into low-paid work, often by their parents. Compulsory
Elementary Education Act was passed in 1870 and the factory acts were passed in 1902. These
acts ensured that the children could be kept out of industrial work.

Housing: The flow of migrants to cities created problems of housing. Housing facilities were not
provided by the employers. Private landowners provided cheap but unsafe tenements for the
migrant workers. According to a survey done by Charles Booth (a Liverpool shipowner) in 1887,
about 1 million Londoners were very poor. This comprised about 20% of the population of
London at that time. The life expectancy of the poor was 29 years; compared to 55 years among
the gentry and the middle class. Charles Booth concluded that London needed to rebuild at least
400,000 rooms to house its poorest citizens.
The large number of one-room houses occupied by the poor was seen as serious threat to public
health. Those rooms were poorly ventilated and there was no arrangement for sanitation. They
also posed fire hazard. People living in poor conditions were also potential hotspots for social
disorder. To prevent the London poor, workers’ mass housing schemes were planned.

Cleaning London
Various steps were taken to clean up the city of London. Steps were taken to decongest localities,
green the open spaces, reduce pollution and landscape the city. Large blocks of apartments were
built. Rent control was introduced during the First World War, to reduce the burden on people.
Between the two World Wars, the British state accepted the responsibility for housing the
working class. Local authorities built about one million houses. Most of them were single-family
cottages.
During this period, the city expanded beyond the range where people could walk to work. This
necessitated the development of new forms of mass transport.

Transport in the City

This was the period when the London underground railway was built. The first section of the
Underground opened in 1863 between Paddington and Farrington. The train service was
expanded by 1880 to carry 40 million passengers a year.
Initial public reaction towards the Underground was negative. Many people were critical of the
way many houses were demolished to make way for construction of underground. Many people
were not comfortable of the idea of travelling in smoke filled underground railway. But

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ultimately, the Underground proved to be a huge success.

Social Change in the City

The family became smaller and individualism increased. The institution of marriage tended to
break down among the working class. Women of the upper middle classes in Britain faced
increasing levels of isolation. Many social reformers felt a need to save the family by pushing the
women back into the home.
Most of the political movements of this period were largely participated by male. It took some
time before women could actively participate in political movements.
The positive aspect of these changes was that the family became the focus of the new market.

Leisure and Consumption

For wealthy British, there had been a tradition of ‘London Season’. For the elite families, many
cultural events were organized.
People from the working classes met in pubs. The pub was the centre of exchanging news and
views for them. Libraries, art galleries and museums were established in the nineteenth century
to provide people with a sense of history and pride in the British achievements. Music halls were
popular among the lower classes. By the early twentieth century, cinema became a popular
entertainment across all classes.
The trend of spending holidays on beaches increased among the working classes.

Politics in the City

A large city population was both a threat and an opportunity from political perspective. This was
a period when many mass strikes and protests erupted in the city. Some of them were brutally
suppressed by the police. The State authorities worked towards reducing the possibility of
rebellion and enhance urban aesthetics.

The City in Colonial India

The situation in India was somewhat different from that in Western Europe. The pace of
urbanization was slow during colonial rule. In the early twentieth century, no more than 11% of
population was living in cities. A major chunk of the urban dwellers were living in the three
Presidency cities, viz. Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.
The Presidential cities were multi-functional cities. These cities had major ports, warehouses,
homes and offices, army camps, educational institutions, museums and libraries. Because of
being the hubs of business and political activities, these cities grew in population.
Bombay expanded rapidly from the late 19th century. The population of Bombay grew from
644,000 in 1872 to 1,500,000 in 1941.

Bombay: The Prime City of India

In the seventeenth century, Bombay was under Portuguese control. It was a group of seven
islands. In 1661; after the marriage of Britain’s King Charles II to the Portuguese princess; the
control of Bombay passed into British hands. After that, the East India Company shifted its base
from Surat to Bombay.
Initially, Bombay was the major outlet for cotton textiles from Gujarat. Later, in the nineteenth
century, it became the transit hub for large quantities of raw materials; like cotton and opium.
Gradually, it became an important administrative centre. By the end of the nineteenth century,
Bombay became a major industrial centre.

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Work in The city
After the defeat of the Maratha in the Anglo-Maratha War, Bombay became the capital of
Bombay Presidency in 1819. With the growth of trade in cotton and opium, large communities of
traders, bankers, artisans and shopkeepers settled in the city. Opening of textile mills initiated a
fresh round of migration to the city.
The first cotton textile mill in Bombay opened in 1854. By 1921, there were 85 cotton mills. About
146,000 workers worked in these mills. Between 1881 and 1931, only about one-fourth of the
inhabitants of the city were born in this city.
Between 1919 and 1926, women formed about 23% of the mill workforce. After that their
number dropped steadily to less than 10% of the total workforce.
The railways encouraged migration into the city at even larger scale. Famine in the dry regions of
Kutch forced a large number of people to migrate to Bombay in 1888 – 89. In 1898, the district
authorities were so much worried during the plague epidemic that they sent about 30,000
people back to their places of origin by 1901.

Housing and Neighbourhoods

Bombay was a much crowded city; compared to London. In the late 1840s, each Londoner
enjoyed an average space of 155 sq yards. In Bombay, each person had to manage with just 9.5
sq yards. About 8 persons lived per house in London, while in Bombay this figure was 20 persons
per house.
The Bombay Fort area formed the heart of the city in the early 1800s. It was divided between a
‘native’ town and a European of ‘white’ section. This racial pattern was similar in all three
Presidency cities.
The city developed in an unplanned way; which led to huge crisis of water supply and housing by
the mid 1850s.
The rich people lived in sprawling bungalows. But more than 70% of the working people lived in
the thickly populated chawls of Bombay. About 90% of millworkers used to live in Girangaon.
This was not more than 15 minutes’ walk from the mills.
A chawl was a multi-storeyed structure. These houses were usually owned by private landlords.
Each chawl was divided into smaller one-room tenements. The tenements had no private toilets.
The rent was so high that people were forced to share a tenement with relatives or caste fellows.
Since homes were small; so streets and neighbourhoods became the place for various activities;
like cooking washing and sleeping. Liquor shops and akharas came up in any empty spot. Street
entertainers and hawkers also used those empty spaces.
People from the lower castes found it difficult to find housing. These people were kept out of
many chawls. They often had to live in shelters made of corrugated sheets, leaves or bamboo
poles.
The City of Bombay Improvement Trust was established in 1898. Its focus was clearing poorer
homes out of the city centre. In 1918, about 64,000 people were evicted from their homes but
only 14,000 were rehabilitated. A Rent Act was passed in 1918, in an effort to keep the rents
under control. But this led to a severe housing crisis because landlords withdrew houses from
the market.

Land Reclamation in Bombay

Bombay had largely been built on the land which was reclaimed from the sea. The earliest
reclamation project began in 1784. William Hornby; the governor of Bombay; approved the
building of the great sea wall to prevent flooding of the low lying areas.
Many reclamation projects were taken up from time to time. By 1870s, the city had expanded to
about 22 sq miles. Even the famous Marine Drive had been built on the reclaimed land.

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The City of Dreams: Cinema and Culture

The first Hindi movie; Raja Harishchandra; was made by Dadasaheb Phalke in 1913. By 1925,
Bombay had become the film capital of India. In 1947, about Rs. 756 million was invested in
about 50 films which were produced in that year. By 1987, about 520,000 people were
employed in the film industry.
Most of the people in the film industry were migrants from different places. In a way, they also
contributed to the national character of the industry.

Cities and the challenge of the environment

The development of cities resulted in long lasting damage to the environment. Use of coal in
homes and industries in the nineteenth century England raised serious problems. In most of the
cities, black smoke from the chimneys gave a permanent gray tone to the sky. Many people
suffered from bad tempers, smoke-related illnesses and dirty clothes. By the 1840s, some towns
such as Derby, Leeds and Manchester made laws to control smoke in the city. But it was difficult
to implement these laws because industrialists did not want to invest in cleaner technologies.
Similar problems were witnessed in the Presidential cities in India. Burning of biomass and coal
by homemakers, industries and railways created lot of smoke and black soot in the cities. Much
legislation was passed to control air pollution but they could not produce the desired results.

NCERT Solution

1. Explain what is meant by the Haussmanisation of Paris. To what extent would you support
or oppose this form of development? Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper, to either
support or oppose this, giving reasons for your view.
Answer: Baron Haussman was the town planner who tried to build a perfect city of Paris. In the
process, a large number of people were displaced. Although it resulted in the development of a
beautiful city, but it ended up alienating a lot of people in the process.
A city does not develop only because of its beautiful buildings and well planned transport
network. The city also develops because of its people. A city is always a mosaic of varieties of
people who contribute in their own way in developing the soul of the city. Rich and poor;
everyone has his own role to play in development of a city. Haussmanisation may sound good in
theory but has no place in practical life.

Answer the following questions:

1. What were the changes in the kind of work available to women in London between the
nineteenth and the twentieth century? Explain the factors which led to this change.
Answer During the War years, many women got employment in the factories because most of
the men were busy at the battlefronts. Once the War was over, women gradually lost their jobs.
Most of them were forced to household duties. Some women began to start tailoring, washing
and matchbox making to earn some money.

2. How does the existence of a large urban population affect each of the following? Illustrate
with historical examples.
a. A private landlord
Answer A private landlord can increase his earnings by renting out tenements. This was the case
during the later part of nineteenth century and early twentieth century in London. The situation
was same in Bombay during the early twentieth century.

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b. A Police Superintendent in charge of law and order

Answer A large number of urban populations create many inequalities in the society. People
who may not be able to find gainful employment may resort to petty crimes. Poor housing
conditions also provide a ground for development of resentment among the people. The
situation may lead to a spurt in crime. For Police Superintendent, the situation can be very
challenging as he has to keep the crime under check.

c. A leader of a political party

Answer For a leader of a political party, a large urban population presents both threat and
opportunity. Keeping the largely disgruntled population under control can be a challenge. If a
political party finds proper solution to the problem of people, then it can create a huge support
base for itself.

3. Why well-off Londoners supported the need to build housing for the poor in the nineteenth
century?
Answer The poor sanitary conditions in one-room tenements posed a threat of epidemics.
Moreover, such houses were also potential fire hazards. To keep the city safe from epidemics
and fire, the well-off Londoners supported the need to build housing for the poor in the
nineteenth century.

4. Why a number of Bombay films were about the lives of migrants?

Answer Most of the workers in the film industry themselves were migrants from various parts of
the country. They probably better understood the problems of migrants. This is the reason that a
number of Bombay films were about the lives of migrants.

5. What led to the major expansion of Bombay’s population in the mid-nineteenth century?
Write in brief.
Answer Following are some of the reasons for expansion of Bombay’s population in the mid-
nineteenth century:
Growth in trade of cotton and opium.
Opening of many textile mills.
Expansion of railways.

6. What forms of entertainment came up in nineteenth century England to provide leisure

activities for the people.
Answer Libraries, art galleries and museums were established in the nineteenth century to
provide people with a sense of history and pride in the British achievements.

7. Explain the social changes in London which led to the need for the Underground railway.
Why was the development of the Underground criticised?
Answer Initial public reaction towards the Underground was negative. Many people were critical
of the way many houses were demolished to make way for construction of underground. Many
people were not comfortable of the idea of travelling in smoke filled underground railway. But
ultimately, the Underground proved to be a huge success. It enabled people to live far off from
their workplace. People had no longer to live in overcrowded places which helped in improving
the quality of life.

8. To what extent does government regulation and new laws solve problems of pollution?

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Discuss one example each of the success and failure of legislation to change the quality of
a. Public Life
Answer Court’s order to use CNG in public transport in Delhi can be a good example. After the
court made it mandatory to use CNG in public transport in Delhi, the air quality of Delhi had
improved remarkably. It has definitely helped in improving the quality of life for the general
public.

b. Private Life
Answer For improving the private life, the government needs to implement a package of
legislation as well as some empowerment tool for the citizens. All of us know that LPG is a
cleaner kitchen fuel than coal, cowdung or firewood. Seamless availability of LPG across most of
the urban India has helped in minimizing the use of conventional kitchen fuels. This has
improved the quality of life of a housewife who earlier had to suffer the constant smoke from
the chulha.

EXTRA QUESTIONS

Question -1 What were the three historical factors that shaped modern cities ?
Solution : The three historical factors that shaped modern cities were ….
• The rise of industrial capitalism
• The establishment of colonial rule over large parts of the world
• The development of democratic ideals .

Question -2 What are the characteristics of a modern city?

Solution : The characteristics of a modern city are …
• Modern cites are often the centres of political power and administration.
• Trade and industries flourish here.
• Cities were filled with educational and religious institutions as they were thickly populated.
• Cities support various social groups such as artisans, merchants and priests .

Question -3 How can cities be classified?

Solution : Cities can be classified into big cities and small cities .
• The larger cities are called metropolises . They are the political and economic centre for a
larger region . They are thickly populated .
• The smaller cities are not as thickly populated and their functions are not as important as the
metropolises .

Question -4 What is the Brief History of London and how Industries flourished in London?
Solution : In 1750 , 1 / 10 of the British population lived in London. It was a massive city with a
population of about 675 , 000 . London continued to expand during the 19 century .Its
population multiplied fourfold between 1810 and 1880 , increasing from 1 million to about 4
million .
London was like a magnet for the migrant populations , even though it did not have large
factories. The city was full of clerks and shopkeepers , of small masters and skilled and semi -
skilled artisans, of soldiers and servants , of casual labourers , street sellers, and beggars .
The Industries that flourished in London were . .
• The shipping dockyards .
• The clothing and footwear Industry .
• The wood and furniture Industry .

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• The metal and engineering Industry .
• The printing and stationery Industry .
• The surgical instruments and watch Industry .
During the First World War London began manufacturing motor cars and electrical goods , and
these large factories employed nearly one - third of the labour force.

Question -5 Write a note on the chawls of Bombay.

Solution : Chawls were multi - storeyed structures which were built in the ‘ native ’ parts of the
town. These houses were owned by private landlords who rented these chawls to migrant
workers . Each chawl was divided into smaller one - room tenements which had no private
toilets . Many families could reside at a time in a tenement. 80 % of Bombay ’ s population
resided in these chawls . The chawls were not hygienic and as many people were living in a small
area they faced a lot of problems . Water was scarce in these chawls . As the chawls were very
small, streets and neighbourhoods were used for cooking , washing and sleeping . Liquor shops
and akharas came up in empty spaces . Streets were used for different types of leisure activities .
Magicians , monkey players and acrobats used the streets to stage their shows. People of the
lower caste were not allowed into the chawls . The lower caste people were forced to live in
temporary shelters made of corrugated sheets , leaves and bamboo poles .

Question -6 What are the challenges faced by big cities ?

Solution : Big cities face many problems , the main one being environmental problems .
City development causes great harm to the ecology and the surrounding environment . Natural
features , like hills were flattened out to create more space in the cities. Due to the vast
population , air, water and land get polluted .
Another major challenge faced by big cities all over the world was noise pollution. The heavy
traffic and the blaring horns are the cause for this noise pollution.
Smoke from factories darkened the city skies and caused health hazards for the city dwellers .
Factory wastes contaminated the waterways and land .
The need for housing destroys the greenery and results in poor quality of air .
Governments all over the world are doing their best to control pollution and provide a save living
space for the growing city dwellers.

Question -7 What were the steps taken to clean up London ?

Solution : Various steps were taken to clean up London . Attempts were made to spread out the
tenements . Parks were created and trees were planted to reduce pollution.
Large blocks of apartments were built.
The city dwellers longed for the fresh country side. So a ‘ green belt ’ was created around London.
Ebenezer Howard , an Architect, developed the principle of the Garden City , a city full of plants
and trees , where people would both live and work . This would ensure a better quality of life for
the city dwellers.
Ebenezer Howard called for the creation of new suburban towns of limited size , planned in
advance , and surrounded by a permanent belt of agricultural land . These Garden cities were
used as a role model for many suburbs . Howard believed that such Garden Cities were the
perfect blend of city and nature. The towns would be largely independent, and managed and
financed by the citizens who had an economic interest in them
The Government realising the need for good housing for the city dwellers built a million houses ,
most of them single -family cottages.

Question -8 Describe social life in London.

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Solution : Social life changed in London as industrialisation set in .
Ties between family members loosened and the institution of marriage broke down. Women of
the upper and middle classes in Britain had an easier life as they could employ domestic maids to
do the entire house – work , but they were isolated .
Women who worked for wages were more in control of their lives . Social reformers were
worried about the declining family system and wanted to reconstruct it .
The city life created a new spirit of individualism among the men and women. They wanted
freedom from their rural social values . Women were at a disadvantage compared to the men.
Women lost their industrial jobs and they were ridiculed in pubic places by the conservative
people . It became an unwritten law that public places were for the men and the home was for
the women. It was only in the late 1800 s that women were allowed to enter the political arena
and were granted some rights .
By the twentieth century , the urban family was a small unit and became the focal point for
goods and services.
New industries in the city provided mass work, and soon the working people needed mass
leisure on Sundays and other common holidays .
As the need for recreation increased among the working class , cultural events , such as the
opera, the theatre and classical music performances increased . Working classes also met in pubs
to have a drink, exchange news . Many new types of large - scale entertainment for the common
people came into existence .
In the nineteenth century Libraries , art galleries and museums were built. Music halls and
cinemas became popular among the lower classes . British industrial workers spent their holidays
by the sea .

Question -9 Write a note on the chawls of Bombay.

Solution : Chawls were multi - storeyed structures which were built in the ‘ native ’ parts of the
town. These houses were owned by private landlords who rented these chawls to migrant
workers . Each chawl
was divided into smaller one - room tenements which had no private toilets . Many families
could reside at a time in a tenement.
80 % of Bombay ’ s population resided in these chawls .

Question -10 Write a note on London.

Solution : In 1750 , 1 / 10 of the British population lived in London. It was a massive city with a
population of about 675 , 000 . London continued to expand during the 19 century .Its
population multiplied fourfold between 1810 and 1880 , increasing from 1 million to about 4
million .
London was like a magnet for the migrant populations , even though it did not have large
factories. The city was full of clerks and shopkeepers , of small masters and skilled and semi -
skilled artisans, of soldiers and servants , of casual labourers , street sellers, and beggars .

Question -11 What are the challenges faced by big cities ?

Solution : Big cities face many problems , the main one being environmental problems .
City development causes great harm to the ecology and the surrounding environment . Natural
features , like hills were flattened out to create more space in the cities. Due to the vast
population , air, water and land get polluted .
Another major challenge faced by big cities all over the world was noise pollution. The heavy
traffic and the blaring horns are the cause for this noise pollution.
Smoke from factories darkened the city skies and caused health hazards for the city dwellers .

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Factory wastes contaminated the waterways and land .
The need for housing destroys the greenery and results in poor quality of air .

AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION
Proto Industrialisation
The period of industrialization before the first factories came up in Europe is termed as proto-
industrialization. This period was marked by merchants from towns getting products made in
villages.
Reasons for focus of merchants on villages: There were powerful trade and craft guilds in urban
areas. These associations controlled competition and prices and prevented entry of a new player
in the market. Because of them, it was difficult for new merchants to set business in towns.

Features of proto-industrialization in Britain:

- The merchants supplied money to the peasants in the countryside. They motivated them to
produce products for an international market.
- Land was becoming scarce in villages. Small plots of land were not enough to meet the need
of a growing population. Peasants were looking for some additional sources of income.

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The proto-industrial system was a network of commercial exchanges. It was controlled by
merchants. Goods were produced by peasants who worked within their family farms and not in
factories. The finished product passed through several stages and reached the markets of
London. From London, the products were supplied to the international market.

The Coming Up Of Factory

The earliest factories in England came up in the 1730s. By late 18th century, there were
numerous factories dotting the landscape of England. In 1760 Britain was importing 2.5 million
pounds of raw cotton. This quantity increased to 22 million pounds by 1787.

Benefits of factories: The factories increased efficiency of workers. Because of new machines a
worker could produce better products in much bigger quantities. Cotton textiles were the main
area in which industrialization happened. Managing and supervising the labour was much easier
in factories than it was in the countryside.

The pace of Industrial Change

Cotton and metals were the most dynamic industries in Britain. During the first phase of
industrialization (upto 1840s), cotton was the leading sector. The iron and steel industries grew
rapidly with the expansion of railways. The railways expanded in England from the 1840s and in
the colonies from 1860s. By 1873, the export of iron and steel from Britain was valued at about
77 million pounds. This was double the value of cotton export.

At the end of the nineteenth century, less than 20% of total workforce was employed in
technologically advanced industrial sectors. This shows that the traditional industry could not be
displaced by the new industries.

The cotton or metal industries could not set the change of pace in the traditional industries. But
the traditional industries experienced many changes which were brought by small and
apparently ordinary innovations. Food processing, building, pottery, glasswork, tanning,
furniture making and production of implements were such industries.

The new technology took a long time to spread across the industrial landscape. High cost of
machines and costly repair scared the merchants and industrialists. The new machines were not
as effective as claimed by their inventors and manufacturers.

Historians acknowledge the fact that the typical worker in the mid-nineteenth century was not a
machine operator but the traditional craftsperson and labourer.

Hand Labour and Steam Power: During this period, there was no shortage of human labour.
Because of good supply of workers, there was no problem of labour shortage or high wages. As a
result, the merchants and industrialists preferred to manage with human labour rather than
investing in costly machines.

Machine-made goods were standardized and could not match the high quality finish of hand-
made goods. The people from the upper classes preferred things produced by hand.
The situation was different in nineteenth century America. There was shortage of labour in
America and hence mechanization was the only way out in that part of the world.

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Life of Workers
There was large scale migration from countryside to cities in search of jobs. Finding a job
depended on existing network of friendship and kin relations. People without existing social
connections in the cities found it difficult to find a job. Many people had to wait for long periods
before they could get a job. Such people often had to spend nights on bridges or in night shelters.
Some private individuals set up Night Refuges. The Poor Law authorities maintained Casual
Wards for such people.

Many jobs were seasonal in nature. Once a busy season was over, the poor were once again on
the streets. While some people returned to the countryside, many stayed back to look for some
odd jobs.

There was some increase in the wages in the early nineteenth century. It is difficult to arrive at
figures from various trades and fluctuations which happened from year to year. The period of
employment was also critical in determining the quality of life of a worker. During the best of the
times till the mid-nineteenth century, about 10% of urban population was extremely poor.
During the periods of economic slump, the unemployment increased anything between 35 and
75%.

Workers often turned hostile to new technology because of fear of unemployment. For example;
when Spinning Jenny was introduced, women began to attack the new machines because they
survived on hand spinning.

After the 1840s, construction activity increased in the cities. This opened greater employment
opportunities. The number of workers in the transport industries doubled in the 1840s, and
doubled again in the subsequent 30 years.

The Age of Indian Textiles

The East India Company had consolidated its business by the mid-eighteenth century. The earlier
centres of trade; like Surat and Hooghly; declined during this period. The new centres; like
Calcutta and Bombay emerged.

Once the East India Company established political power, it began to assert its monopoly right to
trade.

The Company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers who were connected with the
cloth trade. It tried to establish a more direct control on the weavers. A paid servant; called
gomastha was appointed to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine the quality of cloth.

The Company prevented weavers from dealing with other buyers. This was done through the
system of advances. Under this system, the weavers were given loans to purchase raw materials.
Once a weaver took the advance, he could not sell his produce to any other trader.

The new system of advances created many problems for the weavers. Earlier, they used to grow
some crops on their land which took care of their family needs. Now, they had not time for
cultivation and they had to lease out their land.

Unlike the traditional merchants, the gomastha was an outsider who had no social links with the
villages. He used to visit with sepoys and peons and punished weavers who could not meet the

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deadline. The gomastha behaved arrogantly. There were reports of clashes between weavers
and gomasthas in many villages.

The system of advances resulted in many weavers falling in debt trap. In many places in Carnatic
and Bengal, weavers deserted villages and migrated to other villages to set up looms. Many
weavers began to refuse loans, closed down their workshops and took to farming.

Manchester comes to India

By the beginning of the nineteenth century; a long decline of textiles exports from India initiated.
In 1811 – 12 piece-goods accounted for 33% of India’s exports but it declined to less than 3% by
1850-51.

Because of pressure from the British manufacturers, the government imposed import duties so
that the goods manufactured in Britain could sell in England. They also pressurized the East India
Company to sell British manufactured goods in Indian markets. At the end of the eighteenth
century, there had been negligible import of cotton piece-goods in India. But by 1850 cotton
piece-goods constituted over 31% of the value of Indian imports. By 1870s, the value increased to
over 70%.

The machine-made cotton was cheaper than hand-made cotton piece-goods in India. The
weavers thus lost a huge market share to imports from Britain. By 1850s, most of the cotton
producing centres in India faced a steep decline.

The Civil War broke out in the US in 1860s. Due to that, the cotton supply from the US to Britain
was cut off. Britain turned began to source cotton from India. This led to a huge shortage of raw
cotton for weavers in India.

By the end of the nineteenth century, cotton factories began to come up in India as well. This
was the final blow for traditional cotton textiles industry in India.

Factories Come Up
The first cotton mill in Bombay came up in 1854 and it went into production two years later. By
1862 four mills were in operation. Jute mills also came up in Bengal around the same time. The
Elgin Mill was started in Kanpur in the 1860s. In Ahmadabad, the first cotton mill was set up in
the same period. By 1874, the first cotton mill of Madras began production.

The Early Entrepreneurs

The history of many business groups goes back to trade with China. From the late eighteenth
century, the British in India began to export opium to China and import tea from there. Many
Indians took active participation in this trade by providing finance, procuring supplies and
shipping consignments. Once these businessmen earned enough, they dreamt of developing
industrial enterprises in India.
Dwarknanath Tagore was among the pioneers to begin industries in the 1830s and 1840s.
Tagore’s enterprise sank during the business crises of the 1840s. But in the later nineteenth
century, many businessmen became successful industrialists. In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw
Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata went on to build huge industrial empires. Seth
Hukumchand; a Marwari businessman; set up the first Indian jute mill in Calcutta in 1917. The
Birla Group was similarly started by successful traders from China.
Capital was also accumulated through other trade networks; like Burma, the Middle East and

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Africa.
There was a virtual stranglehold of the British players on business in India which leaved little
scope for growth of Indian merchants. Till the First World War, European Managing Agencies
controlled a large sector of Indian industries.

Where Did the Workers Come from?

In most of the industrial regions workers came from the surrounding districts. Most of the
workers were migrants from neighbouring villages. They maintained contact with their rural
homeland; by returning to their villages during harvests and festivals.
After some passage of time, workers began to migrate greater distances in search of work. For
example; people from the United Provinces began to migrate to Bombay and Calcutta.
Getting a job was not easy. Industrialists usually employed a jobber to hire new people. The
jobber was usually an old and trusted worker. The jobber usually preferred people from his own
village. He helped them settle in the city and provided financial help during crisis. The jobber
thus became an influential person. He began to demand money and gifts for his favour and
began to control the lives of workers.

The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth

European Managing Agencies were interested in certain kinds of products. They focused on tea
and coffee plantations, mining, indigo and jute. These products were mainly required for export
and were not meant for sale in India.
The Indian businessmen avoided competing with Manchester goods in the Indian market. For
example; they produced coarse cotton yarn which was used by handloom weavers or exported
to China.
By the first decade of the twentieth century, various changes affected the pattern of
industrialization. This was the time, the swadeshi movement was gathering momentum.
Industrial groups organized themselves for collective bargaining with the government. They
pressurized the government to increase tariff protection and grant other concessions. This was
the period when the export of Indian yarn to China declined. This was because the produce from
Chinese and Japanese mills flooded the Chinese market. The Indian manufacturers began to shift
from yarn to cloth production. Between 1900 and 1912, the cotton piece-goods production
doubled in India.
Industrial growth was slow till the First World War. The War changed the situation. The British
mills became busy in meeting the needs of the army. This resulted in decline of imports to India.
There was a vast home market to be catered by the Indian mills. The Indian mills were also asked
to supply goods for the British army. This created a boom in industrial activities.
After the war, Manchester could never recapture its lost position in the Indian market. The
British industry was no longer in a position to compete with the US, Germany and Japan.

Small Scale Industries Predominate

In spite of industrial growth, large industries formed only a small segment of the economy.
About 67% of the large industries were located in Bengal and Bombay. Small-scale production
continued to prevail in the rest of the country. Only a small portion of the industrial workforce
worked in registered factories. This share was just 5% in 1911 and 10% in 1931.
The handicrafts expanded in the twentieth century. The handicrafts people adopted new
technology. For example; weavers started the use of fly shuttle in their looms. By 1941, more
than 35% of handlooms in India were fitted with fly shuttles. The percentage was 70 to 80 in
major textile hubs; like Travancore, Madras, Mysore, Cochin and Bengal. Many other small

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innovations helped in improving productivity in the handloom sector.

Market for Goods

The manufacturers practiced various ways to lure new customers. Advertisement is one of the
various ways to attract new customers.
The producers from Manchester labeled their products to show the place of manufacture. The
label ‘Made in Manchester’ was considered to be the sign of good quality. The labels also carried
beautiful illustrations. The illustrations often carried the images of Indian gods and goddesses.
This was a good attempt to develop a local connect with the people.
By the late nineteenth century, manufacturers began distributing calendars to popularize their
products. A calendar has a longer shelf life than newspaper or magazines. It works as a constant
brand reminder throughout a year.
The Indian manufacturers often highlighted nationalist messages along with their advertisement;
in an attempt to develop a better connect with the potential customers.

NCERT SOLUTIONS

Explain the following:

a. Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny.
Answer: Women workers in Britain saw the Spinning Jenny as a threat for their livelihood. This
was the reason, they began to attack the Spinning Jenny.

b. In the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and
artisans within the villages.
Answer: There were powerful trade and craft guilds in urban areas. These associations
controlled competition and prices and prevented entry of a new player in the market. Because of
them, it was difficult for new merchants to set business in towns. Hence, the merchants from
towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisan within the villages; during seventeenth
century.

c. The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century.

Answer: The East India Company had consolidated its business by the mid-eighteenth century.
This led to decline of the earlier centres of trade; like Surat.

d. The East India Company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India.

Answer: The Company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers who were connected
with the cloth trade. It tried to establish a more direct control on the weavers. A paid servant;
called gomastha was appointed to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine the quality
of cloth.

Answer the following questions:

1. Explain what is meant by proto-industrialisation. Write in brief.

Answer: The period of industrialization before the first factories came up in Europe. This period
was marked by merchants from towns getting products made in villages. The proto-industrial
system was a network of commercial exchanges. It was controlled by merchants. Goods were
produced by peasants who worked within their family farms and not in factories. The finished
product passed through several stages and reached the markets of London. From London, the

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products were supplied to the international market.

2. Why did some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe prefer hand labour over machines?
Answer: During this period, there was no shortage of human labour. Because of good supply of
workers, there was no problem of labour shortage or high wages. As a result, the merchants and
industrialists preferred to manage with human labour rather than investing in costly machines.

3. How did the East India Company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from
Indian weavers?
Answer: The Company prevented weavers from dealing with other buyers. This was done
through the system of advances. Under this system, the weavers were given loans to purchase
raw materials. Once a weaver took the advance, he could not sell his produce to any other trader.

4. Why did industrial production in India increase during the First World War?
Answer: The First World War changed the situation. The British mills became busy in meeting
the needs of the army. This resulted in decline of imports to India. There was a vast home
market to be catered by the Indian mills. The Indian mills were also asked to supply goods for the
British army. This created a boom in industrial activities. All of this led to growth of industry in
India during this period.

PRINT CULTURE & MODERN WORLD

The First Printed Books

The earliest print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea. From 594 AD onwards,
books were printed in China by rubbing paper against the inked surface of woodblocks. The
traditional Chinese ‘Accordion Book’ was folded and stitched at the side because both sides of
the thin, porous sheet could not be printed.

For a very long time, the imperial state of China was the major producer of printed material. The
Chinese bureaucratic system recruited its personnel through civil services examinations. The
imperial state sponsored the large scale printing of textbooks for this examination. The number
of candidates for the examinations increased from the sixteenth century, and this increased the
volume of print.

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By the seventeenth century, the use of print diversified in China because of a blooming urban
culture. Print was no longer limited to scholar-officials. Merchants used print in day-to-day life
because they collected trade related information. Fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies,
anthologies of literary masterpieces and romantic play became the staple for the reading public.
Reading acquired the status of a preferred leisure activity. Rich women began to read and many
of them began publishing their poetry and plays.

Print in Japan
The Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing technology into Japan around
768 – 770 AD. The Buddhist Diamond Sutra which was printed in 868 AD was the oldest Japanese
book. Libraries and bookstores were packed with hand-printed materials of various types. These
included books on women, musical instruments, calculations, tea ceremony, flower
arrangements, proper etiquette, cooking and famous places.

Print Comes to Europe

Marco Polo was a great explorer from Italy. He returned from China in 1295 and brought the
knowledge of woodblock printing along with him. Thus, printing began in Italy and travelled to
other parts of Europe. Vellum was still the preferred material for printing the luxury editions
because printed books were considered as cheap vulgarities. Vellum is a parchment made from
the skin of animals.

By the early fifteenth century, woodblocks were widely used in Europe to print various materials.
It almost replaced the books made by calligraphy.

Gutenberg and the Printing Press

Gutenberg was the son of a merchant. Since his childhood he had seen wine and olive presses.
He also learnt the art of polishing stones, and became a master goldsmith and also became an
expert in creating lead moulds. Such moulds were used for making trinkets.

Gutenberg used his knowledge to bring innovation to the print technology. He used the olive
press as the model for the printing press and used the moulds for casting the metal types for the
letters. Gutenberg perfected the system by 1448. The first book printed by him was the Bible.

Initially, the printed books resembled the written manuscripts in appearance and layout. In the
hundred years between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were set up in most parts of Europe. The
growth of the print industry was so good that about 20 million books appeared in the European
markets in the second half of the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth century, this number went
up to about 200 million copies.

The Print Revolution and Its Impact

A New Reading Public:

With the print technology, a new reading public emerged. Books became cheaper because of
printing. Numerous copies could now be produced with much ease. This helped in catering to an
ever growing readership.
Access to books increased for the public. This helped in creating a new culture of reading.
Literacy level was very low till the twentieth century in Europe. Printers kept in mind the wider
reach of the printed work. Popular ballads and folk tales were published which could be listened

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by even the illiterates. Literate people read out stories and ballads to those who could not read.

Religious Debates and Fear of Print

Print created an opportunity of a new debate and discussion. People began questioning some
established notions of religion. For the orthodox people, it was like a challenge as they feared
the disturbance in old order. In fact, the Protestant Revolution in Christianity began because of
print culture. The Roman Church felt troubled by new ideas which raised questions about the
existing norms of faith. It even started to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.

The Reading Mania

The literacy levels improved through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe. By the
end of the eighteenth century, literacy rates were as high as 60 to 80 percent in some parts of
Europe. The growth in literacy level created a reading mania among people. Booksellers
employed pedlars who roamed around villages to sell books. Periodicals, novels, almanac, etc.
formed the staple for the reading mania.
Ideas of scientists and philosophers became more accessible to the common people. New ideas
could be debated and shared with a wider target audience.

Print Culture and the French Revolution

Many historians are of the view that print culture created the conditions which led to French
Revolution. Some of such conditions are as follows:
- Print popularized the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers. These thinkers gave critical
commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism. Voltaire and Rousseau were among the
prominent Enlightenment thinkers.
- Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. General public began to discuss the
values, norms and institutions and tried to re-evaluate the established notions.
- By the 1780s, there was a surge in literature which mocked the royalty and criticized their
morality. Print helped in creating an image of the royalty that they indulged in their own
pleasure at the expense of the common public.

The Nineteenth Century

There was vast leap in mass literacy in Europe in the nineteenth century. This brought a large
numbers of new readers among children, women and workers. Many books were written and
printed keeping in mind the sense and sensibilities of children. Many folk tales were rephrased
to suit the children. Many women became important as readers as well as writers. The lending
libraries which had been in existence from the seventeenth century became the hub of activity
for white-collar workers, artisans and lower middle class people.

Further Innovations
Richard M. Hoe of New York perfected the power-driven cylindrical press by the mid-nineteenth
century. This could print 8,000 sheets per hour. Offset press was developed in the late
nineteenth century. This could print up to six colours at a time. Electrically operated presses
came in use from the turn of the twentieth century. This helped in accelerating the printing
process. Many other innovations took place during this period. All the innovations had a
cumulative effect which improved the appearance of printed texts.

New Strategies to sell books:

- Many periodicals serialized important novels in the nineteenth century.
- In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.

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- The dust cover or book jacket is a twentieth century innovation.
- Cheap paperback editions were brought to counter the effect of the Great Depression in the
1930s.

India and the World of Print

The Portuguese missionaries were the first to bring printing press to Goa in the mid-sixteenth
century. The first books were printed in Konkani language. By 1674, about 50 books had been
printed in Konkani and Kanara Languages. Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at
Cochin. They printed the first Malayalam book in 1713.
From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette. It was a weekly magazine.
Hickey also published a lot of gossip about the senior officials of the Company. Governor General
Warren Hastings persecuted Hickey. Warren Hastings encouraged the publication of officially
sanctioned newspapers to protect the image of the colonial government.

The first Indian newspaper was the weekly Bengal Gazette which was brought out by Gangadhar
Bhattacharya.
Print culture helped in initiating new debate on religious, social and political issues in India.
Many existing religious practices were criticized. Rammohun Roy published Sambad Kaumudi
from 1821 to criticize the orthodox views in the Hinduism. The Hindu orthodoxy commissioned
the Samachar Chandrika to counter his opinions. In 1822, publication of two Persian newspapers
began, viz. Jam – i- Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. Bombay Samachar; a Gujarati newspaper
appeared in the same year.
In north India, the ulama began to publish cheap lithographic prints which contained Persian and
Urdu translations of holy scriptures. They also published religious newspapers and tracts. The
Deoband Seminary was founded in 1867. It published thousands upon thousands fatwas about
proper conduct in the life of Muslims.
Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas was printed from Calcutta in 1810. From the 1880s, the Naval
Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published many religious
texts in vernaculars.
Print helped in bringing the religious texts within reach of the common masses. It also helped in
shaping the new political debate. It also helped in connecting the people from various parts of
India; by carrying news of one part to another.

New forms of Publication

Initially, people got to read the novels which were written by European writers. But people could
not relate to those novels because they were written in the European context. Many writers
emerged who began to write in the Indian context. People could correlate with the theme and
characters of such novels in a better way. Many other new forms of writing also came into origin;
like lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters, etc.
A new visual culture was taking shape by the end of the nineteenth century. Many printing
presses started to produce visual images in large numbers. Works of painters; like Raja Ravi
Varma were produced for mass circulation through printing.
By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers. They
commented on various social and political issues.

Women and Print

Many writers wrote about the lives and feelings of women. Due to this, readership among
middle-class women increased substantially. There were many liberal husbands and fathers who
stressed on women’s education. While some women got education at home, some others went

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to schools as well. This was the time, when many women writers also began to express their
views through their writings.
Conservative Hindus and Muslims were still against women’s education. They thought that a
girl’s mind would be polluted by education. People wanted their daughters to read religious texts
but did not want them to read anything else.
While Urdu, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi print culture had developed early, Hindi printing began
seriously only from the 1870s.

Print and the Poor People

Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century Madras towns. These
books were sold at crossroads so that poor people could buy them. Public libraries were set up
from the early twentieth century which helped in increasing the access to books. Many rich
people set up library in order to assert their prestige in their area.

Print and Censorship

Before 1798, the colonial rulers were not too concerned with censorship. Initially, the control
measures were directed against Englishmen in India who were critical of Company misrule.
After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press changed. The Vernacular Press Act
was passed in 1878. The Act provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports
and editorials in the vernacular press. In case of a seditious report, the newspaper was warned. If
the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery
confiscated.

NCERT Solution
1. Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.
Answer: Print culture helped in developing a culture of dialogue among people. Ideas of social
reform could be spread in a better way. Gandhiji spread his ideas of swadeshi in powerful way
through newspapers. Many vernacular newspapers came up in India. These helped in spreading
the message of nationalism to majority of the Indian masses. Even in spite of repressive
measures print culture was a revolution which could not be stopped.

2. Give reasons for the following:

a. Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295.

Answer: Marco Polo returned to Italy from China in 1295 and brought with him the knowledge of
woodblock printing.

b. Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
Answer: Martin Luther’s criticism of Roman Catholic church reached a large section of masses
because of print. Hence he was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.

c. The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from the mid-
sixteenth century.
Answer: Because of print new interpretation of Bible reached to people and they started
questioning the authority of church. Due to this the Roman Catholic Church began keeping and
index of Prohibited books from the mid – sixteenth century.

d. Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and
freedom of association.

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Answer: The power of the printed word is most often seen in the way governments seek to
regulate and suppress print. The colonial government kept continuous track of all books and
newspapers published in India and passed numerous laws to control the press. Because of this
Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom
of association.

3. Write short notes on following:

A. The Gutenberg Press

Answer: Gutenberg was the son of a merchant and grew up on a large agricultural estate. From
his childhood he had seen wine and olive presses. Subsequently, he learnt the art of polishing
stones, became a master goldsmith, and also acquired the expertise to create lead moulds used
for making trinkets. Drawing on this knowledge, Gutenberg adapted existing technology to
design his innovation. The olive press provided the model for the printing press, and moulds
were used for casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet. By 1448, Gutenberg
perfected the system. The first book he printed was the Bible. About 180 copies were printed
and it took three years to produce them. By the standards of the time this was fast production.

B. Erasmus’s idea of the printed book

Answer: Erasmus thought that books were not good for sanctity of scholastic knowledge. He was
of the opinion that printed books would glut the market with contents which will do more harm
than good to society. Because of this the value of good content would be lost in the din.

C. The Vernacular Press Act

Answer: In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed, modelled on the Irish Press Laws. It
provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular
press. From now on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published
in different provinces. When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if
the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery
confiscated.

4. What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to:

a. Women
Answer: Because of printing technique books became cheaper. Many hawkers started selling
books from door to door. This created easy availability of books for majority of women. Apart
from this many liberal males encouraged women from their families to read. Novels contained
interesting descriptions of women’s lives. This created interest among women readers. Women,
who were earlier cocooned inside their homes could now know about the outside world thanks
to the print technology. This created a spurt of many women writers in India. It can be said that
print culture not only created readers among women but also writers among them.

b. The poor
Answer: Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth-century Madras towns
and sold at crossroads, allowing poor people traveling to markets to buy them. Public libraries
were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books.
From the late nineteenth century, issues of caste discrimination began to be written about in
many printed tracts and essays. This helped in bringing these issues to the forefront of public
consciousness.

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Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked the education to write much about their
experiences. But some workers took initiative to write stories about their conditions. These
narratives contained issues related to class oppression. So worker’s problems also came to the
fore.

Extra Questions
1. How did print culture affect women in the 19th century India?
Answer: Because of printing technique books became cheaper. Many hawkers started selling
books from door to door. This created easy availability of books for majority of women. Apart
from this many liberal males encouraged women from their families to read. Novels contained
interesting descriptions of women’s lives. This created interest among women readers. Women,
who were earlier cocooned inside their homes could now know about the outside world thanks
to the print technology. This created a spurt of many women writers in India. It can be said that
print culture not only created readers among women but also writers among them.

2. Describe the role of nationalist newspaper in spreading nationalistic feelings among the
people in the early 20th century.
Answer: Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers in all parts of
India. They reported on colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities. Attempts to
throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest. This in turn led to a renewed cycle of
persecution and protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Balgangadhar
Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908,
provoking in turn widespread protests all over India. Thus nationalist newspaper played
important role in spreading nationalistic feelings among people in the early 20th century.

3. How did the print culture help scientist and philosopher?

Answer: The ideas of scientists and philosophers now became more accessible to the common
people. Ancient and medieval scientific texts were compiled and published, and maps and
scientific diagrams were widely printed. When scientists like Isaac Newton began to publish their
discoveries, they could influence a much wider circle of scientifically minded readers. The
writings of thinkers such as Thomas Paine, Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau were also widely
printed and read. Thus their ideas about science, reason and rationality found their way into
popular literature.

4. Print did not only stimulate publication of conflicting opinions among different communities
but also connected them in the 19th century India. Support this statement with examples.
Answer: From the early nineteenth century, as you know, there were intense debates around
religious issues. Different groups confronted the changes happening within colonial society in
different ways, and offered a variety of new interpretations of the beliefs of different religions.
Some criticised existing practices and campaigned for reform, while others countered the
arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print. Printed tracts and
newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate. A wider
public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas
emerged through these clashes of opinions.
Print did not only stimulate the publication of conflicting opinions amongst communities, but it
also connected communities and people in different parts of India. Newspapers conveyed news
from one place to another, creating pan-Indian identities.

5. What do you understand by print revolution?

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Answer: With the printing press, a new reading public emerged. Printing reduced the cost of
books. The time and labour required to produce each book came down, and multiple copies
could be produced with greater ease. Books flooded the market, reaching out to an ever-growing
readership.
Access to books created a new culture of reading. Earlier, reading was restricted to the elites.
Common people lived in a world of oral culture. They heard sacred texts read out, ballads recited,
and folk tales narrated. Knowledge was transferred orally. People collectively heard a story, or
saw a performance. Before the age of print, books were not only expensive but they could not
be produced in sufficient numbers. Now books could reach out to wider sections of people. If
earlier there was a hearing public, now a reading public came into being.

6. How were ideas and information written before the age of print in India? How did the
printing technique begin in India? Explain.
Answer: Age of Manuscripts: India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscripts –
in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, as well as in various vernacular languages. Manuscripts were copied
on palm leaves or on handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated. They
would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.
Manuscripts continued to be produced till well after the introduction of print, down to the late
nineteenth century.
Beginning of Printing Technique in India: The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese
missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts.
By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in Kanara languages. Catholic
priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was
printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of
them translations of older works.

7. Give a brief description of the first form of print technology.

Solution : The first form of print technology used wooden blocks which were carved with words
or designs . The carvings were in relief . These wooden blocks were inked. Then paper was
rubbed against it. The markings now made an impression on the paper. The paper was thin and
so printing was done only on one side . The papers were folded and stitched .

8. How did the urban population use the print media?

Solution : Merchants used print in their daily life , to update trade information. People stated
reading fiction , poetry , biographies , autobiographies , and romantic plays during their leisure
time. Rich women began to read, and many women began publishing their poetry and plays .
Wives of scholar - officials published their works and courtesans wrote about their lives .

9. When was print technology introduced in Japan?

Solution : Print technology was introduced in Japan around AD 768 - 770 . Buddhist missionaries
from China introduced hand - printing technology into Japan . The oldest Japanese book, the
Buddhist Diamond Sutra was printed in AD 868 . It contained six sheets of text and woodcut
illustrations

10. Who was Marco Polo ?

Solution : Marco Polo was a great explorer. He was in China for many years and he learnt the
printing technology from the Chinese during his years of exploration . He returned to Italy in 1295
and introduced this new technology .

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11. Why did the demand for hand written books diminish ?
Solution : The demand for hand - written books slowly diminished . Copying by hand was
expensive , laborious and time-consuming . These hand written manuscripts were fragile,
awkward to handle , and could not be carried around or read easily . Woodblock printing
gradually became more and more popular as the demand for books increased .

12. How did the print revolution influence the reading habit of the people of Europe ?
Solution : Due to the print revolution the reading habit of the public increased, as books were
now less costly . This was because the time and labour required to produce a book came down ,
and multiple copies could be produced with greater ease .
Books flooded the market, and were easily available for the public. Before printed books flooded
the markets the common people used to gather in Public places and books were read out to
them. They heard sacred texts read out , ballads recited , and folk tales narrated .
This listening culture turned to reading culture when books became cheaper.

13. Write a brief note on Martin Luther .

Solution : Martin Luther was a religious reformer . In 1517 he wrote the ‘ Ninety Five Theses’
criticising many of the practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church . A printed copy of this
was pasted on a church door in Wittenberg . The Church was prompted to discuss his ideas .
Soon Martin Luther ’ s Ninety Five Theses’ was printed in vast numbers and read widely . This
lead to a division within the Church and was the beginning of the Protestant Reformation .
Martin Luther ’ s translation of the New Testament sold 5 , 000 copies within a few weeks and a
second edition appeared within three months .
Several scholars felt print brought about a new intellectual atmosphere and helped spread the
new ideas that led to the Reformation .

Manuscripts were expensive and fragile and had to be handled carefully . It was difficult to read
manuscripts as they were written in different styles .

14. Mass literacy increased many fold in the nineteenth century , in Europe. Women children
and workers started reading books. Discuss.
Solution : Primary education was compulsory in the late nineteenth century . Children became
an important category of readers . The printing industry now had its hands full by printing school
books. A Children ’ s press was set up in France in 1857 which catered solely to books for children.
This press published new stories as well as old fairy tales and folk tales .
The Grimm Brothers in Germany compiled traditional folk tales gathered from peasants and the
book was published in a collection in 1812 . Rural folk tales now had a new form.
Women became important as readers as well as writers . Penny magazines were published
exclusively for women. They contained articles on proper behaviour and housekeeping . Novels
became popular as women started reading them.
Jane Austen , the Bronte sisters , and George Eliot were well known authors . Their writings
became important in defining a new type of woman, who had will –power, strength of
personality , determination and the power to think.
Lending libraries became popular in the seventeenth century as the literacy rate increased and
many took to reading . Books became instruments for educating white- collar workers , artisans
and lower- middle - class people .
Books themselves in a way increased literacy . Working class people wrote for themselves and
used books for self education .

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After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid - nineteenth century , workers had
time for self-improvement and self- expression. They wrote political tracts and autobiographies
in large numbers .

15. How did the print media affect the women in India?
Solution : Lives and feelings of women were written with intensity. This increased the number of
women who took to reading . Liberal husbands and fathers started educating their womenfolk at
home and some sent them to schools . Many journals began carrying writings by women, and
explained why women should be educated. They also carried a syllabus and attached suitable
reading matter which could be used for home-based schooling .
Superstition was a reason for illiteracy among a large population of women.
• Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed.
• Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances .
Social reforms and novels created a great interest in women’ s lives and emotions . Women’ s
opinions and views were slowly considered and respected . Stories were written about how
about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance , forced to do hard domestic
labour and treated unjustly by the very people they served. Stories about the miserable lives of
upper - caste Hindu women, especially widows also appeared in print . These stories paved the
way for the liberation of the suppressed Indian woman.
Other kinds of literature solely for women soon flooded the markets.
• Article on household and fashion lessons for women.
• Articles on issues like women’ s education , widowhood, widow remarriage and the national
movement .
• Short stories and serialised novels.
• Folk literature.
In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta – the Battala – was devoted to the printing of
popular books . These books were being profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured
lithographs . Peddlers took the Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read them in
their leisure time.

16. What is calligraphy ?

Solution : Calligraphy is the art of writing beautiful letters by hand .

17. What medium was used for writing ancient Indian scriptures ?
Solution : Palm leaves ( Bhoj patra) was used to write ancient scriptures .

18. Who invented the letter press ?

Solution : Letter Press was invented by Johann Gutenberg in Germany .

19. Who brought out the first Indian newspaper published in English?
Solution : Gangadhar Bhattacharya brought out the first English newspaper in India.

20. How was sale of books promoted in small towns ?

Solution : Peddlers carried illustrated books to homes in small towns.

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NOVELS, SOCIETY AND HISTORY

The Rise of the Novel
Novel is a modern form of literature. It is born because of print which is a mechanical invention.
Novels could reach a larger audience because of print.
Novels began to be written from the seventeenth century and flowered in the eighteenth
century. New groups of lower-middle-class; along with the traditional aristocratic and
gentlemanly classes in England and France formed the new readership of novels.
With the growing readership, the earnings of authors increased. This made them free from
financial dependence on patronage of aristocrats. They became independent to experiment with
different literary styles.

The Publishing Market

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Initially, novels did not come cheap and were out of reach for the poor classes. With the
introduction of circulating libraries in 1740; people could get easier access to books. Apart from
various innovations in printing, innovations in marketing also helped in increasing the sales and
bringing down the prices. For example; the publishers in France realized that they could make
high profits by hiring out novels by the hour.
The worlds created by novels were more realistic and believable. While reading a novel, the
reader was transported to another person’s world. Novels allowed individuals the pleasure of
reading in private. It also allowed the joy of publicly reading and discussing stories. People often
got deeply involved in the lives of characters.
In 1836, Charles Dicken’s Pickwick Papers was serialized in a magazine. Magazines were cheaper
and illustrated. Moreover, serialization allowed readers to relish the suspense. They could live
for weeks in anticipation of the next plot of the story.

The World of the Novel

Unlike earlier forms of writing, novels were not about kings or empires rather they were about
ordinary people. In the nineteenth century, Europe entered the industrial age. While
industrialization created new opportunities of growth and development, it also created new
problems for the workers and the city life. It was the ordinary worker, who always suffered in
the mad race for profits. Many novelists created stories around the problems of ordinary people
in the new cities. Charles Dickens and Emile Zola were the notable authors of this period.

Community and Society

The novels reflected the contemporary developments in the society. Many novelists wrote about
the problems of city life. Many others wrote about the various changes witnessed in the rural life
because of advent of modern technology. People were becoming more professional and the
personal values were eroding at a faster pace. Thomas Hardy’s Mayor of Casterbridge (1886) is
novel written in the rural backdrop.
The novel by Hardy has use of vernacular language which is the language spoken by common
people. Use of vernacular helped Hardy in correlating with the common people who lived in that
period.

The new Woman

During the eighteenth century, the middle class became more prosperous. Women could get
more spare time which they utilized to read and write novels. That is how the novels began to
explore the world of women. Many novels were about domestic life. A women writer could write
about domestic life with more authority than a male writer. Many women novelists also began
to raise questions about the established norms of society. Many novels began to ask questions
about hypocrisy which was prevalent in the contemporary society.

Novels for the Young

Novels for the young boys were based on heroism. The hero of such novels used to be a
powerful, assertive, independent and daring person. As this was the period of expansion of
colonialism, most of the novels tried to glorify colonialism. Books; like R. L. Stevenson’s Treasure
Island (1883) and Rudyard Kipling’s Jungle Book (1894) became great hits. G. A. Henry’s historical
adventure novels for boys were very popular at the height of the British Empire. These novels
were always about young boys who witness grand historical events and get involved in some
military action. Love stories for adolescent girls also became popular during this period.

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Colonialism and After
During the rise of colonialism, most of the novels glorified the conquests of the Europeans. Later,
in the twentieth century, some novels showed the darker side of colonial occupation. Joseph
Conrad (1857-1924) was one such author.

The Novels Comes to India

The modern novels form developed in India in the nineteenth century, once the Western novels
were introduced in India. Many Indian authors initially tried to translate the English novels but
they apparently did not enjoy doing that. Later many of them decided to write novels in their
own language and on their own social background.
Some of the earliest novels in India were written in Bengali and Marathi. Baba Padmanji’s
Yamuna Paryatan (1857) was the earliest Marathi novel. This was followed by Muktamala by
Lakshman Moreshar Halbe (1861).
Leading novelists of the nineteenth century wrote to develop a modern literature of the country.
They wanted to produce a sense of national belonging and cultural equality with their colonial
masters.

Novel in South India

a. O. Chandu Menon wrote the first Malayalam novel Indulekhs in 1889.
b. Kandukuri Viresalingam (1848-1919) wrote the Telugu novel Rajasekhara Caritamu in 1878.

The Novel in Hindi

Bharatendu Harishchandra was the pioneer of modern Hindi literature. He encouraged many
members of his circle of poets and writers to recreate and translate novels from other languages.
The first proper novel in Hindi was written by Srinivas Das of Delhi. It was titled Pariksha Guru
and was published in 1882. This novel highlights the pitfalls of blind copying of the western
culture and advocates preserving the traditional Indian culture. The characters in this novel
attempt to bridge the western and the eastern world and try to make a balance between the
two cultures.
The writings of Devaki Nandan Khatri created a novel-reading public in Hindi. Chandralekha was
his best-seller. This novel is believed to have immensely contributed in popularizing the Hindi
language and the Nagari script among the educated classes of that time.
The Hindi novel achieved excellence with the writing of Premchand. He began to write in Urdu
and later shifted to Hindi. He took a leaf from the traditional art of kissa-goi (storytelling). Simple
language was the hallmark of his writings. Moreover, he portrayed people from all sections of
the society. In many of his writings, the main character belonged to oppressed classes.

Novels in Bengal
Many Bengali writers excelled in writing on historical topics, while many other writers focused
on contemporary themes. The new bhadralok enjoyed the private world of reading novels.
Durgeshnandini (1865) was written by Bankim and this novel was much appreciated for its
literary excellence.
The initial Bengali novels used a colloquial style associated with urban life. Meyeli, the language
associated with women’s lingo was also used in those novels. But Bankim’s prose was
Sanskritised and contained a more vernacular style.
Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay (1876-1938) became the most popular novelist in Bengal and
probably in the rest of India because of his expertise in storytelling in simple language.

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Novels in the Colonial World

Uses of Novel: For the colonial administrators, novels provided a good source to understand
about the life and social hierarchy in India. They could understand different aspects of the Indian
society through novels. Some of the novels were translated into English; by British
administrators or Christian missionaries.
Many novels highlighted the social ills and suggested remedies. Many novels told stories about
the past so that people could establish a relationship with the past.
People from all walks of life could read novels. This helped in creating a sense of collective
identity on the basis of one’s language. Novels also helped people to understand about the
culture of other parts of the country.

Pleasures of Reading
Novels became a popular medium of entertainment among the middle class. Detective and
mystery novels often had be sent for reprints to meet the demand of readers. Many novels were
printed as many as twenty two times.
The novel also helped in spreading the silent reading. As late as the nineteenth century and
probably in the early twentieth century, people often read out a text for several people to hear.
But gradually, people adapted to read in silence.

Women and the Novel

Novels were viewed as having negative impact on people’s mind. Women and children were
often prohibited from reading novels. Some parents kept novels at secret places so that children
could not lay their hands on novels. Young people had to read them in secret. Older women took
the services of their grandchildren to enjoy listening to a novel.
However, many women turned into writers and wrote poetry, essays and autobiographies. In the
early decades of the twentieth century, women in India also began to write novels and short
stories. Many women writers had to write the novel in secret because the society did not permit
it.

Caste Practices
Many authors began to highlight the plight of lower caste people in their novel. In some of the
novels, conflicts arising out of marriage between a lower caste and an upper caste were
highlighted. Some people from the lower caste also became authors; like Potheri Kunjambu from
Kerala. Many communities got space in the literary scene through novels.

Nation and Its History

In Bengal, many historical novels were about Marathas and Rajputs. These novels portrayed the
nation to be full of adventure, heroism romance and sacrifice. The novel thus allowed the
colonized subjects to give shape to their desires. Bhudeb Mukhopadhyat’s Anguriya Binimoy
(1857) is about Shivaji’s adventures against Aurangzeb.
Bankim’s Anandamath (1882) is a novel about secret Hindu militia which fights Muslims to
establish a Hindu kingdom. This novel inspired many kinds of freedom fighters.
Many of these novels also reveal the problems associated with thinking about the nation. We
know that India cannot be a nation of only a single religious community.

NCERT Questions

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1. Explain the following:
a. Social changes in Britain which led to an increase in women readers
Answer: During the eighteenth century, the middle class became more prosperous. Women
could get more spare time which they utilised to read and write novels.

b. What actions of Robinson Crusoe make us see him as a typical colonizer?

Answer: Robinson Crusoe does treat coloured people as humans but as inferior creatures. He
rescues them and then enslaves them. He does not ask the name of a slave but gives him a name
Friday. These actions reveal that Robinson Crusoe was a typical colonizer.

c. After 1740, the readership of novels began to include poorer people.

Answer: With the introduction of circulating libraries in 1740; people could get easier access to
books.

d. Novelists in colonial India wrote for a political cause.

Answer: Many novelists were not convinced with the way the colonial rulers portrayed the
history and present of India. They wanted to create their own portrayal of India. Many novelists
also wanted to establish the superiority of Indian literature and Indian public. These were the
reasons that novelists in colonial India wrote for a political cause.

2. Write short notes on following:

A. The Oriya novel
Answer: In 1877-78, Ramashankar Ray, a dramatist, began serialising the first Oriya novel,
Saudamani. But he could not complete it. Within thirty years, however, Orissa produced a major
novelist in Fakir Mohon Senapati (1843-1918). The title of his novel is Chaa Mana Atha Guntha
(1902). This novel deals with possession of land. This novel deals with an age old problem of land
grabbing in rural India.

B. Jane Austen’s portrayal of women

Answer: Jane Austen wrote about the rural women of her time. In her novels, the rural women
are always preoccupied with finding a suitable match for marriage; in the form of wealthy
husbands.

C. The picture of the new middle class which the novel Pariksha-Guru portrays.
Answer: In this novel, the new middle class was facing the conflict of adapting a modern lifestyle
alongwith maintaining the traditional ethos. The characters in his novel are English educated but
also masters in Sanskrit. They wear western outfits but keep long hairs. This novel highlights the
pitfalls of blind aping of the western culture.

3. Discuss some of the social changes in nineteenth-century Britain which Thomas Hardy and
Charles Dickens wrote about.
Answer: In the nineteenth century, Europe entered the industrial age. While industrialization
created new opportunities of growth and development, it also created new problems for the
workers and the city life. It was the ordinary worker, who always suffered in the mad race for
profits. Many novelists created stories around the problems of ordinary people in the new cities.
Charles Dickens and Emile Zola were the notable authors of this period.

4. Summarise the concern in both nineteenth-century Europe and India about women reading
novels. What does this suggest about how women were viewed?

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Answer: Women often had to live in the confines of homes. Novels provided them a window to
the outer world. Because of novels they could indulge in the pleasure of reading in their privacy.
However, women were not encouraged to read or write; especially in India. This shows the
biased attitude about women.

5. In what ways was the novel in colonial India useful for both the colonisers as well as the
nationalists?
Answer: For the colonizers, novels provided a good source of information about Indian culture
and society. They could utilize that knowledge to have a better understanding about India. For
the nationalists, many novels provided tools to spread the idea of nationalism. Many nationalist
leaders themselves were highly motivated by some novels.

6. Describe how the issue of caste was included in novels in India. By referring to any two
novels, discuss the ways in which they tried to make readers think about existing social issues.
Answer: Many authors began to write about the life of lower caste people. For example;
Saraswativijayam is a novel about the conflict between Nambuthiri and Nayars. Nayars were the
tenants of Nambuthiri in Kerala. This novel is about a Nayar girl who refuses a foolish but rich
Namboothiri and instead marries an educated Nayar. They finally migrate to Madras and the
husband clears the Civil services examination. This novel shows the importance of education in
rising through the social ladder. Similarly, the Bengali novel Titash Ekti Nadir Naam deals with
the life of Mallas; a fisher community.

7. Describe the ways in which the novel in India attempted to create a sense of pan-Indian
belonging.
Answer: People from all walks of life could read novels. This helped in creating a sense of
collective identity on the basis of one’s language. Novels also helped people to understand about
the culture of other parts of the country. These aspects helped in creating a sense of pan-Indian
belonging.
EXTRA Questions

1. What was the reason for the popularity of the novel?

Solution: There were several reasons for the popularity of the novel. The worlds created by
novels were absorbing and believable. The reader was transported to another world he
enjoyed. The reader began looking at life as it was experienced by the characters of the novel.
Novels allowed individuals the pleasure of reading in private and they enjoyed discussing
stories they had read with friends or relatives.

2. What is a ‘novel’?
Solution: A Novel is a long work of written fiction. Most novels involve many characters and
tell a complex story by placing the characters in a number of different situations. Novels are
long—generally 200 pages or more, so novelists can tell more richly detailed tales than
authors of briefer literary forms such as the short story.

3. Write a brief note on Rabindranath Tagore.

Solution: Rabindranath Tagore was a famous Bengali writer. His early novels were historical,
but he later started writing stories about domestic relationships. He wrote about the
condition of women and nationalism.
One of his famous novels was Ghare Baire (1916). This was translated in 1919 as ‘The Home
and the World’ .

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4. Write about Thomas Hardy’s Mayor of Caster Bridge.

Solution: Thomas Hardy was a famous British novelist, of the 19 century. He wrote about the
rural communities of England. One of Hardy’s very famous novels was Mayor of Casterbridge .
It was written in 1886.
The hero of the novel was Michael Henchard, a successful grain merchant, who eventually
became the mayor of the farming town of Casterbridge . He is an independent -minded man
who follows his own style in conducting business. He was portrayed as being unpredictably
generous and cruel with his employees. The hero’s rival is projected as being even - tempered.
From these characterisations we see that Hardy mourns the loss of the more personalised
world that is disappearing, even as he is aware of its problems and the advantages of the new
order.
The novel, Mayor of Casterbridge is written in the language that is spoken by the common
people. The novel produces the sense of a shared world between diverse people in a nation,
by using different spoken languages.

5. Write a short note on novels for the young.

Solution: Novels for young boys idealised a new type of man. The heroes of these novels were
powerful, assertive, independent and daring. These novels were full of adventure set in places
remote from Europe.
Some of the novels, written for young boys, became very popular.
• R. L. Stevenson’s Treasure Island (1883)
• Rudyard Kipling’s Jungle Book (1894)
• G. A. Henry’s historical adventure novels for boys.
These novels aroused the excitement and adventure of conquering strange lands. They were
set in Mexico, Alexandria, Siberia and many other countries. Young boys were heroes of thee
novels and they were portrayed as witnesses to grand historical events.
These novels also instigated ‘English’ courage in the minds of the young boys who read these
novels.
Love stories written for adolescent girls became popular especially in the US
• Helen Hunt Jackson’s Ramona (1884)
• Sarah Chauncey Woolsey’s What Katy Did (1872) .

6. Write an account on the popular regional writers in colonial India.

Solution: Novels were different in the different regions of India. Chandu Menon , Bankim
Chandra Chattopadhyay and Premchand were some of the popular regional writers .
The new novels in Indian languages had descriptions of domestic life of the people. They
portrayed the culture, dress code, habits, religious beliefs and practises of the people of that
particular region. Some of these books were translated into English, by British administrators
or Christian missionaries.
Novels began appearing in south Indian languages during the period of colonial rule. Quite a
few early novels came out of attempts to translate English novels into Indian languages.
Novels in Malayalam
O . Chandu Menon , translated an English novel called Henrietta Temple
Written by Benjamin Disraeli into Malayalam. The Indian readers did not relish the translated
novel as they were not able to identify with the characters.
So, O. Chandu Menon , wrote Indulekha , which was published in 1889 . It was the first
modern novel in Malayalam.
Novels in Telugu

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Kandukuri Viresalingam (1848 - 1919) translated Oliver Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield into
Telugu. His translation was not successful. So he wrote an original Telugu novel called
Rajasekhara Caritamu in 1878.
Novels in Hindi
Bharatendu Harishchandra, was the pioneer of modern Hindi literature. He was encouraged
by poets and writers to recreate and translate novels from other languages.
Srinivas Das’ s novel, Pariksha - Guru
Was published in 1882 .The novel cautioned young men of well- to- do families against the
dangerous influences of bad company and consequent loose morals.
Novels in Bengali
The early Bengali novels lived in two worlds.
Novels based on historical events.
Novels based on domestic life in contemporary settings.
Domestic novels dealt with the social problems and romantic relationships between men and
women.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay was a famous Bengali novelist. His novels had ingenious
twists and turns of the plot. There was suspense and the language was relished. The prose
style of his novels became a new object of enjoyment. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay ’ s first
novel was Durgeshnandi .

7. The rise of the novel. Discuss.

Solution: The novel is a modern form of literature. The invention of printing made this form of
literature possible. In ancient times manuscripts were handwritten and circulated among very
few people. With the advent of printing novels were widely read and became popular very
quickly.
Novels produced a number of common interests among the fast growing population of the
cities in western countries. The readers were drawn into the story and identified themselves
with the lives of fictitious characters in the novels.
Novels became popular in England and France, initially. Novels were first written in the
seventeenth century but flourished only from the eighteenth century.
Novel was read by a wide variety of people. Shopkeepers and clerks also started reading
novels which were hitherto read only buy the aristocratic and gentlemanly classes in England
and France.
The earnings of authors increased as readership grew and the market for books expanded.
This gave the writers independence to experiment with different literary styles.
Henry Fielding, a novelist of the early eighteenth century, claimed he was ‘the founder of a
new province of writing’ where he could make his own laws .
The novel allowed flexibility in the form of writing.

8. What is Epistolary?
Solution: It is a novel written in the form of a series of letters.

9. Who wrote Mayor of Casterbridge ?

Solution: Thomas Hardy wrote Mayor of Casterbridge .

10. What is a satire?

Solution: An attire is a form of representation through writing that provides a criticism of the
society in a manner that is both witty and clever.

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11. Name any three novels by Premchand.
Solution: Godan , Sevasadan and Rangbhoomi are the novels written by Premchand .

12. What is meant by vernacular as a language?

Solution: It is the normal form of spoken language as different from the literary form.

13. Write about the early Bengali novels.

Solution: The early Bengali novels lived in two worlds
Novels based on historical events. Novels based on domestic life in contemporary settings.
Domestic novels dealt with the social problems and romantic relationships between men and
women.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay was a famous Bengali novelist. His novels had ingenious
twists and turns of the plot. There was suspense and the language was relished. The prose
style of his novels became a new object of enjoyment. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay ’ s first
novel was Durgeshnan

14. What was the reason for the popularity of the novel?
Solution: There were several reasons for the popularity of the novel. The worlds created by
novels were absorbing and believable. The reader was transported to another world he
enjoyed. The reader began looking at life as it was experienced by the characters of the novel.
Novels allowed individuals the pleasure of reading in private and they enjoyed discussing
stories they had read with friends or relatives.

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Nationalism: It is a belief system which instills a sense of common identity among the members of a
nation. National flag, national symbol, national anthem, etc. play an important role in developing and
strengthening the idea of nationalism.

Rise of Nationalism in Europe: Before the middle of the nineteenth century, the countries in Europe
were not in the form as we know them today. Different regions in Europe were ruled by various multi-
national dynastic empires. These were monarchies which enjoyed absolute power over their subjects.
Various technological and the ensuing social changes helped in developing the ideas of nationalism. The
process of creation of nation states began in 1789; with the French Revolution. It took about hundred
years for the idea to gain concrete shape which resulted in the formation of France as a democratic nation
state. The trend was followed in other parts of the Europe and led to the establishment of the modern

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democratic systems in most parts of the world; at the beginning of 20th century.

French Revolution

First Expression of Nationalism: French Revolution led to a change in politics and constitution of France.
In 1789 the power was transferred from monarchy to a body of citizens. It was proclaimed that henceforth
the French people would shape the destiny of their country.

Creating a sense of Nationhood:

Various steps were taken by the revolutionaries to create a sense of common identity among people.
Some of these steps are given below:
- The idea of the fatherland and citizen was created to emphasize a community which enjoyed equal
rights under the constitution.
- The royal standard was replaced with a new French flag; the tricolor.
- The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and it was renamed as the National
Assembly.
- In the name of nation; new hymns were composed and oaths were taken.
- Martyrs were commemorated.
- A centralized administrative system was created which formulated uniform laws for all citizens.
- Internal custom duties were abolished.
- A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
- Regional dialects were discouraged and French language was promoted as the common language of
the nation.
- The revolutionaries also declared that it was the mission and destiny of French people to liberate the
people of Europe from despotism and help other regions of Europe in becoming nations.

Effect on other parts of Europe:

In different cities of Europe, people became motivated from the events in France. As a result, students
and other people from the educated middle classes started setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities made
a ground for further encroachment by the French armies. The French army moved into Holland, Belgium,
Switzerland and a large part of Italy in the 1790s. Thus, the French armies started carrying the idea of
nationalism to foreign lands.

Napoleon
Napoleon was the Emperor of France from 1804 to 1815. Although Napoleon destroyed democracy in
France by reintroducing monarchy in France; but he made revolutionary changes in the field of
administration. The idea was to make the system more rational and efficient. The Civil Code of 1804;
which is commonly known as the Napoleonic Code abolished all privileges based on birth. It also
established equality before the law and secured the right to property. Even in those territories which
came under his control; Napoleon began to introduce many reforms as he did in France. He simplified the
administrative divisions in the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany. He abolished the feudal
system and peasants could be freed from serfdom and manorial dues. Guild restrictions were removed in
towns. Transport and communication systems were improved.

Reaction of People:
Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed this new found freedom. They could realize
that uniform laws and standard system of weights and measures and a common currency would be more
helpful in movement and exchange of goods and capital across various regions.
But in areas which were conquered by France, people’s reactions towards French rule were mixed. Initially,
the French armies were seen as the torchbearers of liberty. But very soon people could realize that the
new administrative system was not going to guarantee political freedom. Increase in taxes, censorship and
forced conscription into the French armies were seen as outweighing the advantages of administrative
changes which Napoleon brought. Thus the initial enthusiasm of people began to turn into hostility.

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Situation Before Revolution

In the mid-eighteenth-century Europe there were no ‘nation-states’ as we know them today. Modern day
Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons. Their rulers had their
own autonomous territories. Diverse people lived under autocratic monarchies of Eastern and Central
Europe. The people did not share a collective identity. The region was full of people from different ethnic
groups who spoke different languages. The only binding factor among the people was their allegiance to a
common emperor.

Causes and Process of Emergence of Nation States

Aristocracy
Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members of this
class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned estates in the
countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their
families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a
small group. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the
land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of
landholding was characterised by vast estates which were cultivated by serfs.

New Middle Class

In Western and parts of Central Europe industrial production and trade grew. This led to the growth of
towns where new commercial classes emerged. The existence of this new class was based on production
for the market. New social groups came into existence. A working class population and a middle class
(which was composed of industrialists, businessmen and professionals) made the new social groups. It
was this class which shaped the ideas of national unity.

Idea of Liberal Nationalism

Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of liberalism.
For the new middle classes; freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law were the bases of
idea of liberalism. From the political perspective, the idea of liberalism emphasized the concept of
government by consent. Liberalism also meant an end of autocracy and clerical privileges. Further, it
meant the need of a constitution and a representative government. Inviolability of private property was
also emphasized by the nineteenth century liberals.

Suffrage:
Universal suffrage was yet to become a reality in France. During the earlier period of revolution, only
property-owning men had the right to vote. For a brief period during the Jacobins, all adult males got the
voting right. However, Napoleonic Code reverted to the earlier system of limited suffrage. During the rule
of Napoleon, women were accorded the status of minor; subject to authority of father and husband. The
struggle for voting rights for women and non-propertied men continued throughout the nineteenth and
early twentieth century.

Liberalisation in Economic Sphere:

Economic liberalization was another hallmark of the Napoleonic Code. The emerging middle class was also
in favour of economic liberalization. Let us take example of German-speaking regions in the first half of
nineteenth century. There were 39 states in this region which were further divided into many
principalities. Each principality had its own currency and its own units of measurement. If a merchant
travelled from Hamburg to Nuremberg; he had to pass through 11 customs barriers and pay a custom duty
of about 5% at each barrier. Custom duty had to be paid according to weight and measure. Wide
difference in units of weight and measurement created further confusion. The conditions were not at all
business friendly and served as obstacles to economic activities. The new commercial class was
demanding a unified economic territory so that there could be unhindered movement of goods, people

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and capital.
In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed; at the initiative of Prussia and was joined by most of
the German states. Tariff barriers were abolished and the number of currencies was reduced from thirty
to two. Development of a railways network further enhanced mobility. This created some sort of
economic nationalism which helped in strengthening the national sentiments which were growing at that
time.

A New Conservatism After 1815

Napoleon was defeated in 1815 by the combined power of Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria. After the
defeat of Napoleon, European governments wanted to follow conservatism. The conservatives believed
that established, traditional institutions of state and society should be preserved. They believed in
preserving the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family. But most of them also
wanted to retain the modernization which Napoleon carried out in the spheres of administration. The
conservatives believed that modernization would strengthen traditional institutions. It was believed that a
modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could
strengthen the monarchies of Europe.

The Treaty of Vienna:

The representatives of the European powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria) met at Vienna in 1815 to
draw up a settlement of Europe. The Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich was the host of the Congress.
The Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was drawn up at this meeting. Its objective was to undo most of the changes
which had come in Europe during the Napoleonic wars. Some of the steps taken according the Treaty of
Vienna are follows:

- The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power.
- A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future. For
example; the kingdom of the Netherlands was set up in the north. Similarly, Genoa was added to
Piedmont in the south. Prussia got some important territories on its western frontiers and Austria got
control of northern Italy.
- German confederation of 39 states which had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
- In the east, Russia was given part of Poland, while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.

The conservative regimes which were set up in 1815 were autocratic. They were intolerant of criticism and
dissent. Most of them imposed censorship laws to control the contents in newspaper, books, plays and
songs.

The Revolutionaries
After the events of 1815, many liberal nationalists went underground for the fear of repression.
Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary. He was born in 1807. He became a member of the secret
society of the Carbonari. When he was 24 years old, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a
revolution in Liguria. After that, he founded two more underground societies; first Young Italy in
Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the
natural units of mankind. So Italy had to be forged into a single unified republic instead of being a
patchwork of small state kingdoms. Following in the footsteps of Mazzini, many secret societies were set
up Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. The Conservatives feared Mazzini.
While the conservative regimes were trying to consolidate their power, the liberals and nationalists
continued to spread the idea of revolution. These people belonged to the educated middle-class elite; like
professors, school teachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes.
The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings were overthrown by liberal
revolutionaries. A constitutional monarchy was installed with Louis Philippe at its head. The July
Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which resulted in Belgium breaking away from the United
Kingdom of the Netherlands.

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Independence of Greece:
The Greek war of independence mobilized the nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe.
The struggle for independence among the Greeks began in 1821. The nationalists in Greece got support
from many Greeks who were living in exile. Moreover, they also got support from many West Europeans
who sympathized with the ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists mobilized public opinion to support
this struggle against the Muslim empire. It is important to note that Greece had been a part of the
Ottoman Empire. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent
nation.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment.
Romantic artists usually criticized the glorification of reason and science. They focused on emotions,
intuition and mystical feelings. They tried to create a sense of collective heritage, a common cultural past,
as the basis of a nation.

Other Romantics; like the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 – 1803); claimed that the
true German culture could be discovered among the common people; das volk. These Romantics used folk
songs, folk poetry and folk dances to popularize the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist). The emphasis on
vernacular language was also important to take the nationalist message to a large number of people who
were mostly illiterate. Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music in
Poland. He turned folk dances; like polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.

Language also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation,
the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. An
armed rebellion took place against Russian rule in 1831 but this was ultimately crushed. But after this,
many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. In all
Church gatherings and in all religious instructions, Polish was used. The Russian authorities put a large
number of priests and bishops in jail or sent them to Siberia as punishment for their refusal to preach in
Russian. The use of Polish thus became a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. There was huge growth in population in the
first half of the nineteenth century. Number of unemployed had increased manifold. There was large scale
migration from rural areas to urban areas. Such migrants lived in overcrowded slums in the cities. At that
time, the industrialization in England was more advanced than in other parts of Europe. Hence, cheap
machine-made goods from England gave stiff competition to small producers in the towns of the other
European countries. In some regions of Europe, aristocracy was still powerful and the peasants were
under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. A year of bad harvest; coupled with price rise in food led
to pauperism in town and country.
The year 1848 was one such bad year. Because of shortage of food and high level of unemployment, the
people of Paris came out on the roads. The protest was at such a large scale that Louis Philippe had to flee.
A National Assembly proclaimed a republic. It granted suffrage to all adult males above 21. It guaranteed
the right to work. National workshops were set up to provide employment.

The Revolution of the Liberals

When the revolts of the poor took place in 1848, another revolution was being led by the educated middle
classes. In some other parts of Europe, independent nation-states did not yet exist, e.g. Germany, Italy,
Poland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Men and women of the liberal middle classes from these parts
raised demands for national unification and a constitution. They demanded the creation of a nation-state
on parliamentary principles. They wanted a constitution, freedom of press and freedom of association.

Frankfurt Parliament: In German regions, there were a large number of political associations whose
members were middle class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans. They came together in

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the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On18 May 1848, 831
elected representatives took out a festive procession to take part in the Frankfurt parliament which was
convened in the Church of St. Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation. This German nation
was to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia was offered
the crown on these terms. But he rejected the offer and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected
assembly.
The opposition of the aristocracy and military to the parliament grew stronger. Meanwhile, the social base
of the parliament eroded because it was dominated by the middle classes. The middle class resisted the
demands of workers and artisans and thus lost their support. Finally, troops were called in and the
assembly was forced to disband.
Women also participated in large numbers in the liberal movement. In spite of that, they were denied the
voting rights during the election of the Assembly. When the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church
of St Paul, women were allowed only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.
Although the liberal movements were suppressed by the conservative forces but the old order could not
be restored. In the years after 1848, the monarchs began to realize that granting concessions to the
liberal-nationalist revolutionaries was the only way to end the cycle of revolution and repression. Hence,
the monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce changes which had already taken place
in Western Europe before 1815.
Serfdom and bonded labour was abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia. The Habsburg
rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

Germany: Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and revolution. The
conservatives now fanned nationalist sentiments to promote state power and to achieve political
dominance over Europe.
The liberal movement of the middle-classes in Germany had earlier been repressed by the combined
forces of the monarchy and the military. This repression was also supported by the large landowners
(called junkers) of Prussia. After that, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national
unification.

Otto von Bismarck: Otto von Bismarck; the chief minister of Prussia, was the architect of this process. He
took the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy in his endeavour. Three wars were fought over seven
years; with Austria, Denmark and France. The wars ended in Prussian victory and completed the process
of unification. The Prussian king, William I was proclaimed the German Emperor in a ceremony held at
Versailles in January 1871.
The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems
in Germany. Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.

Unification of Italy
Italy also had a long history of political fragmentation. There were many dynastic states and the multi-
national Habsburg Empire in Italy. During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into
seven states. Out of them, only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was
under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was under the Pope and the southern regions were under the
domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. The Italian language had yet to acquire a common form and it
still had many regional and local variations.
During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini planned to put together a programme for a unitary Italian Republic.
The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-
Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II. The ruling elites of this region saw the possibility of
economic development and political dominance through a unified Italy.

Chief Minister Cavour led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a
democrat. He was like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite. He too was more
fluent in French than in Italian. He made a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and thus succeeded in

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defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Apart from regular troops, many armed volunteers under the
leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom
of the Two Sicilies. They succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants and drove out the Spanish
rulers. Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy in 1861. But a large number of the Italian
population remained blissfully unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology; probably because of very high level
of illiteracy.

The Strange Case of Britain

The formation of nation state in Britain did not happen because of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was
the result of a long-drawn-out process. Before the eighteenth century, there was no British nation. The
British Isles were divided into different ethnicities; like English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. Each ethnic group had
its own cultural and political traditions.
The English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power. Thus it was able to extend its influence
on the other nations of the islands. The English parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688 after
a prolonged conflict. The English parliament was instrumental in forging the nation-state of Britain. The
Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of
Great Britain’. In this Union, England was the dominant partner and thus the British parliament was
dominated by its English members.
The British identity grew at the peril of Scottish culture and political institutions. The Scottish Highlands
were inhabited by the Catholic clans. They felt terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert
their independence. They were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their traditional dress.
Many of them were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
Ireland suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. The
Protestants of Ireland established their dominance over the majority Catholics through the English help.
There was a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen in 1798. After that, Ireland was
forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801. The English culture was propagated forcefully to
forge a new ‘British Nation’. The older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

Visualizing the Nation

Artists used female figures to personify a nation. During French Revolution, artists used the female
allegory to portray the ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the Republic.
In France, the nation was christened as Marianne, which is a popular Christian name for a woman. Her
characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and Republic; the red cap, the tricolor, the cockade. Her
statues were erected in public squares and her images were marked on coins and stamps; to persuade the
people to identify with it.
Germania became the allegory of the German nation. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves. The German
oak stands for heroism.

Nationalism and Imperialism

By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, nationalism could not retain its idealistic liberal-democratic
sentiment. It became a narrow creed with limited ends. The major European powers manipulated the
nationalist aspirations of the subject peoples to further their own imperialist aims.
Conflict in the Balkans: Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and
Montenegro. The inhabitants of this region were broadly known as the Slavs.
A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. This was the period of
disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans.
These developments made this region very explosive. All through the nineteenth century, the Ottoman
Empire tried to strengthen itself through modernization and internal reforms. But it could not achieve
much success. Its European subject nationalities broke away from its control one by one and declared
independence. The Balkans used history and national identity to claim their right of independence. While
the Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an
area of intense conflict. In the process, the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.

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During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well
as naval and military might. Each power; Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary; was keen on
countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This
led to a series of wars in the region and finally culminated in the First World War.
Meanwhile, many countries in the world which had been colonized by the European powers in the
nineteenth century began to oppose imperial domination. People of different colonies developed their
own variation of nationalism. The idea of ‘nation-states’ thus became a universal phenomenon.

NCERT Questions
Answer the following questions:

1. Write a note on Guiseppe Mazzini

Answer: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary. He was born in 1807. He became a member of the
secret society of the Carbonari. When he was 24 years old, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a
revolution in Liguria. After that, he founded two more underground societies; first Young Italy in
Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the
natural units of mankind. So Italy had to be forged into a single unified republic instead of being a
patchwork of small state kingdoms. Following in the footsteps of Mazzini, many secret societies were set
up Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. The Conservatives feared Mazzini.

Write notes on following:

1. Count Camillo de Cavour

Answer: Count Camillo de Cavour was the leading figure in the movement towards unification of Italy. He
was the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. He was like
many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite. He too was more fluent in French than in
Italian. He made a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and thus succeeded in defeating the Austrian
forces in 1859. Apart from regular troops, many armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe
Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. They
succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants and drove out the Spanish rulers. Victor Emmanuel
II was proclaimed king of united Italy in 1861. Cavour became the first Prime Minister of the unified Italy.

2. The Greek war of independence

Answer: The Greek war of independence mobilized the nationalist feelings among the educated elite
across Europe. The struggle for independence among the Greeks began in 1821. The nationalists in Greece
got support from many Greeks who were living in exile. Moreover, they also got support from many West
Europeans who sympathized with the ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists mobilized public opinion to
support this struggle against the Muslim empire. It is important to note that Greece had been a part of the
Ottoman Empire. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent
nation.

3. Frankfurt parliament
Answer: In German regions, there were a large number of political associations whose members were
middle class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans. They came together in the city of
Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On18 May 1848, 831 elected
representatives took out a festive procession to take part in the Frankfurt parliament which was convened
in the Church of St. Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation. This German nation was to be
headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia was offered the
crown on these terms. But he rejected the offer and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected
assembly.

4. The role of women in nationalist struggles

Answer: Women also participated in large numbers in the liberal movement. In spite of that, they were

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denied the voting rights during the election of the Assembly. When the Frankfurt parliament convened in
the Church of St Paul, women were allowed only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.

Answer the following questions:

1. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the
French people?
Answer: The French revolutionaries took many steps to create a sense of collective identity among the
French people. They took the recourse to romanticism. Romanticism was a cultural movement which
sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists usually criticized the
glorification of reason and science. They focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. They tried
to create a sense of collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation. They focused on
promoting the local culture to connect to the masses. Language also played an important role in
developing nationalist sentiments. French was promoted as the main language in France to create a sense
of single nation. In Poland, the Polish language was used to show rebellion to the Russian dominance.

2. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were
portrayed?
Answer: Marianne was the name given to the French nation; which was projected as the female figure.
Similarly, Germania was the name given to the German motherland. Marianne is a popular Christian name
for a woman. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and Republic; the red cap, the tricolor,
the cockade. Her statues were erected in public squares and her images were marked on coins and
stamps; to persuade the people to identify with it. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves. The German
oak stands for heroism.

3. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Answer: During the Vienna Congress in 1814, Germany was identified as a loose confederation of 39 states.
This confederation was earlier set by Napoleon. In May 1848, various political associations convened the
Frankfurt parliament. They drafted a constitution for a German nation. This German nation was to be
headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. Otto von Bismarck; the chief minister of Prussia, was the
main architect of German unification. He took the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy in his
endeavour. Three wars were fought over seven years; with Austria, Denmark and France. The wars ended
in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. The Prussian king, William I was proclaimed
the German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871.

4. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the
territories ruled by him?
Answer: Napoleon brought following changes to make an efficient administrative system:
The Civil Code of 1804; which is commonly known as the Napoleonic Code abolished all privileges based
on birth.
It also established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
Even in those territories which came under his control; Napoleon began to introduce many reforms as he
did in France.
He simplified the administrative divisions in the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany.
He abolished the feudal system and peasants could be freed from serfdom and manorial dues.
Guild restrictions were removed in towns. Transport and communication systems were improved.

5. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and
economic ideas supported by the liberals?
Answer: Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of
liberalism. For the new middle classes; freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law were
the bases of idea of liberalism.
Political & Social Perspective: From the political perspective, the idea of liberalism emphasized the

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concept of government by consent. Liberalism also meant an end of autocracy and clerical privileges.
Further, it meant the need of a constitution and a representative government. Inviolability of private
property was also emphasized by the nineteenth century liberals.
Economic Perspective: Economic liberalization was another hallmark of the Napoleonic Code. The
emerging middle class was also in favour of economic liberalization. Multiple currencies, units of weight
and measurement and tariff barriers worked as obstacles for economic activities. The new commercial
class was demanding a unified economic territory so that there could be unhindered movement of goods,
people and capital.

6. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.
Answer: In case of France, promoting a single language helped in creating a sense of common identity
among people of France. In case of Poland, use of Polish language was a means to show resistance
towards Russian domination. In Germany, the revolutionaries promoted the folk culture to create a sense
of common identity among the people. These examples show the contribution of culture to the growth of
nationalism in Europe.

7. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.
Answer: Italy became a nation because of efforts of Cavour. He made strategic alliances with France to
defeat the Austrian forces. After several wars, the unification of Italy could become a possibility and it
emerged as a nation state.
Greece proclaimed independence from Ottoman Empire by citing its ancient culture which was entirely
different from the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Many Greek who were in exile also supported this movement.
These examples show that various factors were at work towards development of nation states over the
nineteenth century. In most of the cases, a history of shared culture, repression of the poor at the hands
of the powerful and the origin of liberalism were the catalyst which worked towards developing the sense
of nationalism among people.

8. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Answer: The evolution of nationalism in Britain was a different case compared to the rest of Europe. The
British isles were divided into four main ethnic nationalities, viz. the English, the Scottish, the Welsh and
the Irish. England was emerging as an economic powerhouse because of industrialization. Due to its
financial muscle, England was able to dominate the other nationalities of the British Isles. This resulted in
the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain in which England was the dominant partner and
people of other ethnicities were subdued by the English culture.

9. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Answer: A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. This was the period of
disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans.
These developments made this region very explosive. All through the nineteenth century, the Ottoman
Empire tried to strengthen itself through modernization and internal reforms. But it could not achieve
much success. Its European subject nationalities broke away from its control one by one and declared
independence. The Balkans used history and national identity to claim their right of independence. While
the Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an
area of intense conflict. In the process, the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.

EXTRA Questions

1. According to Ernst Renan what are the attributes of a nation

Answer: In a lecture delivered at the University of Sorbonne in 1882 , the French philosopher Ernst Renan
(1823 - 92 ) outlined his understanding of what makes a nation . The lecture was subsequently published
as a famous essay entitled ‘ Qu ’ est - ce qu ’ une nation ?’ (‘ What is a Nation?’).
In this essay Renan criticises the notion suggested by others that a nation is formed by a common
language , race , religion , or territory : ‘ A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice

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and devotion . A heroic past, great men, glory, that is the social capital upon which one bases a national
idea. To have common glories in the past, to have a common will in the present , to have performed great
deeds together , to wish to perform still more, these are the essential conditions of being a people . A
nation is therefore a large - scale solidarity … Its existence is a daily plebiscite … A province is its
inhabitants ; if anyone has the right to be consulted , it is the inhabitant. A nation never has any real
interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will . The existence of nations is a good thing, a
necessity even . Their existence is a guarantee of liberty , which would be lost if the world had only one
law and only one master .’

2. Describe the French Revolution .

Answer: The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789 . France, as you
would remember , was a full - fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch . The
political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the transfer of
sovereignty from the monarchy to a
body of French citizens . The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth
constitute the nation and shape its destiny. From the very beginning , the French revolutionaries
introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the
French people . The ideas of la patrie (the
fatherland ) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal
rights under a constitution .
A new French flag , the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard . The Estates General
was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly . New hymns were
composed , oaths taken and martyrs commemorated , all in the name of the nation . A centralised
administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory .
Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was
adopted . Regional dialects were discouraged and French , as it was spoken and written in Paris , became
the common language of the nation .
The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to
liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism , in other words to help other peoples of Europe to
become nations . When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe , students
and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities and
campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland , Belgium , Switzerland and
much of Italy in the 1790 s . With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars , the French armies began to
carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

3. How did nationalism and the idea of the nation -state emerge?
Answer: Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The
members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions . They owned
estates in the countryside and also town - houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in
high society . Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was ,
however , numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry . To
the west , the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and Central
Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were cultivated by serfs .

4. What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for ?

Answer: Ideas of national unity in early -nineteenth - century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of
liberalism . The term ‘ liberalism ’ derives from the Latin root liber , meaning free . For the new middle
classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law . Politically, it
emphasised the concept of government by consent . Since the French Revolution , liberalism had stood for
the end of autocracy and clerical privileges , a constitution and representative government through
parliament . Nineteenth- century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property . Yet , equality
before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage .
Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights . Only for a brief period under

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the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage. However , the Napoleonic Code went back to limited
suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor , subject to the authority of fathers and husbands .
Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women and non -propertied men organised
opposition movements demanding equal political rights .

5. Give a brief note on the Napoleonic code .

Answer: The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges
based on birth , established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was
exported to the regions under French control .

6. Give two examples to show that in the 18 th century Europe there were no nation states .
Answer: In the mid- eighteenth - century Europe there were no ‘ nation - states ’ as we know them today .
The countries such as Germany , Italy and Switzerland , which we know today were divided into kingdoms ,
duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories. Eastern and Central Europe were
under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse peoples . They did not see
themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture . Often , they even spoke different
languages and belonged to different ethnic groups .
The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria - Hungary , for example , was a patchwork of many different
regions and peoples . It included the Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland – as well as
Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German -speaking . It also included the Italian-
speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia .
In Hungary , half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia,
the aristocracy spoke Polish . Besides these three dominant groups , there also lived within the boundaries
of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples Bohemians and Slovaks to the north , Slovenes in
Carniola, Croats to the south , and Roumans to the east in Transylvania . Such differences did not easily
promote a sense of political unity. The only tie binding these diverse groups together was a common
allegiance to the emperor.

7. What were the reforms made by Napoleon ?

Answer: Within the wide swathe of territory that came under his control , Napoleon set about introducing
many of the reforms that he had already introduced in France . Through a return to monarchy Napoleon
had , no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated
revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient .
The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges based on
birth , established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was exported to
the regions under French control . In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland , in Italy and Germany , Napoleon
simplified administrative divisions , abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and
manorial dues. In the towns too , guild restrictions were removed . Transport and communication systems
were improved .
Peasants , artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new - found freedom . Businessmen and
small- scale producers of goods , in particular , began to realise that uniform laws , standardised weights
and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods
and capital from one region to another . However , in the areas conquered , the reactions of the local
populations to French rule were mixed . Initially , in many places such as Holland and Switzerland , as well
as in certain cities like Brussels , Mainz , Milan and Warsaw , the French armies were welcomed as
harbingers of liberty. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility , as it became clear that the new
administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom. Increased taxation,
censorship , forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe , all
seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes .

8. Why were the Middle class so named?

Answer: Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The
members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions . They owned

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estates in the countryside and also town - houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in
high society . Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was ,
however , numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry . To
the west , the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and Central
Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were cultivated by serfs .
In Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of industrial production and trade meant the growth
of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence was based on production for the
market. Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century , but in France and
parts of the German states it occurred only during the nineteenth century . In its wake, new social groups
came into being : a working - class population , and middle classes made up of industrialists ,
businessmen , professionals . In Central and Eastern Europe these groups were smaller in number till late
nineteenth century . It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity
following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity .

9. What led to the spread of conservatism in Europe and what were its impacts?
Answer: Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 , European governments were driven by a spirit of
conservatism. Conservatives believed that established , traditional institutions of state and society – like
the monarchy , the Church, social hierarchies , property and the family – should be preserved . Most
conservatives, however , did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days . Rather, they
realised, from the changes initiated by Napoleon , that modernisation could in fact strengthen traditional
institutions like the monarchy . It could make state power more effective and strong . A modern army, an
efficient bureaucracy , a dynamic economy , the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the
autocratic monarchies of Europe .

10. What were the highlights of the Treaty of Vienna 1815?

Answer: In 1815 , representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria – who had
collectively defeated Napoleon , met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe . The main highlights
were to how the nation could develop and what economic measures could help forge this nation together .

11. What was the Romantic Imagination about a nation ?

Answer: Romanticism , a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment . Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and
focused instead on emotions , intuition and mystical feelings . Their effort was to create a sense of a
shared collective heritage , a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation .
The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an
ancient national spirit , but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were
mostly illiterate .

12. What was the cause of Silesian weavers uprising ? Comment on the viewpoint of the journalist .
Answer: In 1845 , weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material
and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments .
The journalist Wilhelm Wolff described the events in a Silesian village as follows : In these villages (with 18 ,
000 inhabitants ) cotton weaving is the most widespread occupation … The misery of the workers is
extreme. The desperate need for jobs has been taken advantage of by the contractors to reduce the
prices of the goods they
order …
On 4 June at 2 p. m . a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and marched in pairs up to the
mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages . They were treated with scorn and threats
alternately. Following this, a group of them forced their way into the house , smashed its elegant
windowpanes , furniture , porcelain … another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of
supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds … The contractor fled with his family to a neighboring village
which , however, refused to shelter such a person . He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the
army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot .

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13. How was nation visualized by artists ?

Answer: Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by personifying a nation . In
other words they represented a country as if it were a person . Nations were then portrayed as female
figures. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman
in real life; rather it sought to give
the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female figure became an allegory of the
nation .

14. On what basis the female allegories were given names?

Answer: Many female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the
nation . In France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name , which underlined the idea of a
people ’ s nation . Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap,
the tricolour, the cockade . Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the
national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins
and stamps .
Similarly , Germania became the allegory of the German nation . In visual representations , Germania
wears a crown of oak leaves , as the German oak stands for heroism.

15. Describe the rise of imperialism .

Answer: Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914. But meanwhile, many
countries in the world which had been colonised by the European powers in the nineteenth century began
to oppose imperial domination. The anti - imperial movements that developed everywhere were
nationalist, in the sense that they all struggled to form independent nation - states , and were inspired by
a sense of collective national unity, forged in confrontation with imperialism . European ideas of
nationalism were nowhere replicated , for people everywhere developed their own specific variety of
nationalism. But the idea that societies should be organised into ‘nation - states’ came to be accepted as
natural and universal.

THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT IN INDO-

CHINA
Early History
Indo-China comprises the modern countries of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Its early history shows many
different groups of people living in this area under the shadow of the powerful empire of China. Even
when an independent country was established in what is now northern and central Vietnam, its rulers
continued to maintain the Chinese system of government as well as Chinese culture. Vietnam was also
linked to the maritime silk route that brought in goods, people and ideas. Other networks of trade
connected it to the hinterlands where non-Vietnamese people such as the Khmer Cambodians lived.

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The French Domination

Colonial Domination: French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid-1880s they had
established a firm grip over the northern region. After the Franco-Chinese war the French assumed
control of Tonkin and Anaam and, in 1887, French Indo-China was formed.

Need of Colony for French:

For many European powers, colonies were considered essential to supply natural resources and other
essential goods. Moreover, the colonizers thought it was the mission of the ‘advanced’ European nations
to civilize the backward people.
For increasing cultivation, the French began to build canals to irrigate the land in the Mekong delta. This
helped in increasing rice production. The area under rice cultivation went up from 274,000 hectares in
1873 to 1.1 million hectares in 1900 and 2.2 million in 1930. Vietnam exported two-thirds of its rice
production and by 1931 had become the third largest exporter of rice in the world.
After that, the French began to work on infrastructure projects. This was necessary for transportation of
goods for trade and also for moving military garrisons in the entire region. Construction of a trans-Indo-
China rail network began in this period and the final link with Yunnan in China was completed by 1910.
The second line was built to link Vietnam to Siam (early name of Thailand).
Should Colonies be Developed: Paul Bernard was an eminent French thinker. He believed in developing
infrastructure in Vietnam so that people could become more prosperous. A prosperous public would
mean a better market for the French business. He also advocated for land reforms so that farm output
could be improved.
The colonial economy in Vietnam was mainly based on rice cultivation and rubber plantation. Rail and
port facilities were set up to service this sector. Little effort was made by the French to industrialise the
economy.
The Dilemma of Colonial Education: The French wanted to civilize the Vietnamese by imposing the
‘modern’ European culture on them. They also wanted to educate the local people so that a large
workforce could be created for clerical jobs. They did not want to impart a better education as they were
afraid that more education could lead to awakening among the local people which could prove dangerous
for the colonial rulers. So, full access to French education was denied to the Vietnamese.
Talking Modern: The elites in Vietnam were highly influenced by the Chinese culture. It was important for
the French to counter this influence. They systematically tried to dismantle the traditional education
system and established French schools for the Vietnamese. But replacing the Chinese language (which
was used by the elites) was very difficult.
Some French policymakers wanted the use of French as the medium of instruction. They wanted to build
an Asiatic France which could be solidly tied to the European France.
Some other policymakers wanted Vietnamese to be taught in lower classes and French in the higher
classes. There was a provision to award French citizenship to those who learnt French and acquired the
French culture.
There was a deliberate policy of failing the students in the final year of French classes. This was done to
prevent the local from qualifying for the better-paid jobs. The school textbooks glorified the French and
justified colonial rule. The Vietnamese were shown as primitive and backward who were only capable of
manual labour.
Looking Modern: Looking modern; as per the French; meant aping the western culture. Short haircut was
encouraged, while Vietnamese traditionally kept long hair.

Resistance in Schools
Teachers and students did not blindly follow what was written in the curriculum. There could be open
opposition as well as silent resistance. When the number of Vietnamese teachers increased in the lower
classes, it was no longer possible to control what was being actually taught.
The schools proved to be fertile ground for developing the feeling of nationalism among the Vietnamese.
By the 1920s, students began to form political parties and to publish nationalist journals. The Party of
Young Annan (political party) and Annanese Student (journal) are some examples.

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The imposition of French education and culture backfired as the Vietnamese intellectuals felt a threat on
their own culture.
Hygiene, Disease and Everyday Resistance: The city of Hanoi was built by using modern engineering and
architecture. A beautiful city was built for the colonial masters. It had wide avenues and well laid out
sewer system. The irony was that the sewer system; which was being touted as the symbol of hygiene
became the perfect breeding ground for rats and led to the plague epidemic in Hanoi.

The Rat Hunt: To stop the spread of plague, as rat hunt was started in 1902. Vietnamese workers were
hired for the task and were paid for each rat being caught. People began to catch rats in thousands. The
payment was done when a tail of a rat was shown as a proof that a rat had been killed. Many people
began just clipping the tails and collecting the bounty. Many people even began to raise rat to earn more.
This incident showed that at some juncture even the superior power of a colonial master fails and even
the weak can assume a very strong bargaining position.

Religion and Anti-colonialism

The religious beliefs in Vietnam were a mixture of Buddhism, Confucianism and local practices.
Christianity was introduced by French missionaries. They were intolerant of easygoing attitude of the
Vietnamese. From the eighteenth century, many religious movements turned hostile to the Western
presence. Scholars Revolt of 1969 was one of the early movements against the spread of Christianity.

Huynh Phu So: Hoa Hao was another such movements. It began in 1939 and gained great popularity in
the fertile Mekong delta area. It drew on religious ideas popular in anti-French uprisings of the nineteenth
century. The founder of Hoa Hao was a man called Huynh Phu So. He performed miracles and helped the
poor. His criticism against useless expenditure had a wide appeal. He also opposed the sale of child brides,
gambling and the use of alcohol and opium.
The French tried to suppress the movement inspired by Huynh Phu So. They declared him mad, called him
the Mad Bonze, and put him in a mental asylum. But the doctor, who had to prove him mad, became his
follower. Finally, he was exiled to Laos and many of his followers were sent to concentration camps.

Phan Boi Chau (1867-1940): He was a nationalist who was educated in the Confucian tradition. He
formed the Revolutionary Society (Duy Tan Hoi) in 1903; with Prince Cuong De as the head. Phan Boi Chau
met the Chinese reformer Liang Qichao (1873-1929) in Yokohama in 1905. ‘The History of the Loss of
Vietnam’ was the most influential book written by Phan. It was written under the strong influence and
advice of Qichao. The book focuses mainly on two issues, viz. the loss of sovereignty and severing of ties
with China. Phan became one of the leading figures of the anti-colonial movement in Vietnam.

Phan Chu Trinh (1871-1926): He strongly differed with Phan Boi Chau. He was hostile to the
monarchy and opposed the idea of resisting French with the help of court. He was highly influenced by
the democratic ideals of the west. He accepted the French ideals of liberty. He wanted the French to set
up legal and educational institutions, and develop agriculture and industries.

Influence of Japan and China

In the first decade of the twentieth century, many Vietnamese students went to Japan for getting modern
education. The primary motive for going to Japan was to drive out the French from Vietnam, overthrow
the puppet emperor and re-establish the Nguyen dynasty. They appealed to the Japanese as fellow Asians.
Japan had become a modern country and had successfully resisted the colonization by the west. Its
victory over Russia in 1907 proved its military capabilities. After 1908, the Japanese Ministry of Interior
clamped down on revolutionary activities of Vietnamese students. Many revolutionaries were deported
and forced to seek exile in China and Thailand. Phan Boi Chau was also among them.
Developments in China also inspired Vietnamese nationalists. In 1911, a popular movement under Sun Yat
Sen had overthrown the long established monarchy and a Republic was set up. The Vietnamese students
were inspired by this development. They formed the Association for the Restoration of Vietnam (Viet-

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Nam Quan Phuc Hoi). The objective of the anti-French independence movement was now to set up a
democratic republic.

The Communist Movement and Vietnamese Nationalism

The Great Depression of the 1930s had a profound impact on Vietnam. There was a steep fall in the prices
of rice and rubber. This led to a rise in rural debts and unemployment, and finally in rural uprisings. The
provinces of Nghe An and Ha Tinh were the important hotspots of rural uprising. However, the uprising
was dealt with severely by the French. Even planes and bombs were used to suppress the uprising.
In February 1930, Ho Chi Minh brought together competing nationalist groups to establish the
Vietnamese Communist (Vietnam Cong San Dang) Party. It was later renamed as the Indo-Chinese
Communist Party.
Formation of Democratic Republic of Vietnam: In 1940 Japan occupied Vietnam, as part of its imperial
drive to control Southeast Asia. So nationalists now had to fight against the Japanese as well as the
French. The League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh), which came to be
known as the Vietminh, fought the Japanese occupation and recaptured Hanoi in September 1945. The
Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed and Ho Chi Minh became Chairman.

Partition of Vietnam
The French tried to regain control. They used the emperor Bao Dai as their puppet in this endeavour. The
Vietminh were forced to retreat to the hills. After eight years of fighting, the Vietminh were able to
defeat the French in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu.
A peace negotiation took place in Geneva after the French defeat. Vietnam was divided into two
countries, viz. south and north Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh and the communists assumed power in the north.
Bao Dai’s regime took control of the south.
The Bao Dai regime was soon overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem built a repressive and
authoritarian government. The National Liberation Front (NLF) opposed the dictatorial rule of Dinh Diem.
The NLF took help from Ho Chi Minh government and fought for the unification of the country.

US Occupation
The Entry of the US into the War
The US was apprehensive that establishment of a communist regime would spark a chain reaction which
could lead to formation of similar regimes in the surrounding parts of the world. In order to stop the
spread of communism, the US attacked Vietnam.
The US occupation of Vietnam involved use of a high number of services personnel and also the use of
latest warfare. In spite of advanced technology and good medical supplies, the US casualties were very
high in Vietnam. Even the most powerful bombers of the time, the B52s were used in the battle. About
47,000 US soldiers died and 303, 000 were wounded. About 23,000 suffered 100% disability.
The struggle of the Vietnamese people against the US showed that the inspiration of saving the
motherland can turn even the weak into a great battle force. The US probably underestimated this factor.

Effect on US: Most of the people in the US were highly critical of the US involvement in Vietnam. Many
contemporary thinkers were of the opinion that the US should not have involved itself in a war was
impossible to win.
Role of Media: The US media and films played a major role in both supporting as well as criticising the
war. John Wayne’s Green Berets (1968) was a movie which supported US occupation of Vietnam. John
Ford Coppola’s Apocalypse Now (1979) was the movie which criticized US occupation.
Ho Chi Minh Trail: The Ho Chi Minh Trail was an immense network of footpaths and roads. It was used to
transport men and materials from the north to the south. It had support bases and hospitals along the
way. Most of the supplies were done by women and kids on their bicycles. Most of the trail was outside
Vietnam in neighbouring Laos and Combodia; with branch lines extending into South Vietnam. The trail
was regularly bombed by the US to disrupt supplies. But the Vietnamese rebuilt the trail very quickly. The
Ho Chi Minh Trail tells the story of ingenuity and bravery of the Vietnamese people.
Women as Rebels: Women in Vietnam traditionally enjoyed greater equality than in China, particularly

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among the lower classes. But they had only limited freedom to determine their future and played no role
in public life. With the growth of nationalist movement, thinkers and writers began to project women as
rebels against social norms. Many women took active part in the battle; apart from maintain the supply
line through Ho Chi Minh Trail. Apart from being fighters, women also shared the responsibility of
rebuilding the economy during peace time.
End of US Occupation: A peace settlement was signed in Paris in January 1974. This ended conflict with
the US but fighting between the Saigon regime and the NLF continued. The NLF occupied the presidential
palace in Saigon on 30 April 1975 and unified Vietnam.

NCERT Questions
Answer the following questions:

Write a note on following:

1. What was meant by the ‘civilising mission’ of the colonizers?
Answer: The colonizers thought it was the mission of the ‘advanced’ European nations to civilize the
backward people. They thought their culture to be superior than the culture of the natives in the colonies.
They thought since they were the advanced nations of the world, so it was their responsibility to
modernize the people in the colonies.

2. Huynh Phu So
Answer: Huynh Phu So was the founder of a nationalist movement called Hoa Hao. He performed
miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless expenditure had a wide appeal. He also
opposed the sale of child brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and opium. The French tried to suppress
the movement inspired by Huynh Phu So. They declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze, and put him
in a mental asylum. But the doctor, who had to prove him mad, became his follower. Finally, he was
exiled to Laos and many of his followers were sent to concentration camps.

Explain the following:

1. Only one-third of the students in Vietnam would pass the school-leaving examinations.
Answer: The French authorities deliberately failed the students in the final year of the French
examination. They did not want the Vietnamese to qualify for the higher-paying jobs. Due to this, only
one-third of the students in Vietnam could pass the school-leaving examinations.

2. The French began building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta.
Answer: For increasing cultivation, the French began to build canals to irrigate the land in the Mekong
delta. This helped in increasing rice production. The area under rice cultivation went up from 274,000
hectares in 1873 to 1.1 million hectares in 1900 and 2.2 million in 1930. Vietnam exported two-thirds of its
rice production and by 1931 had become the third largest exporter of rice in the world.

3. The government made the Saigon Native Girls School take back the students it had expelled.
Answer: When one of the girls protested against demeaning of Vietnamese culture, she was expelled by
the School. This resulted in large scale protest against the school authorities. Faced with such protest, the
government made the Saigon Native Girls School to take back the expelled student.

4. Rats were most common in the modern, newly built areas of Hanoi.
Answer: The well laid sewer system provided a perfect breeding ground and hiding place for the rats.
They could also easily slip in the French homes through the sewer system. hence, rats were most
common in the modern, newly built areas of Hanoi.

Write an evaluation of the Vietnamese war against the US from the point of
a. A porter on the Ho Chi Minh trail
Answer: The Ho Chi Minh Trail was an immense network of footpaths and roads. It was used to transport
men and materials from the north to the south. In spite of repeated bombings to destroy the trail, it was

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quickly repaired. It worked as invaluable lifeline for the Vietnamese during the US occupation of Vietnam.

b. A woman soldier
Answer: Women took active part in the struggle against US occupation. On the one hand, women formed
the main part of the supply system for the Vietnamese fighters. On the other, they were also at the
battlefront fighting with the US forces.

Answer the following question:

1. Describe the ideas behind the Tonkin Free School. To what extent was it a typical example of colonial
ideas in Vietnam?
Answer: Tonkin Free School was opened with the objective of imparting French education to the
Vietnamese. This was done to prepare a large workforce which could be utilised for clerical jobs.
Moreover, this was an attempt to impose the French culture on the Vietnamese.

2. What was Phan Chu Trinh’s objective for Vietnam? How were his ideas different from those of Phan
Boi Chau?
Answer: Phan Chu Trinh strongly differed with Phan Boi Chau. He was hostile to the monarchy and
opposed the idea of resisting French with the help of court. He was highly influenced by the democratic
ideals of the west. He accepted the French ideals of liberty. He wanted the French to set up legal and
educational institutions, and develop agriculture and industries.

3. With reference to what you have read in this chapter, discuss the influence of China on Vietnam’s
culture and life.
Answer: Vietnam had traditionally been influenced by the Chinese culture because it fell on the Silk Route.
The religious belief in Vietnam was influenced by Buddhism, Confucianism and local traditions. It is
important to mention that Confucianism came from China. Moreover, Chinese was the working language
for the elite classes of Vietnam.

4. What was the role of religious groups in the development of anti-colonial feeling in Vietnam?
Answer: The religious beliefs in Vietnam were a mixture of Buddhism, Confucianism and local practices.
Christianity was introduced by French missionaries. They were intolerant of easygoing attitude of the
Vietnamese. From the eighteenth century, many religious movements turned hostile to the Western
presence. Scholars Revolt of 1969 was one of the early movements against the spread of Christianity.
Such revolts finally culminated in the rise of nationalism and anti-colonial feelings in Vietnam.

5. Explain the causes of the US involvement in the war in Vietnam. What effect did this involvement
have on life within the US itself?
Answer: The US was apprehensive that establishment of a communist regime would spark a chain
reaction which could lead to formation of similar regimes in the surrounding parts of the world. In order
to stop the spread of communism, the US attacked Vietnam. Most of the people in the US were highly
critical of the US involvement in Vietnam. Many contemporary thinkers were of the opinion that the US
should not have involved itself in a war was impossible to win. A very high number of casualties for the US
services personnel further turned the public mood against US occupation of Vietnam.

6. What was the role of women in the anti-imperial struggle in Vietnam? Compare this with the role of
women in the nationalist struggle in India.
Answer: Women took active part in the anti-imperial struggle in Vietnam. On the other hand, women in
India mainly restricted themselves to the supporting role. Congress took the services of women more for
the symbolic value than for any substantial cause.

EXTRA Questions
Question -1 According to Ernst Renan what are the attributes of a nation
Answer: In a lecture delivered at the University of Sorbonne in 1882 , the French philosopher Ernst Renan

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(1823 - 92 ) outlined his understanding of what makes a nation . The lecture was subsequently published
as a famous essay entitled ‘ Qu ’ est - ce qu ’ une nation ?’ (‘ What is a Nation?’).
In this essay Renan criticises the notion suggested by others that a nation is formed by a common
language , race , religion , or territory : ‘ A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice
and devotion . A heroic past, great men, glory, that is the social capital upon which one bases a national
idea. To have common glories in the past, to have a common will in the present , to have performed great
deeds together , to wish to perform still more, these are the essential conditions of being a people . A
nation is therefore a large - scale solidarity … Its existence is a daily plebiscite … A province is its
inhabitants ; if anyone has the right to be consulted , it is the inhabitant. A nation never has any real
interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will . The existence of nations is a good thing, a
necessity even . Their existence is a guarantee of liberty , which would be lost if the world had only one
law and only one master .’

Question -2 Describe the French Revolution .

Answer: The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789 . France, as
you would remember , was a full - fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch .
The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the
transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a
body of French citizens . The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth
constitute the nation and shape its destiny. From the very beginning , the French revolutionaries
introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the
French people . The ideas of la patrie (the
fatherland ) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal
rights under a constitution .
A new French flag , the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard . The Estates General
was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly . New hymns were
composed , oaths taken and martyrs commemorated , all in the name of the nation . A centralised
administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory .
Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was
adopted . Regional dialects were discouraged and French , as it was spoken and written in Paris , became
the common language of the nation .
The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to
liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism , in other words to help other peoples of Europe to
become nations . When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe , students
and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities and
campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland , Belgium , Switzerland and
much of Italy in the 1790 s . With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars , the French armies began to
carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

Question -3 How did nationalism and the idea of the nation -state emerge?
Answer: Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The
members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions . They
owned estates in the countryside and also town - houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy
and in high society . Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy
was , however , numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry .
To the west , the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and Central
Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were cultivated by serfs .

Question -4 What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for ?

Answer: Ideas of national unity in early -nineteenth - century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of
liberalism . The term ‘ liberalism ’ derives from the Latin root liber , meaning free . For the new middle
classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law . Politically, it
emphasised the concept of government by consent . Since the French Revolution , liberalism had stood

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for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges , a constitution and representative government through
parliament . Nineteenth- century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property . Yet , equality
before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage .
Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights . Only for a brief period under
the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage. However , the Napoleonic Code went back to limited
suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor , subject to the authority of fathers and husbands .
Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women and non -propertied men organised
opposition movements demanding equal political rights .

Question -5 Give a brief note on the Napoleonic code .

Answer: The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges
based on birth , established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was
exported to the regions under French control .

Question -6 Give two examples to show that in the 18 th century Europe there were no nation states.
Answer:
In the mid- eighteenth - century Europe there were no ‘ nation - states ’ as we know them today . The
countries such as Germany , Italy and Switzerland , which we know today were divided into kingdoms ,
duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories. Eastern and Central Europe were
under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse peoples . They did not see
themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture . Often , they even spoke different
languages and belonged to different ethnic groups .
The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria - Hungary , for example , was a patchwork of many different
regions and peoples . It included the Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland – as well as
Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German -speaking . It also included the Italian-
speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia .
In Hungary , half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia,
the aristocracy spoke Polish . Besides these three dominant groups , there also lived within the
boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples Bohemians and Slovaks to the north ,
Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south , and Roumans to the east in Transylvania . Such differences did
not easily promote a sense of political unity. The only tie binding these diverse groups together was a
common allegiance to the emperor.

Question -7 What were the reforms made by Napoleon ?

Answer: Within the wide swathe of territory that came under his control , Napoleon set about
introducing many of the reforms that he had already introduced in France . Through a return to monarchy
Napoleon had , no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had
incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient .
The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges based on
birth , established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was exported to
the regions under French control . In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland , in Italy and Germany , Napoleon
simplified administrative divisions , abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and
manorial dues. In the towns too , guild restrictions were removed . Transport and communication
systems were improved .
Peasants , artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new - found freedom . Businessmen and
small- scale producers of goods , in particular , began to realise that uniform laws , standardised weights
and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods
and capital from one region to another . However , in the areas conquered , the reactions of the local
populations to French rule were mixed . Initially , in many places such as Holland and Switzerland , as well
as in certain cities like Brussels , Mainz , Milan and Warsaw , the French armies were welcomed as
harbingers of liberty. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility , as it became clear that the new
administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom. Increased taxation,
censorship , forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe , all

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seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes .

Question -8 Why were the Middle class so named?

Answer: Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The
members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions . They
owned estates in the countryside and also town - houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy
and in high society . Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy
was , however , numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry .
To the west , the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and Central
Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were cultivated by serfs .
In Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of industrial production and trade meant the growth
of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence was based on production for the
market. Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century , but in France and
parts of the German states it occurred only during the nineteenth century . In its wake, new social groups
came into being : a working - class population , and middle classes made up of industrialists ,
businessmen , professionals . In Central and Eastern Europe these groups were smaller in number till late
nineteenth century . It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity
following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity .

Question -9 What led to the spread of conservatism in Europe and what were its impacts?
Answer: Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 , European governments were driven by a spirit of
conservatism. Conservatives believed that established , traditional institutions of state and society – like
the monarchy , the Church, social hierarchies , property and the family – should be preserved . Most
conservatives, however , did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days . Rather, they
realised, from the changes initiated by Napoleon , that modernisation could in fact strengthen traditional
institutions like the monarchy . It could make state power more effective and strong . A modern army, an
efficient bureaucracy , a dynamic economy , the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the
autocratic monarchies of Europe .

Question -10 What were the highlights of the Treaty of Vienna 1815?
Answer: In 1815 , representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria – who had
collectively defeated Napoleon , met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe . The main highlights
were to how the nation could develop and what economic measures could help forge this nation
together .

Question -11 What was the Romantic Imagination about a nation ?

Answer: Romanticism , a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment . Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and
focused instead on emotions , intuition and mystical feelings . Their effort was to create a sense of a
shared collective heritage , a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation .
The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an
ancient national spirit , but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were
mostly illiterate .

Question -12 What was the cause of Silesian weavers uprising ? Comment on the viewpoint of the
journalist .
Answer: In 1845 , weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material
and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments .
The journalist Wilhelm Wolff described the events in a Silesian village as follows : In these villages (with
18 , 000 inhabitants ) cotton weaving is the most widespread occupation … The misery of the workers is
extreme. The desperate need for jobs has been taken advantage of by the contractors to reduce the
prices of the goods they
order …

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On 4 June at 2 p. m . a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and marched in pairs up to the
mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages . They were treated with scorn and threats
alternately . Following this, a group of them forced their way into the house , smashed its elegant
windowpanes , furniture , porcelain … another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of
supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds … The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village
which , however, refused to shelter such a person . He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the
army . In the exchange that followed , eleven weavers were shot .

Question -13 How was nation visualized by artists ?

Answer:
Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by personifying a nation . In other
words they represented a country as if it were a person . Nations were then portrayed as female figures.
The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real
life; rather it sought to give
the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female figure became an allegory of the
nation .

Question -14
On what basis the female allegories were given names?
Answer: Many female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the
nation . In France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name , which underlined the idea of a
people ’ s nation . Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap,
the tricolour, the cockade . Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of
the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on
coins and stamps .
Similarly , Germania became the allegory of the German nation . In visual representations , Germania
wears a crown of oak leaves , as the German oak stands for heroism.

Question -15 Describe the rise of imperialism .

Answer: Nationalism , aligned with imperialism , led Europe to disaster in 1914. But meanwhile , many
countries in the world which had been colonised by the European powers in the nineteenth century
began to oppose imperial domination . The anti - imperial movements that developed everywhere were
nationalist, in the sense that they all struggled to form independent nation - states , and were inspired by
a sense of collective national unity, forged in confrontation with imperialism . European ideas of
nationalism were nowhere replicated , for people everywhere developed their own specific variety of
nationalism. But the idea that societies should be organised into ‘ nation - states’ came to be accepted as
natural and universal.

NATIONALISM IN INDIA
The First World War, Khilafat And Non-Cooperation
Effects of First World War: The War led to a huge increase in defence expenditure. This was financed by
war loans and by increasing taxes. Customs duties were raised and income tax was introduced to raise
extra revenue. Prices of items increased during the war years. The prices doubled between 1913 and 1918.
The common people were the worst sufferers because of price rise. Forced recruitment of rural people in
the army was another cause of widespread anger among people.

Crop failure in many parts of India resulted in acute shortage of food. Influenza epidemic further
aggravated the problem. According to 1921 census, about 12 to 13 million people died because of famines
and epidemic.

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The Idea of Satyagraha
Mahatma Gandhi advocated a novel method of mass agitation; called satyagraha. This method was based
on the idea that if someone is fighting for a true cause, there is no need to take recourse to physical force
to fight the oppressor. Gandhiji believed that a satyagrahi could win a battle through non-violence, i.e.
without being aggressive or revengeful.
Some early satyagraha movements organized by Gandhi:
a. Peasants’ movement in Champaran in 1916.
b. Peasants’ movement in Kheda in 1917.
c. Mill workers’ movement in Ahmadabad in 1918.

The Rowlatt Act(1919):

The Rowlatt Act was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in 1919. The Indian members did not
support the Act, but it was passed; nevertheless. The Act gave enormous powers to the government to
repress political activities. It allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

On 6th April, 1919; Gandhiji launched a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act. The call
of strike on 6th April got huge response. People came out in support in various cities, shops were shut
down and workers in railway workshops went on strike. The British administration decided to clamp
down on the nationalists. Several local leaders were arrested. Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering
Delhi.

Jallianwalla Bagh
On 10th April 1919; in Amritsar; the police fired upon a peaceful procession. This provoked widespread
attacks on government establishments. Martial law was imposed in Amritsar and the command of the
area was given to General Dyer.

The infamous Jallianwalla Bagh massacre took place on 13th April; the day on which Baisakhi is celebrated
in Punjab. A crowd of villagers came to participate in a fair in Jallianwalla Bagh. This was enclosed from all
sides with narrow entry points. General Dyer blocked the exit points and opened fire on the crowd.
Hundreds of people were killed in the incident. Public reaction to the incident took a violent turn in many
north Indian towns. The government was quite brutal in its response. Things took highly violent turn.
Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement as did not want violence to continue.

Need of Wider Spread of Movement: The Rowlatt satyagraha was limited mainly to the cities and towns.
Mahatma Gandhi felt the need of a more broad-based movement in India. He was convinced that it could
be only possible by bringing the Hindus and Muslims on a common platform.

Khilafat Movement
The Khilafat issue gave him the opportunity to bring the Hindus and Muslims on a common platform. The
Ottoman Turkey was badly defeated in the First World War. There were rumours about a harsh peace
treating likely to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor; who was the spiritual head of the Islamic world
(the Khalifa). A Khilafat committed was formed in Bombay in March 1919 to defend the Khalifa. This
committee had leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali. They also wanted Mahatma
Gandhi to take up the cause to build a united mass action. At the Calcutta session of the Congress in
September 1920, the resolution was passed to launch a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat
and also for swaraj.

Non-Cooperation Movement
In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India
with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to
cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would come. Gandhiji believed
that if Indians begin to refuse to cooperate, the British rulers will have no other way than to leave India.
Some of the proposals of non-cooperation movement:

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- Surrender the titles which were awarded by the British government.
- Boycott civil services, army, police, courts, legislative councils and schools.
- Boycott foreign goods.
- Launch full civil disobedience campaign, if the government persisted with repressive measures.

Differing Strands within the Movement: The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921.
Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. All of them
responded to the call of Swaraj, but the term meant different things to different people.

The Movement in the Towns:

- The movement started with good participation from the middle-class in the cities.
- Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers
resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
- The council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras. In Madras, the Justice Party,
the party of the non-Brahmans, felt that entering the council was one way of gaining some power –
something that usually only Brahmans had access to.
- Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires. The
import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57
crore. The boycott of foreign cloths helped in increasing the demand of cloths made in India.

Reasons for Slowdown of Movement:

- Khadi was more expensive than mill-made cloth. The poor people could not afford to buy khadi.
- Boycott of British institutions posed a problem of lack of alternative Indian institutions. Such
institutions were slow to come up. Students and teachers began coming back schools. Similarly,
lawyers resumed their work in the courts.

Rebellion in the Countryside: From the cities, the Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the countryside.
It drew into its fold the struggles of peasants and tribals which were developing in different parts of India
in the years after the war.

Awadh
The peasants’ movement in Awadh was led by Baba Ramchandra. He was a sanyasi who had earlier
worked in Fiji as an indentured labourer. The peasants were against the high rents and may other cess
which were demanded by talukdars and landlords. The peasants demanded reduction of revenue,
abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.

Jawaharlal Nehru began touring the villages in June 1920. He tried to understand the problems of the
peasants. Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up by October. It was headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba
Ramchandra and a few others. By associating itself with the peasants’ movement, Congress was able to
integrate the movement in Awadh with a wider non-cooperation movement. At many places, people
stopped paying rents by invoking the name of the Mahatma.

Tribal Peasants
Tribal peasants gave their own interpretation of Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of swaraj. The tribals were
prevented from entering the forests to graze cattle, or to collect fruits and firewood. The new forest laws
were a threat to their livelihood. The government forced them to do begar on road construction.
Many rebels from the tribal areas became non-violent and often carried guerilla warfare against the
British officials.

Swaraj in the Plantations

The plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission; as per the
Indian Emigration Act of 1859. When the news of Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the plantations,
many workers began to defy the authorities. They left plantations and headed towards their homes. But

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they got stranded on the way because of a railway and steamer strike. They were caught by the police
and brutally beaten up.

Many analysts are of the opinion that the vision of the movement was not properly defined by the
Congress. Different people interpreted the term ‘swaraj’ in their own ways. For them, swaraj meant an
end to all their problems. However, people from various strata of society began to chant the name of
Gandhi and the slogan of Swatantra Bharat. In some way or the other, they were trying to relate to the
wider movement which was beyond their comprehension.

Civil Disobedience Movement

By the end of 1921, the movement was turning violent at many places. Gandhiji decided to withdraw the
non-cooperation movement in February 1922. Even many Congress leaders were fatigued by mass
struggles and wanted to participate in the elections to the provincial councils. The provincial councils
were set up by the Government of India Act of 1919. Many leaders were of the opinion that it was
important to oppose the British policies by becoming a part of the system.
The older leaders; like Motilal Nehru and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party (within the Congress)
and began to argue for a return to council politics.

The younger leaders; like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru; were in favour of more radical
mass agitation and pressed for full independence.
This was a period of internal debate and dissension within the Congress. This was also the period when
the effect of the Great Depression was being felt on India. Agricultural prices began to fall from 1926. The
prices collapsed in 1930. The whole country was in turmoil because of the effects of Great Depression.

Simon Commission
The British government constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon. The commission was
made to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. But since all
the members in the commission were British, the Indian leaders opposed the commission.

The Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928. It was greeted with the slogan ‘Go back Simon’. All parties
joined the protest. In October 1929, Lord Irwin announced a vague offer of ‘dominion status’ for India but
its timing was not specified. He also offered to hold a Round Table Conference to discuss the future
constitution.

The radical leaders within the Congress became more assertive. They were not satisfied with the British
proposal. The liberals and moderates were in favour of the dominion status, but they were losing their
influence in Congress.

In December 1929, the Lahore Congress was presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru. It passed the resolution
of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India. It declared 26th January 1930 as the Independence Day
and gave a call to the people to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence. But the
celebrations attracted little public support.

It was then left to Mahatma Gandhi to correlate the abstract idea of freedom to more concrete issues of
everyday life.

Salt March
Mahatma Gandhi believed that salt could be a powerful symbol to unite the whole nation. Most of the
people; including the British scoffed at the idea. Abolition of the salt tax was among many demands
which were raised by Gandhiji through a letter to Viceroy Irwin.

The Salt March or Dandi March was started by Gandhiji on 12th March 1930. He was accompanied by 78
volunteers. They walked for 24 days to cover a distance of 240 miles from Sabaramati to Dandi. Many

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more joined them in the way. On 6th April 1930, Gandhiji ceremonially violated the law by taking a fistful
of salt.

The Salt March marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Thousands of people broke
the salt law in different parts of country. People demonstrated in front of government salt factories.
Foreign cloth was boycotted. Peasants refused to pay revenue. Village officials resigned. Tribal people
violated forest laws.

Response of British Rulers

The colonial government began to arrest the Congress leaders. This led to violent clashes in many places.
Mahatma Gandhi was arrested about a month later. People began to attack the symbols of British rule;
such as police posts, municipal buildings, law courts and railway stations. The government’s repression
was quite brutal. Even women and children were beaten up. About 100,000 people were arrested.

Round Table Conference

When things began to take a violent turn, Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement. He signed a pact
with Irwin on 5th March 1931. This was called the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. As per the Pact, Gandhiji agreed to
participate in the Round Table Conference in London. In lieu of that, the government agreed to release
the political prisoners.

Gandhiji went to London in December 1931. The negotiations broke down and Gandhiji had to return with
disappointment.

When Gandhiji came back to India, he found that most of the leaders were put in jail. Congress had been
declared illegal. Many measures were taken to prevent meetings, demonstrations and boycotts.
Mahatma Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement. By 1934, the movement had lost its
momentum.

People’s Perception Of The Movement

Farmers: For the farmers, the fight for swaraj was a struggle against high revenues. When the movement
was called off in 1931; without the revenue rates being revised; the farmers were highly disappointed.
Many of them refused to participate when the movement was re-launched in 1932. The small tenants just
wanted the unpaid rent to the landlord to be remitted. They often joined the radical movements which
were led by Socialists and Communists. Congress did not want to alienate the rich landlords and hence,
the relationship between the poor peasants and Congress was uncertain.

Businessmen: The Indian merchants and industrialists could grow their business during the First World
War. They were against those colonial policies which restricted their business activities. They wanted
protection against imports and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio which would discourage imports.
The Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress was formed in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian
Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) was formed in 1927. These were the results of attempts to
bring the common business interests on a common platform. For the businessmen, swaraj meant an end
to oppressive colonial policies. They wanted an environment which could allow the business to flourish.
They were apprehensive of militant activities and of growing influence of socialism among the younger
members of the Congress.

Industrial Workers: The industrial workers showed lukewarm response to the Civil Disobedience
Movement. Since industrialists were closer to the Congress, workers kept a distance from the movement.
But some workers selectively participated in the Movement. Congress did not want to alienate the
industrialists and hence preferred to keep the workers’ demands at bay.

Women’s Participation

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Women also participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement in large numbers. However, most of the
women were from high-caste families in the urban areas and from rich peasant households in the rural
areas. But for a long time, the Congress was reluctant to give any position of authority to women within
the organization. The Congress was just keen on the symbolic presence of women.

The Limits Of Civil Disobedience

Participation of Dalits
Initially Congress used to ignore the dalits; because it did not want to alienate the conservative high-caste
Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi was of the view to bring social reforms to improve the plight of the dalits.
Mahatma Gandhi declared that without removing the practice of untouchability, swaraj could not be
achieved.

Many dalit leaders wanted a different political solution to the problems of the dalit community. They
demanded reserved seats in educational institutions and separate electorate for dalits. Dalit participation
in the Civil Disobedience Movement was limited.

Dr. B R Ambedkar organized the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930. He clashed with
Mahatma Gandhi; during the second Round Table Conference; on the issue of separate electorate for
dalits.

When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhji began a fast unto death. Finally
Ambedkar had to accept Gandhiji’s position. This resulted in signing of the Poona Pact of September 1932.
It made the provision for reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in provincial and central legislative
councils. But the voting was to be done by the general electorate.

Participation of Muslims
After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement, a large section of Muslims became
alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s, the Congress was more visibly associated with the
Hindu religious nationalist groups.

The Congress and the Muslim League tried to renegotiate and alliance. Muhammad Ali Jinnah was an
important leader of the Muslim League. He was willing to give up the demand for separate electorate. But
he wanted reserved seats for Muslims in the Central Assembly. He also wanted representation in
proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces (Punjab and Bengal). At the All Parties
Conference in 1928, M R Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed the efforts at compromise.
This further alienated the Muslims from the Congress.

The Sense Of Collective Belonging

Nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation, when they
discover some unity that binds them together. The united struggles for independence helped in building
the sense of collective belonging. Additionally, a variety of cultural processes also captured the spirit of
nationalism.

Nation Depicted in Images: The identity of the nation is most often symbolised in a figure or image; with
which people can identify the nation. The image of Bharat Mata was the pictorial representation of the
mother land. ‘Vande Mataram’ the national song was written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1870s.
This was sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. Different artists projected their own version of
Bharat Mata.

Folklores: Many nationalist leaders took help of folk tales to spread the idea of nationalism. It was
believed that the folk tales revealed the true picture of traditional culture.

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National Flag: The national flag which we see today has evolved through various stages. A tricolor (red,
green and yellow) was used during the Swadeshi movement. There were eight lotuses on it which
depicted the eight provinces of British India. There was a crescent moon on the flag which represented
Hindus and Muslims. Gandhji had designed the Swaraj flag by 1921. It was also a tricolor (red, green and
white) and there was a spinning wheel in the centre.

Reinterpretation of History: Many Indians felt that the British had given a different interpretation of the
Indian history. They felt that it was important to interpret the history from an Indian perspective. They
wanted to glorify the rich past of India so that the Indians could feel proud of their history.

NCERT Solution

1. Write a newspaper report on Simon Commisssion

Answer: London 1928: The British government has constituted the Simon Commission to look into the
functioning of the constitutional system in India. It is being said that the Commission would come with
some new changes to make a new administrative system in India. What is ironic about this Commission is
that there is no single Indian in the Commission. Most of the thinkers are perplexed that how an all British
team would take decisions on matters which are more relevant to India. The leaders of the Congress and
other parties have announced their boycott to the Simon Commission.

Explain the following:

1. Why growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement?

Answer: Anti-colonial movement gave a strong issue to the people with which they could identify and
could come on a common platform. Hence, the growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-
colonial movement.

2. How the First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India?
Answer: The First World War created huge economic problems for the people in India. Moreover, forced
conscription of the Indians in the British army also alienated the people from the colonial rulers. The
situation was ripe for the nationalist leaders to motivate the people against the colonial rulers. Thus, the
First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India.

3. Why Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act?

Answer: The Rowlatt Act gave draconian powers to the colonial rulers. It was against the spirit of political
formations and protests. Due to this, Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act.

4. Why Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement?

Answer: By 1921, the movement was turning violent at many places. Since Gandhiji was strictly against
any kind of violence, he decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.

5. What is meant by the idea of satyagraha?

Answer: Mahatma Gandhi advocated a novel method of mass agitation; called satyagraha. This method
was based on the idea that if someone is fighting for a true cause, there is no need to take recourse to
physical force to fight the oppressor. Gandhiji believed that a satyagrahi could win a battle through non-
violence, i.e. without being aggressive or revengeful.

6. Write a newspaper report on Jalianwala Bagh Massacre.

Answer: Amritsar, 13th April 1919: The British General Dyer had ordered firing on innocent villagers who
had gathered at Jallianwalla Bagh to attend a fair. All the exit points were blocked so that nobody could
escape the wrath of the British forces.

7. Why did political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates?

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Answer Muslim leaders; like Jinnah believed that the future of the Muslims would not be in safe hand
under the Hindu majority. He wanted a greater political empowerment for his own community. For dalit
leaders; like Ambedkar; the situation was more or less same. Given the past history of oppression against
the dalits, the dalit leaders were apprehensive of their position under the political power of the upper
caste people. Mahatma Gandhi, on the other hand, believed that separate electorates would further
alienate those people. He felt that separate electorate would slow down the process of integration of the
fringe group into the mainstream.

Answer the following questions:

1. Compare the images of Bharat Mata in this chapter with the image of Germania in Chapter 1.
Answer In both the cases, a woman has been depicted as the motherland. Both the figures have been
dressed in the traditional attire and hold certain symbolic items. These symbolic items represent freedom,
liberty, peace and energy.
2. List all the different social groups which joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921. Then choose
any three and write about their hopes and struggles to show why they joined the movement.
Answer Peasants, tribal peasants, plantation workers, students, lawyers, office workers, women, etc.
joined the Non-Cooperation Movement. Description of three of them is given below.
Peasant: The peasants were against the high rents and may other cess which were demanded by
talukdars and landlords. The peasants demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social
boycott of oppressive landlords.
Tribal Peasants: Tribal peasants gave their own interpretation of Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of swaraj.
The tribals were prevented from entering the forests to graze cattle, or to collect fruits and firewood. The
new forest laws were a threat to their livelihood. The government forced them to do begar on road
construction.
Plantation Workers: The plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without
permission; as per the Indian Emigration Act of 1859. When the news of Non-Cooperation Movement
spread to the plantations, many workers began to defy the authorities.
3. Discuss the Salt March to make clear why it was an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism.
Answer Salt was a powerful symbol which could connect with all the people of India. Salt was used by
everyone; rich and poor in the same way. For poor people, abolition of salt tax would have meant a
reduction price. For the businessmen, it meant that they could expect abolition of more such laws which
were working against the Indian business community.
4. Imagine you are a woman participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Explain what the
experience meant to your life.
Answer A woman’s role is always considered to be of a homemaker. But by participating in the Civil
Disobedience Movement, I could be a part of the nation making process. It was a motivating experience
for me when I tended to those injured in the lathi charge. It was like taking care of my own brother.

EXTRA Questions
1. Mention the great men whose work spread the passion for freedom .
Answer: The works of men like Swami Vivekananda , Ramakrishna Paramahamsa , Sri Aurobindo ,
Subramanya Bharathy , Bankim Chandra Chatterjee , Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and
Dadabhai Naoroji spread the passion for rejuvenation and freedom.
2. Give a brief account of Lokmanya Tilak .
Answer: Lokmanya Tilak, though with non -moderate views, was very popular amongst the masses. He
gave the concept of "Swaraj " to the Indian people while standing trial. His popular sentence "Swaraj is
my Birthright , and I shall have it" became the source of inspiration for Indians . The flames of the spirit of
freedom were ignited by learned men like them, who gave reason for common Indians to feel proud of
themselves , demand political and social freedom and seek happiness . They were the teachers who
sparked the passion of learning and achievement , for thousands of Indians
3. Give a brief account of Gandhiji’ s early life .
Answer: Gandhi was born to a Hindu family in India on October 2 , 1869 . He was the first member of his

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family to graduate from high school . After 3 months of college , he dropped out and soon moved to
England. He returned to India in 1891 with a Barrister ' s title.
He started a small law practice but it failed .
In 1893 Gandhi moved to South Africa to work as a lawyer' s assistant .
He began working right away on a personal campaign to eliminate racism .
Gandhi spent 11 years in court fighting for Indian rights - and won most of his cases - but the government
constantly passed bills to cancel out his victories .
4. What were the 3 principles of Satyagraha ?
Answer: The three main principles of satyagraha are: Satya, Ahinsa, Tapasya or, the truth , the refusal do
harm to others , and willingness for self-sacrifice in the cause .
These three principles, really , form the core of a weapon that Gandhi was determined to use against the
British Raj enslaving his country.
5. Mention 3 places where Gandhiji successfully organized the Satyagraha movement ?
Answer: Satyagraha movements were successfully organised by Mahatma Gandhi in various places after
arriving in India . He organised a satyagraha at Champaran in Bihar in 1916 to inspire the peasants to
struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
He then organised a satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat , in 1917 .
A satyagraha movement was organised in Ahmedabad, in 1918 , amongst cotton mill workers.
6. What were the effects on the economic front due to the non -corporation movement ?
Answer: There was a dramatic effect on the economic front due to the non -cooperation movement .
Foreign goods were boycotted, and foreign cloth was burnt .
Traders stopped trading with foreign goods .
With this boycott , the production and consumption of cloth went up in India.
7. What was the plight of the plantation workers of Assam?
Answer: The working class in the tea plantations of Assam is perhaps the most oppressed in the
organised sector of the economy . Low wages , poor housing and lack of avenues for social mobility have
been a recurring theme since the inception of the plantations.
Plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission , under the Inland
Emigration Act of 1859 . They were rarely given such permission .
8. Compare Non - cooperation movement and the civil disobedience movement.
Answer: Non Cooperation was passive where civil disobedience was active and almost revolutionary . The
non co- operation movement aimed at bringing the government to a stand still , by withdrawing every
support to administration .
The civil disobedience movement was planned to paralyze the government by mass support by
undertaking acts which the British government considered illegal but were protests against exploitative
and suppressive measures .

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