.2 VENTURIMETER Veniurimeter is the practical i sasure the rate of flow or discharge of a sists of three parts : 1. Ashort converging part, 2. Let us consider a ventur wsing as shown in fig. 6.1. roat to measure the pr124 Let dD = Diameter at the inlet or at section 1— 1, AL = Cross-sectional area at section 1-1, Pi =Pressure at section 1 ~ 1, 1 = Velocity of liquid at section 1-1, and Ds, As, ps vs are the corresponding values at section 2. 2 Applying 's theorem at sections 1 ~ 1 and 2~2, 2 ye 6S, aaa = Cee where w= Specific weight of liquid. Since the pipe is horizontal, therefore, 2) ==2.- at ay wg errs Ama or W We By =2e (2-2) = Difference of pressure heads at sections 1 wowow Measurement Discharge, Q = Aaya a 25 A or Q=A, a Ls ae AJA. a én , Ap A} ee aD) Equation (i) gives the discharge under ‘Actual discharge will be less tcharye Vad oat fea oe conditions and is called theoretical discharge. Oi eG a risa x Pgh = ee Hey wins Cs Coefficient of discharge or coefficient of venturimeter and its value lies between 0.9610 Now, if we use U-tube differential manometer instead of peizometers, then the value of # is given by Sa = y[ae-1 2 cb where = Specific gravity of heavier liquid in the manometer, s, “ee gravity of liquid flowing through pipe, ~r — Difference of heavier liquid level in the U-tube, Now, ane contains a liguid whieh is lighter than the liquid er reental manometer flowing through the pipe, the value of fis given by oe Sp lili) AG a uid inthe manometer, where $) = Speeific gravity af Le iq oe aren Siew = liquid level in the U-tube. Les ‘used for ae ‘out discharge in case ‘of inclined and vertical channel. Tt ‘works on ' pressure there is Iner, In the simplest is inserted into the stream of flow is vertical and open to atmosphere as shXN 136 'SHAN'S rudy, conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy. By measuring the rise of liquid jn c; Me, Uh velocity of flow can be determined. Fig. 6.3. Pitot Tube Let _p; Intensity of pressure at point 1, ¥) = Velocity of flow of liquid at point 1, ty of pressure at point 2, = Velocity of flow of liquid at point 2, H =Depth of tube in the liquid, h = Height of liquid in the tube above the free surface of liquid, w = Specific weight of liquid. Applying Bemoulli’s theorem at points | and 2, we get Ape ae w 2, Now a7 (Ce Both points 1 and 2 are on the sam! 0, Pr = Pressure head at point 1 = H, = Pressure head at point 2 = (h +H). or or = \2gh ‘The above expression gives the theoretical velocity of flow. Actual velocity, (Jee = C, gh f where C, = Coefficient of velocity oF coeffi tent of pitot tube.ISHAN'S Fly 138 laid Me thin 6,5 ORIFICE Orifice is a small opening of any cross-section (circular, triangular, recta provided in the wall or bottom of a tank through which the liquid flows out. Orifices measuring the rate of flow of liquid. MBUlar ATE sd fy, 6.6 TYPES OF ORIFICES Orifices may be classified as follow : 1. According to size (i) Small orifice, (ii) Large orifice. According to cross-sectional area (Circular orifice, (ii) Triangular orifice, (iif) Rectangular orifice, (iv) Square orifice. 3. According to shape of upstream edge : (Sharp edged orifice, (ii) Bell mouthed orifice. 4, According to nature of discharge. (Free discharging orifice, (if) Drowned or submerged orifice. The submerged orifices may further be classified as (a) Fully submerged orifice, (b) Partially submerged orifices. 6.7 FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE called vena-contracta. This section is approximately at After this section, the jet diverges and atracted downwards by the gravity Fig. 6.5: Tank with an OrificeHOW measurement Let us consider two poi; Points | and 2 inside the ta a Applying Bernoulli's theorem at these points. 'S ‘aM and a vena +2 w Now = 0 (Atmospheric pressure) v; is very small as compared to v» because are: of jet of liquid. a of ta k is very large as compared to the area or The velocity of jet given by above equation is theoretical velocity and actual velocity will be Jess than this. 6.8 HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS The coefficients relating to discharge through an orifice are called hydraulic coefficients of an orifice. These are as follow : 1, Coefficient of contraction. 2. Coefficient of velocity. 3. Coefficient of discharge. 1. Coefficient of Contraction : Coefficient of contraction may be defined as the ratio of area of jet at vena-contracta to the area of orifice. tis generally denoted by C.. Let Ac = Area of jet at vena-contracta, A = Area of orifice Coefficient of contraction, C.= “2 ‘The value of ¢, varies between 0.61 to 0.69 depending upon the shape and size of the orifice snd head of liquid under which the flow takes place. However, in general, the value of C. may be taken as 0.64, 2. Coefficient of Velocity : Coefficient of velocity may be defined as the ratio of actual Yelocity of jet at vena-contracta to the theoretical velocity of et. {tis generally denoted by C,, Let vy, = Actual velocity of jet at vena-contracta,140 ISHAN'S Fluid Mechaniog vq, = Theoretical velocity of jet= (2h Coefficient of velocity, C,= 73 ‘gh The value of C, varies between 0.95 to 0.99 depending upon the shape and size of the ortice and head of liquid under which the flow takes place. However, in general, the value of C, may be taken as 0.97 and for sharp edged orifices, it is taken as 0,98, 3. Coefficient of Discharge : Coefficient of discharge may be defined ay the ratio of actual discharge from the orifice to the theoretical discharge from the orifice. It is generally denoted by C.. Let Qu Qn «. Coefficient of discharge, cy = Qa. 1h ctual discharge, heoretical discharge. _ ___ Actual velocity x Actualarea ‘Theoretical velocity x Theoreticalarea = —Actualvelocity | _Actualarea Theoretical velocity” Theoreticalarea xG . A Cr =O. XC cs] Thevate oF ares from 0.61 10 0.65. However, itis generally taken as 0.62. =< ¢ 7 METER” 1e meter is a device jarge through a pipe. 1 works on the same ee as that of venturimeter. {1 cousists of a ‘cular plate having a sharp edged circular orifice which is concentric with the pipe. The thickness of plate in less than or equal to 0.05 time a to measure di cs ine162 ISHAN'S Fiuig Mechang, cs the diameter of pipe. The diameter of orifice varies from 0.2 to 0.85 time the diameter o¢ a - a “. . , tut, generally, itis kept as 0.5 time the diameter of pipe. To measure the differential head, a U-tube differential manometer is connected at two one at a distance of 1.5 to 2 times the diameter of pipe upstream from the orifice plate and a distance of 0.5 time the diameter of orifice downstream from the orifice plate. Poin, other Orifice meter Differential manometer Fig, 6.14: Orifice Meter Py = Pressure at section 1 — 1, vs AL Px viand Ay 6 Let Velocity of liquid at section 1— 1, rea of pipe at section 1 — 1, ‘orresponding values at section 2 specific weight of liquid Applying Bernoulli's theorem at sections 1 — 1 and 2 EN eal, He w 2g w 2g ~2 (Vena-contrasta), ~2, we get Now “ae (Ce The pipe is horizont!) or164 ISHAN’S Fiuid Mechang 8 _ ©. xA, x V2ah (ie “The above expression can be simplified by using + where C= Coefficient of discharge for orifice meter. Its value is much smaller than that for Yenturimeter.gotameter (Variable Area Meter]: In the orifice meter or venturi meter (variable head meters), the area of constriction / aren offlow is constant and the differential prowure / proesure drop across the meter varies with the tow rate / discharge, while dmithe Wariable aren meter, the pressure’ drop across the’meter is” joastant and the flow rate is a function of the area of constriction / area of flow. ‘Thus;"any > | ne ee ‘The most important area meter is the rotamoter. neiple : vi unamaise opiates on the principle that chare is @difrant naeeton arias area) for cach flow rate and the pressure drop across the meter ix constant, IN@tharaoraasthe pressure drop across the meter is constant and the area through which the fluid flows \artesy { leith the flow rate. This area is related, through a proper calibration, to the flow rate:y Construction “ scale for a side (oti roe Tres postion “ave ‘oat |+—— Foat uf Fig. 7.82 :Rotameter scale for , flow cate It consists of a tapered glass tube mounted vertically in a frame with the large end up. 7 tube contains a freely moving solid Moat. The diameter of the Moat iv smaller than diameter of the bottom portion of the tapered tube. The density of a float material is higher tha, that of the liquid. A perforated plate or similar device is provided at both the ends of the taper, tube for arresting the float in the tube. A guide is provided for the foat so it always remains the centre in the tube along the axis of the tube. The float is usually constructed out of corr cedistame iaaieniahlike stainless steel (SS — 304 or SS — 316), aluminium, monel, br HPkél and ‘pascies=The float material decides the flow range of the meter. Fig. 7.83: Float shapes Worl ge In rotameter as the flow varies, the float rises or falls, thus changing the area of ih annular space between the float and the wall of the tube. The area available for flow ist annular space/annulus between the float and the wall of the tube. When no fluid flows through the meter, the rotameter float rests at the bottom of the tube’ But as the fluid begins to flow from the lower side of tube, the float rises until its weight is balanced by an upthrust of the fluid and the fluid flows through the meter through the annular space. As the flow rate inereases, the float rises in the tube, thus, increasing the area available for flow (flow area) keeping a differential pressure across it constant. On the other hand, as the flow rate decreases, the float falls in the tube, thus decreasing the flow area with constant Pressure drop across it. At a given flow rate, float stabilises at a certain fixed position in the {ube and at stendy state it is recorded as the rotameter reading on the seale provided.ut the variation of the flow area with flow rate can be measured in terms of change in the oat position. ‘Arotating motion of the float helps to keep it steady. : Rotameters are widely used in the chemical industry for the measurement of flow rat 7 + gapresible as well as incompressible fuids, They provide a directing reading of the f rate ow equation for rotameter : For a given flow rate, let P, and P2 be the pressures across the float at its eq condition. ‘At equilibrium condition, the forces acting on the float must be balanced jorce acts to move the float. For dynamic equilibrium of the float, the foree balance can be written as : Net upward force = Net downward force ‘The forces acting on the float are : (i) a buoyant foree, (i a differential. (iii) a gravity force. og Buoyant force + Differential pressure force = Gravity force (i) Buoyant force acting so as to lift the float = Vr p g- (ii) Differential pressure force (drag foree : oat) = (Py ~ Pa) Ar - (iii) Gravity force (weight of the float) = Vr Pr & * Vr pe+(Pi—PadAr = Vere (P,- Pa) Ar = Vel“Equation (7.220) can be written as PPh gat = Velor-0) p ‘Arp g 24 Annulus diameter = D,—D, (at float position) where Dy = diameter of the largest portion of the float 0 D, = diameter of the tube at the float position Now the annulus flow area between the tube and float can be considered as an orifice diameter D, ~ Dy having a differential pressure of (P; ~ P2) across it. Hence, the flow equatio, derived for the orifice meter can. be used to-express the ugh the rotameter. 2 (EB P,) é y a we where Ag = = we i - DD Combining Equations (7.221) and (7.222), we get Q = An rerg Here, ‘ek B PrP AYA)? \e™ a =—_ flow iezte Dotinition ans 5 ‘fore used to measure the flow rate of fluids in a pipe or conduit. A flow nozzle consists of a cone- Passage that creates a partial blockage of the conduit, and flow rate is determined by measuring the rr sssure before and after the flow nozzle, Flow nozzles are used to gather data used for process, ment in manufacturing environments. : Basig Principle when a flow nozzle is placed in @ pipe carrying whose rate of flow is to be measured, the flow nozzle causes a pressure {rOp which varies with the flow rate, This pressure drop Is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when ‘alibrated this pressure becomes 2 measure of flow rate, ‘type Flow Nozze Sheu be Eaualte rage OA Ofpee-3 | | onarana seen The main parts of row ioezie arrangement used to :neagute flow rate ar2 7s follows 1. Aflow nozzle which is held between flanges of pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is being measured, The flow nozzle’s area is minimum at its throat aching a differential pressure sensor (u-tube manometer, 2. Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for att ential pressure gauge etc.) as show in the diagramFlow Nozzle Arrangement Flanges 4 erential pressu li FS Eee | Permanent, © The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the section called throat where the area is minimum, * Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is pl. As the fluid enters the nozzle,the fluid converges and due to this its pressure keeps on reducing until it reaches the minimum cross section area called throat. This minimum pressure p2 at the throat of the nozzle is maintained in the fluid for a small length after being discharged in the down stream also, « The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the pressure difference (p1-p2) between these «wo points which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pige when calibrated. Applications of Flow Nozzle + Its used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the atmosphere « Its usually used in situation where suspended solids have the property of setting. « 45 widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows. ‘Advantages of flow Nozzle « Installation is easy and is cheaper when compared to venturi meter « It is very compact Has high coefficient of discharge Limitations 1. Pressure recovery is low 2. Maintenance is high ‘on is difficult when compared to orifice flow meter.ia Sea wough Nozzle — He Head @ inaty SHO ang aes Ws velecity of Puts in py a sare ee Pipe. D = Diam. = dretion tors sake L2) Toted Head evestibe atine outtery — * © the pipe or deehow 1-1 @ =H-hF —~# Appoying Bernouttrs bu at secrmog 5 4 P, eo: ne hy *g Zan sh, BEg TE Iois) aie ibe ore of en FI 8 geo ( Det. tive) 2) = By A at atm. Prem = ‘ail au H oe 4he ae veliny act hues J ot Wee 4 fue he = GEL foe aa ay i TU AM= ay Frm Conk wit) Gua Te Q=-Av a dh. Ha M4 UPL at wt qa ght ee te ee oo =3 (4 Hue | 74 Dae Se ela we oe: eee Peis 29h w= 1 ee 2 Ti Vetee |