THE ABSOLUTE

BEGINNER’S TOOLKIT
Writing Help for New & Not-So-New Writers

Leanne Phillips
Writer | Certified Book Coach | Professional Editor

writewithme.leannephillips.com

Copyright © 2023 by Leanne Phillips

 Table of Contents

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1

PART I. LESSONS IN CRAFT

Avoiding Common Mistakes ............................................................................................. 3

Elevating Your Prose ......................................................................................................... 8

PART II. THE WRITING LIFE

Quick Tips on Building a Writing Life ............................................................................. 13

12 Tips for Hitting Your Daily Word Count .................................................................... 18

PART III. SPELLING, PUNCTUATION, AND GRAMMAR

Grammar Lab .................................................................................................................. 22

Comma Cheat Sheet ......................................................................................................... 35

Resources ......................................................................................................................... 40

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 INTRODUCTION
Welcome, writers!

I put together this Absolute Beginner’s Toolkit to address some of the common mistakes
I see in writing, to give writers ideas to help them improve and elevate their prose, and
to help writers build a writing life. For the most part, these are abbreviated versions of
things I teach in my online courses.

In Part I, Craft Lessons, I start by offering some help with the craft of writing. First up is
Common Mistakes. Why do I start with mistakes, you might ask. It seems negative, I
know, to point out the mistakes first. But I think it’s much easier to begin by eliminating
things, which will then give you the space to start adding in the good stuff in the Elevate
Your Prose section.

In Part II, The Writing Life, I offer tips to help you build The Writing Life and Tips for
Hitting Your Daily Word Count—this is useful whether or not you’re participating in a
challenge, like National Novel Writing Month.

In Part III, Spelling, Punctuation, and Grammar, I offer help with the technical aspects
of writing in the form of a Grammar Lab and Comma Cheat Sheet. The Comma Cheat
Sheet is actually 5 pages long—commas are intense! Listen, I’m a firm believer in writers
not only knowing their craft, but knowing proper spelling, punctuation, and grammar. If
you’re a writer, you’re either working in or want to work in the writing and publishing
industry. If you want to work in the writing and publishing industry, it’s your job to
know these things.

I hope this helps you. If you need further help, I’ve got you! Visit my Courses & Clubs
website for self-paced classes as well as accountability and craft memberships at
learnwithme.leannephillips.com. If you’re interested in one-on-one coaching, visit Write
with Leanne at writewithme.leannephillips.com.

All the best,

Leanne
Leanne Phillips

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PART I. LESSONS IN CRAFT

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 COMMON MISTAKES
These are common mistakes I see over and over again, not only with beginning writers,
but with seasoned writers, too. Learn to avoid making them, and your writing will
improve by 1,000 percent.

Common Mistake #1: Assuming your readers don’t know something.

You may want to give your writers the entire background on something because it’s
fascinating to you, but at best it may not be fascinating to your readers, and at worst it
may bore them and come across as patronizing. When you’re an expert on something, it
also makes it difficult to judge how much a layperson already knows. That’s where
regular Joe beta readers, critique partners, and coaches can come in handy.

Common Mistake #2: Assuming your readers do know something.

Being an expert on a topic also makes it difficult to judge how much your readers who
aren’t experts don’t know. Again, this is where beta readers, critique partners, and
coaches can help you. You may need an objective eye to tell you whether a layperson can
understand the story with what you’ve given them.

Common Mistake #3: Overusing adverbs.

Adverbs are almost always a violation of the admonition to “show don’t tell.” Don’t use
adverbs because it’s easier than putting your writing skills to work to show the reader
what your character is feeling or how your reader is doing something. Especially don’t
use adverbs in dialogue tags as a shortcut way of telling your readers how your character
said a line.

Common Mistake #4: Too much exposition.

Exposition is another violation of “show don’t tell.” It’s so pervasive that editors have an
acronym for it: R.U.E.—resist the urge to explain. Don’t give your readers long passages
of information (info dumps) or paragraphs of narrative prose telling them what
happened. Let them see it in a scene. Let them hear it in dialogue. Excite all the senses
to immerse your readers in the experience.

Common Mistake #5: Head hopping.

It’s hard to get everything in that you want to get in when you’re writing in one point of
view. It’s often easier to hop into another character’s head, just for a line or two, but
that’s cheating! Head hopping is pulling out of a scene’s point of view to get information
in that the point-of-view character couldn’t possibly know, e.g., that the character
they’re speaking with is secretly plotting against them. Don’t do it.

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Common Mistake #6: Overuse/Misuse of Flashbacks.

A character’s past is often relevant to the story, but the way to get it in isn’t through
flashbacks, dream sequences, info dumps, or stilted, pointed dialogue. Get it in
organically, as it comes up, for example, when something triggers a memory for your
character. I love this quote by Alain Resnais: “The present and the past coexist, but the
past shouldn’t be in flashback." It perfectly explains what I mean.

Common Mistake #7: Using Clichés.

Clichés are a sort of shorthand that let a reader know what a character is experiencing.
In other words, they’re a shortcut, and they’re a way of telling instead of showing. Why
put in the work to show readers how sad our protagonist is when there’s a perfectly good
cliché like “down in the mouth” out there? But clichés are phrases that have been so
overused they’ve lost all meaning.

Common Mistake #8: Overwriting.

Overwriting can mean writing too many words: As a writer, it’s part of your job to be
aware of the conventions of the genre you’re writing in and to pay attention to things
like word count. Put in the work to self-edit your novel and tighten it up so that it falls
into genre convention, or you’re not going to find much luck with agents and publishers,
or ultimately, make a positive connection with your ideal readers.

Overwriting can also mean writing long passages of overly flowery, purple prose. It’s
generally telling versus showing, and contemporary readers prefer to be pulled into the
story rather than have the story described to them in boring detail.

Common Mistake #9: Thinking revision means line editing.

Revising the first draft of a novel, or better put, rewriting that draft, is a big, big job. It is
a macro job. It may mean trashing entire chapters. It may mean writing several new
chapters. It may mean restructuring the novel, creating new characters, and ditching
other characters. A big mistake almost all beginning writers make is thinking their first
draft just needs micro, line-level revisions.

Common Mistake #10: Being didactic or too “on the nose.”

Don’t hit your readers over the head with a message, preach, or moralize to them. Subtly
get them thinking about things. Weave your themes throughout your novel like delicate
threads. Give them what they need, and let them take it from there. This is so much
more powerful. Believe me, your feelings will be made known, whether you intend them
to be or not. This is what is called the tone of the story.

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Common Mistake #11: Using Contrivances.

A contrivance is a convenient way to fill in a plot hole. A contrivance might be a

character overhearing the thing that helps them solve the crime, or getting a lucky
break, or something else that makes no sense to the story but helps the character.
Contrivances pull the reader out of the story. Note: A contrivance is generally more
acceptable if it gets your protagonist into trouble instead of out of it.

Common Mistake #12: The Proportion Problem.

The proportion problem is an imbalance in your story between narrative prose and
scenes with dialogue. Make sure your story has a proper balance. Too much narrative
prose can be boring. Too much dialogue can be exhausting. This isn’t a formula for
cookie cutter writing. This is what has evolved in quality contemporary fiction since
Jane Austen gave us the modern novel form.

Common Mistake #13: Using passive voice.

In general, writing in the passive voice is not as powerful as writing in a direct voice. It’s
much more powerful and evocative to say, “My brother John murdered Sheila,” than it
is to say, “Sheila was murdered.” The second sentence is tragic, but think of all the
things the first sentence evokes beyond that tragedy.

Common Mistake #14: Never using passive voice.

The rule against using passive voice is not an absolute. There is a time and a place to use
passive voice. Use passive voice sparingly: when you want to place emphasis on the
thing being done (the action); when you want to place emphasis on the object of the
sentence (the person or thing being acted upon) versus the subject (the person or thing
doing the acting); or when you don’t know who performed the action.

Common Mistake #15: Misusing flash forward.

Flash forward interrupts story present to temporarily shift into the future. It’s the
opposite of a flashback, but both are ways to manipulate time in a story. A poor use of
flash forward is often a cheap way to evoke emotion but may deflate tension. An
effective use of flash forward makes something in the story clearer or reveals something
important to the story in terms of elements like plot, character, or theme.

Common Mistake #16: Begging language.

“Begging language” is repetition that begs the reader to please, please, please get it,
usually because the writer either doesn’t trust their readers to get it or doesn’t trust
themselves to have conveyed it well enough the first time. Repetition is a literary device
that can have many uses, but if you use it, use it with intention, use it with confidence,
and use it well to make the repetition something meaningful that matters to your story.

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Common Mistake #17: Being too precious with words.

Both William Faulker and Stephen King have warned us that the things we are most
emotionally attached to as writers, our “darlings,” may not serve the story or may be
distracting or boring to readers. Let them go. But take heart: as Neil Gaiman has said,
our darlings are not lost forever. We can save them in what he calls the compost heap,
for another day, another story. Knowing this makes it easier to say goodbye.

Common Mistake #18: Not using a dictionary.

Don’t rely on someone else to do all the work to polish your manuscript. Take control of
your own destiny. Use a dictionary if you’re unsure of a spelling. Run spellcheck. Read
your manuscript aloud, word by word, to catch errors. You don’t want agents,
publishers, or readers distracted by mistakes—you want them caught up in your story,
and errors in spelling, grammar, or punctuation are a surefire way to pull them out of it.

Common Mistake #19: Using a thesaurus.

Using a thesaurus to find bigger and better words results in writing that feels
overstuffed and unnatural. It’s distracting to readers, takes away from your developing
voice, and makes your writing feel stilted and less cohesive. Add to that the fact that
words are rarely that interchangeable. It’s not enough to vary your word choice and find
a different word. The goal is to find the perfect word.

Common Mistake #20: Being sloppy.

Spelling and grammar may not come easily to you. You may have to take a course,
consult a dictionary or grammar guide often, or hire an editor. But don’t send a
manuscript out to an agent replete with errors, expecting them to see past that to the
brilliance of your story. They’re human, and it may hurt your chances. You’ve worked
hard on your novel, so do everything you can to give it its best chance.

Common Mistake #21: Being self-indulgent.

Being self-indulgent is another way of being precious with words. Yes, we write for
ourselves, but if you want your book to be accepted into the marketplace, then you must
write for your readers, too. Don’t disregard the reader who is going to have to wade
through your prose. Or who, more likely, won’t wade through it and will mark your book
DNF in a Goodreads review.

Common Mistake #22: Boring readers.

Boring your readers is the biggest sin of all. I find that, a lot of the time, boring writing is
self-indulgent or lazy writing. Don’t get me wrong, here. We have to write what we want
to write. We have to use all the things that make us, us. We have to be our authentic
selves, use our experiences and sensibilities, develop our voices, and write what is in our
hearts to write. But always, always, keep your readers in mind.

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Common Mistake #23: Shifting tense.

Watch out for tense hopping. Are you writing in past tense (generally preferred for
fiction) or present tense? Choose your tense for story present, and then stick with it,
unless you need to shift into to past perfect for a few lines to ground a paragraph or
scene in story past.

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 ELEVATE YOUR PROSE
15 + 1 Tips to Take Your Writing to the Next Level

Tip #1: Write an interesting and engaging first line.

The process of hooking your readers starts with the very first line. Take the first line of
Tod Goldberg’s novel Gangsterland: “When Sal Cupertine was going to kill a guy, he’d
walk right up and shoot him in the back of the head.” Or the first line of Jill Alexander
Essbaum’s novel Hausfrau: “Anna was a good wife, mostly.” These first lines raise
questions the reader wants to know the answers to, and so they keep reading.

Tip #2: Write an interesting and engaging opening paragraph.

An opening paragraph can do a lot of heavy lifting. It can ground the story in time and
place, reveal a lot about the characters, and let readers know where the story is going.
Use interesting details to provide less interesting but essential information.

I’ve written in detail about this before: On Opening Paragraphs.

Tip #3: Start at the beginning.

Start in medias res, in the middle of the action, but don’t do so without context. Start
your story where the story really begins. Eliminate throat clearing and backstory.

I’ve written about this in detail before: Start at the Beginning.

Tip #4: Earn your ending.

By this I mean that all the stuff that comes before the ending must support the ending,
so that the ending rings true and is, as Aristotle said, surprising but inevitable. Most
stories go wrong by following up a brilliant beginning with a mushy middle. Put as much
work into the middle as you do the beginning, and make sure the narrative drive of your
story logically leads to the ending you have in mind.

Tip #5: Connect your beginning and your ending.

Think of your beginning and ending as bookends, or think of your beginning as a

question posed and your ending as a question answered. Your beginning and ending
should connect in some way.

I’ve written about this in detail before: The Connection Between Beginnings and
Endings.

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Tip #6: Compress time.

One of my favorite short stories is “A Stroke of Good Fortune” by Flannery O’Connor. I

love the craft in this story: the 12-page story takes place over the course of maybe an
hour or so, while the protagonist, Ruby, is carrying groceries up a flight of stairs. I love
the way O’Connor compresses time in this story. Compressing time often raises the
stakes, forcing the writer to make leaner choices, and resulting in a tighter story.

Tip #7: Give your characters agency, a voice, a point of view, and more than
a pretty face.

Your protagonist needs to have what I call “literary agency.” This means, they have to be
doing something, taking action, making decisions. A character who is observing things
or having things happen to them is a boring character.

Your story also needs a strong and solid point of view, whether it’s first or third. I
suggest the closer the better. Second and omniscient points of view are much trickier
and are rarely used well or even correctly. If you want to attempt them, do your
homework.

Lastly, characterize your protagonist well. Go beyond physical descriptions to let readers
know who your characters are.

I’ve written about these ideas in detail before:

Get That Close POV

Characterization Lessons from Twilight

More Than a Pretty Face

Tip #8: Be a straight shooter.

Don’t be coy with readers or get tension into your story in a false, cheap, or unearned
way.

I’ve written about this in detail before: Be a Straight Shooter.

Tip #9: Add some texture.

Use literary devices like subplots, subtext, secondary characters, themes, and motifs to
add layers and texture to your story.

I’ve written about this in detail before: Add Some Texture.

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Tip #10: Make your dialogue count.

Dialogue is not just filler. Dialogue is another element of your story, and like every
element, it serves a purpose. Dialogue should serve at least three purposes in your story:
to characterize the speakers, to evoke emotion and infuse it into your story, and always,
always, always, to move the story forward.

I’ve written about this in detail before: Make Dialogue Count.

Tip #11: Show don’t tell.

Telling can take many forms: long passages of narrative prose describing a scene instead
of pulling readers into it; physical descriptions of characters that tell readers nothing
about who the characters are; backstory that isn’t incorporated into the story
organically; and exposition/info dumps that tell readers the things you want them to
know. Put in the work to show readers these kinds of things in scenes with dialogue or
with interesting narrative prose that pulls readers in.

For this, I’m going back to two posts from Tip #7 because character descriptions are one
area where writers often go wrong: Characterization Lessons from Twilight gives
examples of telling versus showing—physical descriptions of the characters don’t really
show readers who the characters are, allow readers into the characters’ heads, or
provide an engaging, immersive reading experience. More Than a Pretty Face gives
examples of doing it the right way—interesting details let us know who the characters
really are and draw us into the story.

Tip #12: Write for readers.

One of the best ways to improve and elevate your writing is to keep your readers in
mind. Ignoring your readers in the writing process can many things, including being
self-indulgent; assuming your readers don’t know something; assuming your readers do
know something; being didactic, moralizing, or preaching; being precious about your
words; and boring your readers.

See Common Mistakes above. Also, I’ve written about this in detail before: Write for
Readers.

Tip #13: Write hard.

By write hard, I mean write consistently and write a lot. This is the biggest and best way
your writing will improve. Ira Glass has talked about what he calls “the gap”—the
distance between your good taste as a reader, knowing what good literature is, and being
able to write it yourself. The way to bridge this gap, he says, is to produce a huge body of
work, bad work that gradually gets better. Mozart is an example of this: he wrote 24 not-
exactly-incredible symphonies before he wrote his 25th Symphony, which is still
celebrated today.

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I’ve written about this in detail before:

Bridging the Gap Between Aspiration and Talent

Write Hard

Tip #14: Read like a writer.

By this I mean to take notice of the way the writers you admire accomplish the things
you’d like to accomplish in your own writing. Read good books in your genre and even
outside your genre. Study your craft. Read good craft books. Stephen King said: “If you
don’t have the time to read, you don’t have the time (or the tools) to write. Simple as
that.”

Here is something I wrote about craft books: The Reading Writer.

Here is a review I wrote of Melissa Febos’s collection of craft essays: Book Review: Body
Work by Melissa Febos.

Also, see the Resources section below.

Tip #15: Read like a reader.

This last tip for improving and elevating your writing is simple: read like a reader. Read
for enjoyment, read the kinds of books you love to read, and once you’ve finished them,
think about why you loved them so much. Pay attention to why you’re drawn to certain
books, why you are left feeling satisfied by certain books, and how you might harness
that kind of power in your own stories, in your own voice.

BONUS TIP: Be fearless.

This one is the most important of all, I think. Have courage. Be brave. Be fearless in your
writing. Dig deep, and let the hard stuff bubble up to the surface. If you are afraid and
don’t go there, you will only get a watered-down version of that powerful, meaningful
thing you want to convey.

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PART II. THE WRITING LIFE

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 QUICK TIPS ON BUILDING
A WRITING LIFE
I’ve written extensively about building and living a creative life. Here are a few quick tips
on building a writing life. Where applicable, I’ve included links to the articles I’ve
written on the topics.

Quick Tip #1: Believe You Are a Writer.

The first step in living a creative life is acknowledging to yourself that you are a
creative—this is who you are. At some point, you have to stop being aspirational or a
hobbyist if you want to be a career writer someday. If you don’t believe this then you’ll
treat writing like a hobby or a dessert—something you get to do after you’ve done
everything else first.

Resource:
A Writer Is Someone Who Writes.

Quick Tip #2: Give yourself the best part of your day.

When do you feel most full of passion for life and living? For me, it’s first thing in the
morning. I wake up feeling on fire and ready to go, but by midafternoon I am less
enthusiastic, and by evening, I no longer feel like working. I’ll do it if I have to, but I’d
rather relax. So, I try to structure my writing and work life accordingly. I give myself the
best part of the day—early mornings. That’s when I write. Challenging work tasks get the
rest of the morning, and more routine, less intense tasks get the afternoon. Give yourself
the best part of your day.

Resource:
Writer, Interrupted.

Quick Tip #2: Write consistently.

You may not be able to write 2-4 hours a day, every day, and you may have to squeeze
writing into lunch breaks or brief interludes waiting in the doctor’s lobby. The key is to
write consistently, every day if you can, but that’s not possible for everyone. Decide what
you can do, when and where you can write, then do it.

Quick Tip #3: Write a lot.

The biggest and best thing you can do to become a better writer is to write … a lot. Ira
Glass once spoke eloquently on NPR about Bridging the Gap Between Aspiration and
Talent, and even Mozart had to work hard to build on his natural talent—I wrote about
this in an article called Write Hard. Both are lessons in hard work and lots of practice.

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Quick Tip #4: Writing is your work.

I got this idea from Steven Pressfield and his book The War of Art. Beginning to look at
my writing as my work helped me immensely. I highly recommend it. It made me realize
I treated my day job much better than I treated my writing life. I don’t stop working at
my day job when I don’t feel like it. I don’t call out from my day job because I don’t want
to go. Nowadays, I treat my writing life with the same kind of respect.

Resources:
Writing and Warring.
The Calm Before the War.

Quick Tip #5: Get some structure into your writing life.

I find it almost impossible to write without some kind of structure. At a minimum,

knowing when you will write and where you will write will up your writing game.

Resources:
On Structuring Your Writing Life.
Time Is on My Side.

Quick #6: Say no to things that aren’t writing.

I used to think I had to make time for writing, but I’ve learned over the years that I need
to put writing first and let go of lots of things that are not writing. This meant not only
saying no to other people, but Saying No to Myself.

Quick Tip #7: Have a plan for when you go off course.

It’s almost inevitable that, once you’ve built a writing life, you’ll backslide. Maybe you’ll
skip a day of writing, then a week, then a month. When you realize you need to get back
to your writing routine, what steps you will take to get back on track?

Resource:
Sidetracked but not Derailed.

Quick Tip #8: Journal.

I believe in journaling for writers, whether it’s Julia Cameron’s morning pages that you
toss away or journaling about your life or your past. Journaling can clear the cobwebs,
remind you of things you’ve forgotten, inspire you, and open the door to your creative
work.

Resource:
6 Reasons Writers Should Journal.

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Quick Tip #9: Live that writing life even when you’re not writing.

Writing isn’t a hobby or a thing you do. It’s a part of who you are. I believe that, if you
are a creative person, that creativity infuses all or nearly all of your life.

Resources:
A Writer’s Days.
What to Do While You’re Waiting.
Ways of Writing.

Quick Tip #10: Set goals.

Set small, incremental goals that will help you reach the big goals. Put them in writing.

Resources:
The Power of Goals.
The Power of Words.
The Power of a Plan.

Quick Tip #11: Connect.

Writers are solitary creatures, but you don’t have to write in isolation. In fact, I suggest
you don’t. Connecting with other writers will give you all kinds of power as you work
toward a writing career, including accountability, motivation, and a tribe of people who
understand and care.

Resource:
We’re on This Journey Alone Together.

Quick Tip #12: Contribute.

One way you can become a part of the writing community and a good literary citizen is
to contribute, and one of the first ways you can start contributing is by writing book
reviews. Read my 5 Reasons You Should Write Book Reviews, and once you’re
convinced, read my article on Writing Book Reviews to get started.

Quick Tip #13: Know the publishing industry.

If you want to work in the publishing industry, one of the ways I suggest you start
building a writing life is by knowing and understanding the industry you want to work
in. I’m including a few resources below to give you an idea of some of the kinds of things
you should be learning, but look at websites like JaneFriedman.com and Publisher’s
Marketplace for more. Sign up for their free newsletters and start learning the biz. If
you’d like to fast-track it, sign up for Jane Friedman’s industry newsletter, The Hot
Sheet—she learns all the things and passes them on to you, to save you the time and the
trouble. You can sign up for my free newsletter, too, and get craft and industry tips every
other Thursday.

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Resources:
Submission Etiquette.
A Podcast for Every Writer.
Places to Research Agents for Free or Cheap.
When Is it Okay to Write for Free?
10 Tips for Submitting to Literary Journals.
KISS Your Manuscript.

Quick Tip #14: Celebrate your wins.

Don’t gloss over your wins. Each tiny win is one step closer to the bigger wins. Celebrate
all your wins, no matter how small, because each one is important.

Resources:
Celebrating the Wins.
Celebration Rituals.

Quick Tip #15: Celebrate your rejections.

Getting rejections means you’re doing it—you’re putting yourself and your writing out
there. Each rejection is one step closer to an acceptance. Celebrate rejections with your
very own Rejection Rituals.

Quick Tip #16: Get a hobby.

Writers are creatives, and many writers have other creative interests outside of writing.
I’ve heard from a lot of writers about their other creative pursuits, and nearly all of them
say these other creative pastimes fuel their writing.

Resources:
6 Writers and Their Pastimes.
6 More Writers and Their Pastimes.
More Writers & Their Pastimes.
A Handful of Writers and Their Pastimes.
Writing and Writing on Running.

Quick Tip #17: Know it’s never too late.

I used the excuse that it was too late to begin a writing career for a long time. It kept me
from trying, which kept me from failing. I didn’t start to pursue writing diligently until I
was 57 years old. But over the past seven years, I’ve completely transformed my life. I’m
an award-winning, professional writer now, and I don’t say this to brag, but to share
with you what I now know to be true: it’s never too late.

Resource:
Late Bloomer.

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Quick Tip #18: Keep Going.

I used to think I had to have natural talent to be a writer. In my creative writing class at
UC Santa Cruz in my twenties, there were many writers whose stories were much better
than mine. When I was pursuing an English degree with a creative writing emphasis at
Cal Poly, a number of young writers were far more talented than I was. I thought writing
would only ever be a hobby for me, but I’ve since learned that hard work and practice
can make up for a lack of natural talent. Persistence, tenacity, and resiliency are the
secret ingredients to writing success. I still know lots of writers who are more talented
than I am. There will always be writers who are more talented than I am. But the more I
try, the better I get, and the closer I get to my goals.

Resources:
Why You Have to Keep Going.
The Power of Persistence.

Bonus Tip: Learn from the experts.

Take a look around you at the artists you admire. For me, it’s writers, yes, but it’s also
other creative people—actors, screenwriters, musicians. What can you learn from their
success?

Resources:
5 Things I Learned About Writing from AC/DC.
6 Things Tom Petty Taught Me About the Writing Life.

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 12 TIPS FOR HITTING YOUR
DAILY WORD COUNT
(or breaking out of a writing slump)

Whether you’re participating in National Novel Writing Month, another writing

challenge, or trying to meet a self-imposed deadline to finish your book, there will be
days you feel stuck. Here are some tips for breaking through writer’s block and hitting
your daily word count goal.
Tip #1: Writing routines.

Have a scheduled time and place to write. Routine leads to habit leads to success, so
once you’ve decided on your writing routine, stick to it. Go to that same place every day,
at the same time, and follow your same rituals to get going.

Tip #2: Writing rituals.

Speaking of rituals, what are your writing rituals? What gets you going? It might be
taking a walk before you begin to write, brewing a cup of coffee or tea, playing mood
music, or easing into the new writing by reading what you wrote the day before.

Tip #3: Plan ahead.

Have a plan for each day’s writing. Assuming you’re writing a 75,000-word novel and
you want to write 50,000 words or two-thirds of your novel in November, and assuming
15 chapters of approximately 5,000 words each, 1,667 words is one-third of a chapter. If
you have three scenes in a chapter, write a scene a day.

It’s also helpful to plan ahead each day for the next day’s writing. This can help you
avoid a slump in the first place or break through it more quickly.

Tip #4: Break it up.

Break the writing up into multiple sessions if you need to. If you’re not feeling it but
need to hit 1,667 words, set a timer for an hour and see where you’re at. Take a break,
then set the timer for another hour. Keeping going.

18
Tip #5: Recovery plan.

Have a plan for recovering if you get off track. I got this idea from a life coach I worked
with. She encouraged me to have a plan for how to get back on the horse whenever I fall
off, no matter in which area of my life. For example, if I fall into a slump and stop
working out, my recovery plan is to follow a list of 3 things I must do first thing the next
morning to break out of the slump: drink a tall glass of water, do a simple round of 5
minutes of exercises that I’ve already planned out, and take a walk.

If I start to fall out of my writing routine, I follow a simple writing recovery plan: I make
coffee, read some pages from my work-in-progress, set a timer for 10 minutes, and write
for 10 minutes to get back into it. Nearly always, I am into it by then and continue
beyond the 10 minutes. What’s your plan to get back on track with writing instead of
feeling bad about it and letting it continue? Make it something simple and preplanned,
so you don’t even have to think about it.

Tip #6: Pick a scene, any scene.

Skip ahead and write a different scene from your WIP’s outline or scene cards. If you’re
not feeling any of the scenes you’ve already sketched out, take 30 minutes to brainstorm
some new ones. Or take a scene you already have and add something to it: an animal, a
change in the weather, a change of location, or a bad turn of events that raises the stakes
for your protagonist and amps up the tension.

Tip #7: Write from a prompt.

Grab a prompt book or visit an online prompt generator and write a scene from a
prompt. You can figure out where in your book it will best fit later, but oftentimes, the
thinking a prompt generates will lead to an aha moment—it might inspire a scene you
hadn’t thought of before that solves a problem, further characterizes your protagonist,
or fixes a hole in the plot.

I also sometimes use a random word generator to generate two words I must then
incorporate into an opening sentence. Or I visit the Wikipedia Main Page and read the
day’s Featured Article, see the Featured Picture, read In the News, Did You Know? and
On This Day to spark ideas.

Tip #8: Writing sprints.

Do a few rounds of writing sprints, either during or outside your scheduled writing time.
Set a timer for 15-20 minutes, pick a scene, and write, then take a short break and do it
again. If you’re participating in NaNoWriMo, you can join in on NaNoWriMo writing
sprints on social media during the month of November.

19
Tip #9: Flesh things out.

If you’re just a little short of your daily word count, go back to what you’ve written and
flesh it out. Can you add some elements to create a closer point of view? Can you elevate
your prose a little? Whatever you do, don’t edit or eliminate. Add words only. The
editing will come later.

Tip #10: Take a memo.

Take a break from your desk. Dictate a scene into your phone while you’re driving,
taking a walk, or sitting outside on the patio. Then type the words up later.

Tip #11: Co-write.

Find some writers who are in the same boat. Co-writing groups, whether in-person or
online, are generally free. They offer a break from the isolation of writing, accountability
to help you stay on task for an hour or so, and motivation to keep going.

Tip #12: Don’t Play Catchup.

It’s not easy to catch up if you fall behind on your word count. So don’t. At least, don’t
look at it that way, because it can be overwhelming to feel as if you are behind. If you’re
doing NaNoWriMo and you miss a day, simply readjust your daily goal. Say you wrote
1,667 words a day for 22 days and have a total of 36,674 words. Then Thanksgiving
comes along, and despite your best intentions, you never make it from the pumpkin pie
to the computer. No regrets. You have 7 days left to write 13,326 words. Instead of
writing 1,667 words a day, readjust and plan to write 1,904 words a day to hit your goal.
Or plan a couple of extra writing sessions for Friday and Saturday of 834 words each. Or
… you get the idea.

RESOURCES:

Shut Up & Write! Free in-person and online co-writing groups.

Random Word Generator

Writing Prompt Generator

Fiction Prompts Based on Stranger Than Fiction Locations

Wikipedia Main Page

NaNoWriMo: Preparing for 50,000 Words by Leanne Phillips

Writing from Prompts by Leanne Phillips

The Procrastinator’s Guide to Hitting Your NaNoWriMo Word Count on the Last Day by
Gila Pfeffer

20
PART III. SPELLING, PUNCTUATION,
AND GRAMMAR

21
 GRAMMAR LAB
(Note: Rules are from, and references are to, the Chicago Manual of Style which is the
style guide most often used for fiction.)

1. GRAMMAR

Adverbs vs. Adjectives:

• An adjective describes and modifies a noun, e.g., a tall woman, a pretty

flower, a delicious salad.

• An adverb does not modify a noun, but it can modify an adjective (e.g., a
very tall woman); a verb (often by adding -ly, e.g., she ran quickly or he
wrote well); or another adverb (e.g., she ran too quickly).

Dangling modifiers: A dangling modifier occurs when a writer modifies something

that’s not explicitly in a sentence.

Incorrect: Having finished the book, it was placed on the nightstand. (This is a
dangling modifier because we don’t know who finished the book. The phrase
“having finished the book” modifies the actor, but the actor is absent from the
sentence, so the modifier is left dangling.)

Correct: Having finished the book, Sara laid it on her nightstand. (Thanks to the
second part of the sentence, we know it was Sara who finished the book, so there
is no dangling modifier.)

Incomplete comparisons: This occurs when an essential element of a comparison is

left out. You can spot an incomplete comparison if you find yourself asking, “in what
way?”

Incorrect: The body wash was more pleasant than the bar of soap. (In what
way?)

Correct: The body wash was more pleasant-smelling than the bar of soap.

Also correct: The body wash felt sudsier than the bar of soap.

Incorrect: The cherry pie was better than the apple pie. (In what way?)

Correct: The cherry pie was better-tasting than the apple pie.

Also correct: The cherry pie’s crust was flakier than the apple pie’s crust.

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Lack of proper agreement between nouns and pronouns: This one is becoming
a little less strict as we adopt the singular form of “they” (which has been around for
hundreds of years) in contemporary writing.

Incorrect: The tiger stalked their prey. (There is only one tiger, so the plural
pronoun “their” is incorrect.)

Correct: The tiger stalked its prey. (The singular pronoun “its” is correct.)

Also correct: The tigers stalked their prey. (A plural noun gets a plural pronoun.)

When it comes to people, however, the pronouns “they” and “their” can be
singular or plural. Which is used depends on the author’s intention.

Correct: The girl enjoyed her cereal. (This is correct because the pronoun “her”
agrees with the noun “girl.”)

Correct/Incorrect: The girl enjoyed their cereal. (This is correct if the girl in the
sentence uses the pronouns they/them/their; it is incorrect if the girl uses
the pronouns she/her/hers.)

Note: In the past, authors often chose one set of pronouns (she/her/hers or
he/him/his) to discuss people of an unknown gender, most commonly the
masculine form, e.g., “A writer must be careful to check his spelling.”
Later, authors began to alternate, perhaps writing one chapter using
“she/her/hers” and the next using “he/him/his.” In contemporary writing,
however, it is becoming more common to use the singular form of “they”
(they/them/their) to discuss a person of an unknown gender, e.g., “A
writer must be careful to check their spelling.” This is gradually becoming
more common with reflexive pronouns, too, which refer back to the noun,
e.g., “A writer must have confidence in themself.”

Misplaced modifiers: This most often occurs when a modifier is separated from the
word it’s intended to modify, so that it looks like it’s modifying a different word.

Incorrect: One morning, I shot an elephant in my pajamas. (Because “pajamas” is

closer to “elephant” than the subject of the sentence, “I,” it sounds like it’s
intended to modify “elephant.” Credit to Groucho Marx: “One morning, I shot an
elephant in my pajamas. How he got into my pajamas, I’ll never know.”)

Correct: One morning, while I was still in my pajamas, I shot an elephant.

23
 Incorrect: Topped with sprinkles, Leanne enjoyed the chocolate ice cream cone.
(Sprinkles is closer to Leanne than ice cream cone. This makes it sound like
Leanne is topped with sprinkles.)

Correct: Leanne enjoyed the chocolate ice cream cone topped with sprinkles.

Tense: This is a tricky one for many writers. For writers of fiction and narrative
memoir, the most important thing to remember about tense is to stick to one main tense
in your story, generally past tense. Present tense is considered more exhausting for
readers.

• Present: “I eat the peach.” It’s happening now.

• Past: “I ate the peach.” It happened in the past. When used as the tense in
fiction or memoir, this is story present. See below.

• Past perfect: “I had eaten the peach.” It happened in the more distant past,
before the past being written about. When used in fiction or memoir, this
is story past. See below.

• Future: “I will eat the peach.” It hasn’t happened yet.

Note: When you’re writing in past tense, that is called “story present”—what is
happening in the story as you tell it. (Confusing, right?) But sometimes as you’re telling
a story, you have to go back into the more distant past, before story present. This is
called story past. When you do, you’ll use past perfect for a line or two to ground the
readers in that more distant past, but then revert to simple past tense.

Example from my short story “Goody Two Shoes”:

Here is an example of a story being told in past tense (story present) in the first two
paragraphs, but briefly switching to past perfect in the third paragraph to tell about
some things that happened before story present (story past), then switching back to past
tense (story present) in the last few lines of the third paragraph. Notice, too, that even
when in story past, there are several sentences written in simple past tense—as long as
the reader has been grounded in story past, this is acceptable and even desirable.

“[W]hen Monica asked Carl whether he was proud of Rose, Rose

realized that Carl considered her thriftiness his own
accomplishment. It was a point of pride for him, keeping Rose on a
budget. He sidestepped the question and went off on a self-serving
tangent.

“‘Well,’ Carl said, ‘I run a real tight ship. We don’t buy anything
brand new, and we don’t pay for stuff we can do ourselves. Like
haircuts. My wife cuts my hair. She cuts her own hair, too, and she

24
 doesn’t get her nails done or buy fancy clothes.’ He talked about
Rose as if she weren’t sitting right there.

“It was true—Rose didn’t waste things. At first, Rose had cut costs
out of necessity. Carl had started giving her a weekly allowance
when they were first married and she was a nineteen-year-old
bride. That’s how her mama and daddy had done it before her, and
she hadn’t questioned it. Over time, Rose came to pride herself on
not spending money on superficial things. The last time she’d
bought a new dress was for her sister’s fourth wedding. She’d paid
five dollars at the Goodwill for a designer dress in decent condition.
It was a great find, even though it was probably twenty years old, a
half size too big, and had a ripped seam under the arm. Rose had
taken it in and mended it herself. Now, listening to Carl talk about
her like she was some sort of refurbished sofa, she didn’t feel proud.
She felt embarrassed. She hid her unmanicured hands behind her
back when it came time to take the picture.”

Title capitalization: This depends on whether you’re writing about a specific person,
writing about a general category of person, or referring to the person by their title:

Incorrect: I called mom the other day. (Here, the writer is referring to their
mother by name.)

Correct: I called Mom the other day. (The writer calls their mother “Mom,” so it is
capitalized.)

Also correct: I called my mom the other day. (Here, the writer is referring to a
specific mom, but not using “Mom” as the mother’s name, rather as a
category of persons, mothers or moms.

Incorrect: I asked to speak to a Commander. (A general category of people, not a

specific person.

Correct: I asked to speak to a commander.

Also correct: I asked to speak to Commander Jones. (A specific person,

referenced by name.)

2. PUNCTUATION

abbreviations: Generally, no punctuation, e.g., DC, US, USA

abbreviations of years: ’77 (not ‘77) (closing apostrophe, not opening apostrophe)

25
colon: Words before colon must introduce what will follow the colon, e.g., a list, and
may not be words that would make the whole thing a complete sentence without the
colon.

• Correct: I went to the grocery store and picked up a few things: bananas,
strawberries, and buttermilk.

• Incorrect: I went to the grocery store and picked up: bananas,

strawberries, and buttermilk.

compound nouns: Nouns made up of two or more words are either open, closed, or
hyphenated. There is generally a normal progression when a new compound noun
enters the lexicon. First, it is usually open, that is, made up of two separate words, e.g.,
electronic mail, eye roll, or wild card. Over time, it generally becomes hyphenated, e.g.,
e-mail, buy-in, or on-ramp. Last, it becomes closed, that is, a single word, e.g.,
bathroom, sheepdog, and also, email is now the accepted spelling, with e-mail a less-
preferred variant.

BONUS TIP: Two-word adjectives: generally, hyphenate, e.g., back-alley deal,

punch-drunk love. But, watch for adjectives that sound like two words, e.g.,
hungover. “She was punch-drunk” or Punch-Drunk Love but, “She was
hungover.”

ellipses: a set of three dots to show that material has been omitted or to show speech
trailing off in written dialogue (versus interrupted speech—see em dash).

en dash: The en dash is so called because it’s about the width of the letter N. It is the
least commonly used in the battle between hyphens, en dashes, and em dashes, and its
uses are quite specific. It is typically used to denote time ranges, e.g., 1942–1995,
October–December, 4o–60 hours.

end punctuation in italics: If the end punctuation is part of the italicized sentence, then
italicize the punctuation, e.g., Am I seeing things? But if the end punctuation is not part
of the italicized phrase, do not italicize the end punctuation, e.g., I am so excited—next
Saturday we are going to see Every Brilliant Thing!

em dash: The em dash is so called because it’s about the width of the letter M. The em
dash is most often used in pairs to call attention to words are phrases that are set off
from the rest of the sentence for emphasis or dramatic effect. Example from my short
story “Goody Two Shoes”: “She decided to write him a note instead—he was in no mood
for a rational conversation—and was just about situated to set off down the hill toward
town, her suitcase in one hand, the wagon handle in the other, when she heard chaos
break loose outside.” The em dash is also used to show interrupted speech (versus
trailing-off speech) in written dialogue (see ellipses).

hyphen: Of the hyphen, the en dash, and the em dash, it’s the shortest of the three. The
hyphen is only used after a prefix or to create a hyphenated compound word. See
compound nouns, above.

26
italics: Use italics for the titles of longer works, e.g., novels, movies, or album titles. For
thoughts, texts, tattoo wording, etc., use italics or quotation marks, one or the other.
Italics are better to separate from regular dialogue. Be consistent. E.g., don’t use italics
for one tattoo and quotes for another. You can also use italics to set off words used as
words, e.g., “The word fat is offensive,” or “Ironically, I misspelled the word right.”
Italics are the preferred style for words as words by Chicago Style, which is used by most
book publishers, but double quotation marks (not single) are acceptable.

parallelism: Parallelism refers to making sure all parts of a sentence have the same
grammatical structure. I caught myself breaking the rule about parallelism in the first
sentence about Title Capitalization, above.

Incorrect: I originally wrote: “This depends on whether you’re writing about a

specific person, a general category of person, or referring to the person by
their title.” (I carried the phrase “writing about” impliedly into the second
item in the list, “a general category of person,” but then I switched to a
different structure, “referring to,” when I wrote about the last item in the
list.)

Correct: “This depends on whether you’re writing about a specific person, writing
about a general category of person, or referring to the person by their
title.” (This gives each part its own lead-in phrase, so the same structure
for each part.)

Also correct: “This depends on whether you’re writing about a specific person, a
general category of person, or a person you’re referencing by their title.”
(This implies the lead-in phrase “writing about” to each part of the list, so
the same structure for each part.)

possessives and misplaced apostrophes:

• Use an apostrophe and an S to show possession, e.g., “That is Louise’s ice

cream cone.” (The ice cream cone belongs to Louise.)

• Generally, use an apostrophe and an S for a singular proper name ending

in S, e.g., “The chocolate candies are Cindy Torres’s.” (See CMOS 7:17).
One way to think about it is that, if you were speaking, you would probably
pronounce that second S. But, if you wouldn’t pronounce a second S, you
can leave it off, e.g., “Those are Maggie Downs’ pencils.”

• For a plural possessive, do not add an S (e.g., “the families’ cars”)

• I see this often, an apostrophe placed before an S when it doesn’t belong

because it’s a plural, not a possessive, e.g., “I have difficulty knowing when
to use apostrophe’s.” Should be: “I have difficulty knowing when to use
apostrophes.” (Note: this is the apostrophe mistake I catch myself making
most often!)

27
 • Another example: to form the plural of a name ending in S, add -ES, e.g.,
the plural of Torres is Torreses, not Torres’s. Or, to make it easier on
yourself, the Torres family. Plural possessive: “Torreses’” or “Torres
family’s.”

quotations marks: Double quotation marks for dialogue and shorter works, e.g., short
story titles, television episode titles, and song titles. Single quotation marks within
dialogue, e.g., for quotes within a quote or shorter works mentioned in dialogue.

semicolons: You need an independent clause on each side of a semicolon—the clause on

either side must stand on its own, and both sides must be closely related in thought.
Semicolons may also be used to separate items in a more complex list, e.g., if there are
commas used in one of the items in a list, e.g., “My father thought many things were
important for me to learn, including gratitude; reading, writing, and arithmetic; and
good manners.

3. WORDS & MEANINGS

Confusing similar spellings and words (in alphabetical order):

affect vs. effect:

• “Affect” is generally used as a verb meaning “to produce an effect upon,”

e.g., “The things I do first thing in the morning affect the way I feel all
day.” (Note: “affect” can be a noun meaning “an observable emotional
response,” e.g., “My mother’s affect noticeably changed.”)

• “Effect” is generally used as a noun meaning “a change that results when

something is done or happens” or a “a particular feeling or mood created
by something, e.g., “The things I do first thing in the morning have no
effect on the way I feel all day,” or, “The effects of the anesthesia wore off
quickly.” (Note: “effect” can be a verb meaning “to cause something to
come into being” (or to happen), e.g., “My speech effected the change I’d
hoped for at the organization.”

a lot vs. allot vs. alot:

• “a lot” means many or often.

• “allot” means to assign a portion to.
• “alot” is not a word.

all right vs. alright: Same meaning, but “all right” is actually correct.

• Additional resource: All Right or Alright: Which Is Correct?

28
anymore vs. any more:

• “anymore” is an adverb referring to time, e.g., “I can’t see you anymore.”

• “any more” is a determiner referring to quantities, e.g., “I don’t have any

more pencils.”

awhile vs. a while:

• “awhile” is an adverb used to modify a verb and means “for a while,” e.g.,
“I ran awhile,” “We talked awhile.”

• “a while” is the article “a” with the noun “while” (meaning a period of
time) and follows a preposition, e.g., “for,” (“I’m going to lay down for a
while”).

everyday vs. every day:

• “everyday” is an adjective meaning “used or seen daily” or “ordinary,” e.g.,

“These are my everyday shoes.”

• “every day” is an adverb phrase meaning “daily,” e.g., “I wear these shoes
every day.”

• Tip: If you can put a word in between every and day, e.g., “every single
day,” it’s the two-word adverb.

• Additional resource: Everyday vs. Every Day

farther vs. further:

• “farther” for physical distance, e.g., “I ran farther than you did.”

• “further” for figurative or metaphorical distance, e.g., “We can’t go any

further with our studies until you catch up on the reading.”

into vs. in to:

• “into” is a preposition generally describing where someone or something is

and indicating entry, e.g., “You walked into the party like you were walking
onto a yacht.”

• “in to” depends on the context of the sentence, but generally, if you can
replace “to” with “in order to,” instead, then “in to” is correct, e.g., “I
walked in to see what was going on.

29
its vs. it’s:

• “its” is a possessive pronoun, e.g., “The dog ate its dinner.”

• “it’s” is a conjunction meaning “it is,” e.g., “It’s time to go inside.”

lay vs. lie:

• “lay” is to set something down, think of “place,” e.g., “I place the pen on
the table,” “I lay the pen on the table.” The past tense of lay is laid, “I laid
the pen on the table.” Tip: “lay” rhymes with “place” and means to place.

• “lie” is to physically lie down, think of “recline,” e.g., “I am going to recline

in my chair,” “I am going to lie down in my bed.” The past tense of lie is
lay, e.g., “I lay awake all night.” Tip: “lie” rhymes with “recline” and means
to physically recline.

lose vs. loose:

• “lose” means the opposite of “win” or to misplace something.

• “loose” is the opposite of “tight.”

of vs. have:

• “of” is a preposition, a function word meaning many things, e.g., where

something is (“west of the Mississippi”), the cause of something (“he died
of pneumonia”), origin (“the man of La Mancha”), or category (“grizzly
bears are a subspecies of brown bear”)

• “have” is a verb with many meanings, including possession (“I have sixteen
dollars”), part of a whole (“the car has anti-lock brakes”), or obligation (“I
have to go to the store.”

• Incorrect: “I should of gone to the movies last night.”

• Correct: “I should have gone to the movies last night.”

onto vs. on to:

• “onto” is a preposition denoting location, e.g., “the dog ran onto the patio.”

• In a sentence with “on to,” the word “on” is part of a phrasal verb and is
connected to the word before it; it is not connected to the word “to.” For
example, “I can’t log on to the computer,” or “I’m someone you can count
on to do the right thing.”

30
set vs. sit vs. sat:

• “set” is to set something down; the past tense of set is also set.

• “sit” is to physically sit; sat is the past tense of sit.

there vs. their vs. they’re:

• “there” generally means location, e.g., “the garden is over there.”

• “their” shows possession, e.g., “that is their car.”

• “they’re” is a contraction of “they are,” e.g., “they’re going to the store.”

then vs. than:

• “then” generally means “at that time” or “next in order,” e.g., “When the
clock strikes midnight, then Cinderella has to leave the ball,” or, “First
came the chicken, then came the egg.”

• “than” is a conjunction used for comparison, e.g., “She is older than I am,”
or to indicate difference, e.g., “I would rather be anywhere else than here.”

to / too / two:

• “to” is a preposition generally used to denote movement, e.g., “I am going

to the movies.”

• “too” is an adverb that can mean the same as also or that denotes excess,
e.g., “I am going to the movies, too,” or, “I ate too much popcorn at the
movies.”

• “two” is a number that is one more than one.

toward vs. towards: No difference in meaning, but “toward” is preferred usage in the US,
while “towards” is preferred usage in the UK.

wake / woke / waked up:

• present is wake; past is woke; past participle is waked up.

• “woken” is British; not used in American English.

• Additional resource: A Word, Please: Waking to the Truth that Grammar

Is for the Birds

Who vs. that vs. which:

31
 • “who” can be used as an interrogative (e.g., “Who won the game?”) or as a
function word to introduce a relative clause (e.g., “My mother, who is an
artist, painted the mural in my bedroom.” A relative clause provides more
information about a person in the sentence and is set off by commas.
“Who” refers chiefly to persons, but sometimes to animals.

• “that” can be used as a function word to introduce restrictive clauses

referring to persons or things. A restrictive clause includes information
necessary to understand the sentence, e.g., “The dog that bit my neighbor
had to be quarantined.” “That bit the neighbor” is a restrictive clause that
lets us know which dog had to be quarantined.

• “which” refers mainly to things and nonhumans and is generally used to

introduce nonrestrictive clauses. A nonrestrictive clause contains
information that is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence, e.g.,
“Bears, which live in the woods, are carnivores.” The sentence would still
make sense without the information in the nonrestrictive clause.

who vs. whom:

• “who” is a pronoun that refers to the subject of a sentence, e.g., “Who is

going to make dinner tonight?” Tip: Turn the sentence into a declarative
statement. If you can replace the word “who” with “he,” “she,” or “they,”
then “who” is the correct word, e.g., “He is going to make dinner tonight”
or, “They are going to make dinner tonight.”

• “whom” is a pronoun used as the object of the verb or a preposition in a

sentence, e.g., “To whom should I speak about registering for classes?”
Tip: Again, turn it into a declarative statement. If you can replace “whom”
with “them,” then “whom” is the correct word, e.g., “I should speak to
them about registering for classes.”

whose vs. who’s:

• “whose” is a possessive, e.g., “That’s the man whose dog bit my neighbor.”

• “who’s” is a conjunction meaning “who is,” e.g., “That’s the man who’s
going to the movies with my friend tomorrow.”

your / you’re:

• “your” is a possessive, e.g., “Is that your sweater?”

• “you’re” is a conjunction meaning “you are,” e.g., “Do you know where
you’re going?”

32
4. NUMBERS

Generally, spell out numbers one through one hundred (CMOS 9.2)

NOTE: General rule is to spell out numbers one through one hundred (CMOS 9.2), and
larger numbers are spelled out if can do so easily, in two to three words, e.g., nine
hundred; but it is an acceptable departure to use numerals in certain instances as long
as it’s consistently applied (CMOS 9.13).

Numerals (examples of when to use):

2.5 trillion miles

4.2 light-years

6.2 liter (CMOS 9.16)

8.7 seconds

12.8 watts

50 amps

77th (proper noun, short for 77th Precinct)

Highway 101 (CMOS 9.50)

204 Main Street (CMOS 9.52)

911

M4 carbine

V8 engine

.45 caliber (CMOS 9.19)

Words (examples of when to use):

five foot three

five and three-quarter inches

nine sixteenths

nine-hundred-square-foot room (because it’s a four-word adjective)

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nineteenth century (noun; adj. would be hyphenated: nineteenth-century)

quarter mile (but if used as an adjective, hyphenated, e.g., “quarter-mile run”)

seventy-five-inch television (adj.)

5. DATES & TIMES

SPELL OUT TIME. Unless it’s a specific time; time is open, unless used as an
adjective:

• “We met at four o’clock in the afternoon.”

• “The sun rose at six forty-five that morning.”
• “We took the three-thirty train to Santa Barbara.” (Here, used as an adjective)
• But, “The call came in at 2:34 a.m.”

YEARS: Specific years should be in numerals, e.g., 2003; decades 1980s or eighties, but
be consistent.

NOTE: Never start a sentence with a numeral. Although 2.5 million miles is correct, if it
starts a sentence, it must be spelled out:

• “Andromeda is 2.5 million light-years away.”

• But, “Two and a half million light-years away, a war was brewing.”

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 COMMA CHEAT SHEET
Commas are the biggest punctuation problem writers struggle with and ask me about.
Some writers overuse them, sprinkling them in randomly out of a fear they haven’t used
enough. Other writers shy away from using them at all out of a concern they don’t know
where to put them. Those tiny little commas are nothing to be afraid of, I promise!

Here are a dozen quick and easy tips to help you become a comma expert:

1. Compound Sentences: Put a joining comma before a coordinating

conjunction if what comes after the coordinating conjunction is an independent
clause (could stand alone as a sentence).

The coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. You can remember
them with the mnemonic device FANBOYS.

Incorrect: Tim drew his crossguard lightsaber, but didn’t use it.
Correct: Tim drew his crossguard lightsaber but didn’t use it.

Incorrect: Robert plays the piano and he plays the guitar.

Correct: Robert plays the piano, and he plays the guitar.

Tip: the word “because” is not a coordinating conjunction. Don’t use a comma before the
word “because,” even if what comes after it could stand alone as a sentence.

2. Commas with Proper Nouns: Use commas to set off proper nouns where the
person, place, or thing is the only one.

Example: My daughter, Melissa, teaches sixth grade. (This means I only have one
daughter.)

Do not use commas if the person, place, or thing is one of two or more.

Example: My granddaughter Abigail is a talented artist. (This means I have more than
one granddaughter.)

3. Comma splices: When you drop a comma in between two independent clauses, this
results in an error called a comma splice. The cure is to add in a coordinating
conjunction or replace the comma with a semi-colon.

Incorrect: Gavin went to rehearsal for Sense and Sensibility, he didn’t drive.
Correct: Gavin went to rehearsal for Sense and Sensibility, but he didn’t drive.
Correct: Gavin went to rehearsal for Sense and Sensibility; he didn’t drive.

4. Commas and duplicate words: It’s correct to use a comma between two
occurrences of the same word for clarification and ease of reading.

Example: Hunter took his seat when Elton John came on, on time.
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5. Commas and dialogue: Use a comma after a dialogue tag and before you begin the
dialogue.

Example: Marissa said, “I’m bringing my famous deviled eggs for the potluck.”

If the dialogue comes before the dialogue tag, place the comma after the dialogue (inside
the end quotation mark).

Example: “I’m bringing my famous deviled eggs for the potluck,” Marissa said.

For dialogue that comes before the dialogue tag, if the dialogue ends in an exclamation
point or question mark, don’t use a comma at all.

Example: “Will you bring a dessert for the potluck?” Theresa asked.
Example: “I can’t wait for the potluck!” Henry said.

Where the dialogue tag comes in the middle of a sentence, enclose it within commas.

Example: “I made it to the gate,” Amy said, “just in time for my flight to get delayed
three hours.”

6. Commas and direct address or abbreviations in names: Direct address

always takes a comma, whether at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a
sentence.

Example: Tim, are you going to see Guardians of the Galaxy?

Example: I’m wondering, Robert, whether you’re going to see Guardians of the Galaxy?
Example: Are you going to see Guardians of the Galaxy, Melissa?

Commas are not required for abbreviations in names.

Example: Martin Luther King Jr. was a great man and a skilled orator.

But if you do use a comma between a name and Sr. or Jr., you must close it off with a
second comma.

Example: Martin Luther King, Jr., was a great man and a skilled orator.

Commas are required for titles.

Example: Sanjay Gupta, M.D., is a medical reporter for CNN.

7. Commas and Dates: Close commas in spelled-out dates.

Example: Louise turned two on May 10, 2023, and asked for donut holes for dinner.

8. Commas and Places: Close commas in place names.

Example: Henry went to Cameroon, West Africa, when he was in the Peace Corps.

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9. Commas and extra information: Use bracketing commas to set off non-
restrictive (non-essential) elements in a sentence. Do not use commas with
restrictive (essential) elements.

I know this page looks scary, but don’t panic. These are different terms that boil down to
the same thing: extra words, phrases, or clauses inserted into a sentence. Despite their
pretentious names and distinct functions, they follow the same basic rule: If the extra
information tucked into a sentence could be left out of the sentence, use commas. If the
information is crucial to the sentence, don’t use commas.

An appositive phrase describes or renames the noun preceding the phrase. As

discussed above, an appositive phrase can be non-restrictive (unnecessary) or
restrictive (necessary).

Example (non-restrictive): “I went to the store with Hunter, my youngest grandson, but
we didn’t buy Pokémon cards.”

The phrase “my youngest grandson” describes Hunter, but the sentence would be
complete, make sense, and have the same meaning without it. So yes to the commas!

Example (restrictive): My grandson Gavin’s play Mamma Mia! was based on the
musical of the same name.

Here, Mamma Mia! is essential to the sentence so we know which specific play is based
on a musical of the same name and is being discussed. So no commas.

An introductory clause has its own separate subject and verb and informs the
remainder of the sentence.

Example: Before Robert started his Twitch livestream, he drank a hot chocolate
butterscotch mocha from Nautical Bean.

An introductory phrase does not have its own subject and verb and,
therefore, is not a complete clause.

Example: To get through the puzzle room, the family had to work together.

A parenthetical clause provides extra information that may be important to

the sentence, but it can be removed without destroying the sentence’s structure.

Example: My granddaughter Abigail, who likes to paint, will turn sixteen this year.

Introductory words help provide continuity.

Example: Jaime and Jason recorded a podcast episode last night. However, they won’t
record an episode tonight.

The introductory word however in the second sentence is part of the same thought and
provides continuity from the previous sentence.

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10. Commas when information is left out of a sentence: A gapping comma
can signal that information from the first part of a sentence is implied in the second
part.

Example: Matt likes photography, Jackie erasure poems.

“Jackie erasure poems” is not an independent clause—the coordinating conjunction and

a verb are missing. It can’t stand on its own. But the placement of the comma in this
case indicates that a coordinating conjunction and the verb from the first part of the
sentence are implied in the second part. When written this way, the meaning of the
sentence is “Matt likes photography, and Jackie likes erasure poems.”

11. Commas in a list: Use listing commas when you are listing a series of things.

Example: Tim collects Spider-Man, Batman, and Star Wars memorabilia.

12. Commas and a series of adjectives: Use commas when you have a series of
coordinate adjectives modifying a noun, meaning any of the adjectives could stand
on its own.

Example: Anna has a cute, sweet, friendly cat named Hodge.

You could write Anna has a cute cat named Hodge. Or, Anna has a sweet cat named
Hodge. Or, Anna has a friendly cat named Hodge. (All true!)

Do not use commas with cumulative adjectives (adjectives that build on each other).

Example: Trey has a light brown, award-winning dog named Orso.

Light and brown are both adjectives. But in this sentence, they build on one another and
can’t be separated. Orso is not light and brown. He is light brown.

BONUS. To Oxford Comma or Not to Oxford Comma? They say you can’t teach
an old dog new tricks, but I am in fact a late adopter of the Oxford comma. The Oxford
comma is a last comma, before the word and, in a list or series. (See #11 above.) Writers
either love the Oxford comma or they hate it. I used to find it unnecessary and opted to
leave it out. I started reconsidering when I saw examples of sentences that could benefit
from that extra comma. I use it all the time now, to be consistent.

With no Oxford comma: I’m inspired by my parents, Adam Driver and Michelle Obama.

Unless Adam Driver and Michelle Obama are the speaker’s parents, this is confusing.

With an Oxford comma: I’m inspired by my parents, Adam Driver, and Michelle Obama.

This clarifies that the speaker has three sources of inspiration.

In the end, whether you choose to use the Oxford comma or not, be consistent, and
make sure your sentences are clear and convey their intended meanings.

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RESOURCES:

Dreyer’s English by Benjamin Dreyer

The Elements of Style by William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White

Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation by Lynne Truss

The comma rules referenced in this cheat sheet are based The Chicago Manual of Style,
typically used by publishers of fiction. Other style guides may have different rules.

The Chicago Guide to Copyediting Fiction by Amy J. Schneider. Written for

copyeditors, this book is also a great little resource for writers of fiction who want to
make sure the later drafts of their prose manuscripts are clean.

TRIVIA:

In English, adjectives in a series of adjectives must be placed in a particular order. You

likely already do this instinctively, without even thinking about it. Order of Adjectives
(Excelsior University Online Writing Lab)

The comma was originally invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium in order to signal

where to pause for a breath when reading aloud. You can often feel the correct place to
insert a comma by reading a sentence aloud and noticing where you naturally pause or
take a breath. The comma in its current form was invented in the fifteenth century by an
Italian printer named Aldus Manutius.

The Latin word comma comes from the Greek word komma (segment), which comes
from the Greek word koptein (to cut off). The first known use of comma was in 1554.

The comma butterfly is named for the tiny, white, comma-shaped marking on the underside of its wings.

JUST FOR FUN: “You’ve probably used too many commas. In fact, I would go so far
as to say you definitely have. As the last stage in your editing process, delete half of
them. It doesn’t matter which ones.” (Ginny Hogan, from The Rules of Commas,
McSweeney’s Internet Tendencies)

39
 RESOURCES

BOOKS:

The Artful Edit by Susan Bell

The Associated Press Stylebook (The Associated Press)

Blueprint for a Book: Build Your Novel from the Inside Out by Jennie Nash

Blueprint for a Memoir: How to Write a Memoir for the Marketplace by Jennie Nash

Blueprint for a Nonfiction Book: Plan and Pitch Your Big Idea by Jennie Nash

The Chicago Guide to Copyediting Fiction by Amy J. Schneider

The Chicago Manual of Style (The University of Chicago Press Editorial Staff)

Dreyer’s English by Benjamin Dreyer

Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation by Lynne Truss

The Elements of Style by William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White

On Writing: A Memoir of the Craft by Stephen King

Pen on Fire: A Busy Woman’s Guide to Igniting the Writer Within by Barbara
DeMarco-Barrett

Read Books All Day & Get Paid For It by Jennie Nash

Refuse to Be Done: How to Write and Rewrite a Novel in Three Drafts by Matt Bell

Save the Cat! Writes a Novel: The Last Book on Novel Writing You’ll Ever Need by
Jessica Brody (based on the screenwriting books by Blake Snyder)

Self-Editing for Fiction Writers by Renni Brown and Dave King

Story Genius: How to Use Brain Science to Go Beyond Outlining and Write a Riveting
Novel (Before You Waste 327 Pages That Go Nowhere) by Lisa Cron

Vivid and Continuous: Essays and Exercises for Writing Fiction by John McNally

Wired for Story: The Writer’s Guide to Using Brain Science to Hook Readers from the
Very First Sentence by Lisa Cron

40
ONLINE:

AP Stylebook Online

The Chicago Manual of Style Online

The BuzzFeed Style Guide

Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus

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