Name : Kinza Afzal

Submitted to : Hafiz Tahir

Course Code: 5466

Program : BBA (1st Semester)

Semester : Autumn-2021

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q. 1What are the essential pillars of Islam? Explain system of Rituals of Islam
(Ibadat).

Answer:

Essential pillars of Islam:

There are five essential pillars of islam which are given below:
 Profession of Faith (shahada)
 Prayers (salat)
 Alms (zakat)
 Fasting (sawm)
 Pilgrimage (hajj)
1. Profession of Faith (shahada):
The belief that "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of
God" is central to Islam. This phrase, written in Arabic, is often prominently
featured in architecture and a range of objects, including the Qur'an, Islam's
 holy book of divine revelations. One becomes a Muslim by reciting this
phrase with conviction.
2. Prayer (salat):
Muslims pray facing Mecca five times a day: at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon,
sunset, and after dark. Prayer includes a recitation of the opening chapter
(sura) of the Qur'an, and is sometimes performed on a small rug or mat used
expressly for this purpose. Muslims can pray individually at any location or
together in a mosque, where a leader in prayer (imam) guides the
congregation. Men gather in the mosque for the noonday prayer on Friday;
women are welcome but not obliged to participate. After the prayer, a sermon
focuses on a passage from the Qur'an, followed by prayers by the imam and a
discussion of a particular religious topic.
3. Alms (zakat):
In accordance with Islamic law, Muslims donate a fixed portion of their
income to community members in need. Many rulers and wealthy Muslims
build mosques, drinking fountains, hospitals, schools, and other institutions
both as a religious duty and to secure the blessings associated with charity.
4. Fasting (sawm):
During the daylight hours of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic
calendar, all healthy adult Muslims are required to abstain from food and
drink. Through this temporary deprivation, they renew their awareness of and
gratitude for everything God has provided in their lives—including the
Qur'an, which was first revealed during this month. During Ramadan they
share the hunger and thirst of the needy as a reminder of the religious duty to
help those less fortunate.
5. Pilgrimage (hajj):

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 Every Muslim whose health and finances permit it must make at least one
visit to the holy city of Mecca, in present-day Saudi Arabia. The Ka'ba, a
cubical structure covered in black embroidered hangings, is at the center of
the Haram Mosque in Mecca. Muslims believe that it is the house Abraham
(Ibrahim in Arabic) built for God, and face in its direction (qibla) when they
pray. Since the time of the Prophet Muhammad, believers from all over the
world have gathered around the Ka'ba in Mecca on the eighth and twelfth days
of the final month of the Islamic calendar.
There is no specific order to fulfilling the five pillars of Islam as all maintain equal
importance. Each of them has their own appointed times, places and guidelines, be
it daily, annually or once a lifetime. A Muslim must commit to each pillar and what
it entails throughout their lives. Each pillar also accounts for those who may be
unable to fulfil one or more of them, for example due to ill health, menstruation or
pregnancy and a lack of financial means, amongst others.

System of Rituals of Islam (Ibadat):

The sacred law of Islam (the shari˓a) distinguishes two kinds

of practices: ˓ibadat (practices concerning the relations between God and human
beings, or devotional practices) and mu˓amalat (social ethics, i.e., the part of the law
that guides the relations between humans). The ˓ibadat include
the salat (prayer), zakat (alms giving), sawm Ramadan (fasting during the holy
month of Ramadan), and the hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca and the holy places near
to this holy city, namely ˓Arafat, Muzdalifa, and Mina).

Some aspects of the ˓ibadat can be qualified as ritual and other aspects fit less easily
in this category. For example, zakat regulations pertain to goods or wealth that are
to be handed over to certain categories of persons who are entitled to it (in
particular,
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the needy). This takes place in a nonritual context on the one hand, and a ritualized
context, that of giving zakat (zakat al-fitr) on the Day of the Breaking of the Fast,
on the other.

According to the shari˓a, the ˓ibadat are all the individual duties that each mentally
competent, mature, and healthy Muslim (male and female) is obligated to perform.
The formulation of the niyya, the intention to perform these rituals before
performing them, is of crucial importance for their validity, or, as the Prophetic
tradition has it: "The works are (only) rendered valid by their intentions."

In the fiqh (jurisprudence), actions are qualified as follows. Fard or wajib indicates
that an act is obligatory in such a way that omission will be punished and the
performance will be rewarded. The qualification sunna or mustahabb indicates that
an act is recommended but that omission will not be punished. Mubah or ja˒iz means
that it is indifferent, and makruh, reprehensible, that is, omission will be rewarded.
Finally, forbidden (haram) indicates that omission will be rewarded and
performance will be punished. These qualifications may vary among the law
schools with regard to their precise connotation.

Together with the testimony of faith (shahada), the ˓ibadat constitute the five pillars
of Islam (arkan al-Islam) According to Islam, humans have been created to serve
God. Both the individual and the community are under the obligation to follow the
stipulations of the revealed law. According to the scholars, the religious duties are
clearly set out in the two sources of the revelation: the ayat al-shari˓a in the Qur˒an
and in the sunna, the Prophetic tradition. There is no difference of opinion among
scholars with regard to the obligatory and clear (bayan) nature of these duties. This
status explains why someone who denies them their obligatory character places
him- or herself outside religion. That person expresses kufr, unbelief.

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Q. 2What are the moral values of Islam?

Answer:

Moral Values of Islam:

“And indeed, you are of a great moral character.” [Quran, 68:4]”

Collective morality is expressed in the Qur'an in such terms as:

 Equality,
 Justice,
 Fairness,
 Brotherhood,
 Mercy,
 Compassion,
 Solidarity, and
 Freedom of choice.

Leaders are responsible for the application of these principles and are accountable
to God and man for their

An important Hadith (saying) of the Prophet is that religion is not what one
formally or ritualistically practices but how one deals with others. It is therefore not
sufficient to be pious without performing deeds which demonstrate one's beliefs. It
is reported that the Prophet once entered a mosque and saw at prayer a venerable
old man with a long white beard. He was told that the man was in the mosque all
day long, worshipping and dispensing the words of Allah to others. The Prophet
then asked how he earned his living and was told that a merchant, not known
for his piety,
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supported him. The Prophet remarked that of the two, the merchant was indeed the
more worthy.

Every Muslim is the recipient, guardian, and executor of God's will on earth; his
responsibilities are all encompassing. A Muslim's duty to act in defense of what is
right is as much part of his faith as is his duty to oppose wrong. The Prophet once
said, "If someone among you sees wrong he must right it by his hand if he can
(deed, conduct, action). If he cannot, then by his tongue (speak up, verbally
oppose); if he cannot, then by his gaze (silent expression of disapproval); and if he
cannot, then in his heart. The last is the minimum expression of his conviction
(faith, courage)."

Living the faith is ibada, service to God through service to humankind.

A view inside the ninth-century Karaouine Mosque, Fez, Morocco. (Aramco World
Magazine, May-June 1993; photo Nik Wheeler).

By no means shall ye attain righteousness unless ye give (freely) of that which ye

love; and whatever ye give, of a truth God knoweth it well.
Qur'an 3:92

The preservation of a social order depends on each and every member of that
society freely adhering to the same moral principles and practices. Islam, founded
on individual and collective morality and responsibility, introduced a social
revolution in the context in which it was first revealed. Collective morality is
expressed in the Qur'an in such terms as equality, justice, fairness, brotherhood,
mercy, compassion, solidarity, and freedom of choice. Leaders are responsible for
the application of these principles and are accountable to God and man for their
administration. It is reported that a man went to Umar, the second khalifa, to talk to
him. It was nighttime, and a candle burned on Umar's desk. Umar asked the man if
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what he wanted to discuss was

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personal. The man said that it was, and Umar extinguished the candle so as not burn
public funds for a private purpose. Leaders in Islam, whether heads of state or heads
of family or private enterprise, have a higher burden or responsibility than others.

There is a relation in Islam between individual responsibility and the rights and
privileges derived from membership in the community. Individual obligations must
be met before one can claim a portion from the community of which he is part.
Each member of a society must fulfill his own obligations and rely on others to
fulfill theirs before that society can acquire the necessary reservoir of social rights
and privileges which can then be shared by all. The notions of brotherhood and
solidarity not only impose upon the community the duty to care for' its members,
but also require each person to use his initiative to carry out individual and social
responsibilities according to his ability.

And to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, And throughout all
periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the God-fearing.
Qur'an 2:177

"Whosoever of you sees an evil action, let him change it with his hand; and if he is
not able to do so, then with his tongue; and if he is not able to do so, then with his
heart—and that is the weakest of faith."
(The Prophet's Hadith)

Equality

The equality of all Muslims is emphasized repeatedly throughout the Qur'an. It is

because of that concept that Islam under the Sunni tradition does not have an
ordained clergy. There is a direct relationship between every man and his Creator,
and there

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can be no intermediary. This particular closeness between the individual and God is
paramount in belief as well as in practice.

It is frequently argued that Islam is not a religion that provides for full equity
among Muslims. Indeed, because Islam makes distinctions between men and
women; not all rights and privileges available to men are available to women. For
example, a male Muslim inherits twice the share of the female, but then a male
relative has the financial responsibility to care for a needy female relative. Also, a
male Muslim has the right to unilaterally divorce his wife, while she can only
divorce her husband through a judge's determination. Custody of children from a
divorce is given the mother, boys till age 9 and girls till age 12. Thereafter custody
reverts to the father, provided that he is fit. However, the fact that there is not
absolute parity in all rights and privileges does not mean that women do not share
an overall equality with men. It must also be noted that certain social practices in
some Muslim countries are not required by Islam, but have simply evolved in the
course of time as a result of indigenous cultural factors.

Islam differentiates between Muslims and non-Muslims and between the "People of
the Book" (dhimmi) and others. Only Muslims have the right to elect the khalifa. In
judicial matters the oath of the Muslim prevails over that of the non-Muslim. There
are therefore some differences between males and females in Islam, between
Muslims and Dhimmis, and Muslims and non-Dhimmis.

One of almost 300 mosques on the Tunisian island of Jerba. These glimmering,
whitewashed structures dominate the landscape, their colors shift with the changing
light, and their flights of architectural fantasy seem to come in an infinite variety.
(Aramco World Magazine, July-August 1994; photo Nik Wheeler).
Individual Responsibility

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Justice:

The search for justice is one of the continuing quests of humankind. It is the quest
that is prescribed by the Qur'an for every Muslim. Social and individual justice are
evolving concepts which depend largely upon a variety of external considerations.
Above all, Islam seeks to inculcate within every Muslim the need to seek justice
and to apply it to himself as well as to others. Because Muslims believe that God is
the beginning and the end of everything, all is preordained by Qadar (divine will).
Qadar does not imply inaction, but, rather, acceptance. It requires the strength to
change what can be changed and the fortitude to accept what cannot.

Individual responsibility is a cornerstone of Islam. Every Muslim is accountable to

his Creator for what he himself does or fails to do—as well as for others for whom
he may be accountable—and for things that he has control over. As in Western legal
codes, individual responsibility is predicated on the intent and motive of the actor in
light of his ability to do good and to avoid evil or harm to others. Thus Islam
believes in free will, and to the extent that this exists a person is responsible for its
exercise in the framework of Islamic morality. But the relativity of human justice is
not to be confused with the absoluteness of divine justice whose application every
Muslim expects without fail on judgment day. Because of the Muslim's belief in
accountability in the hereafter, his oath is valid evidence in any judicial or extra-
judicial process.

Serve God, and join not any partners with Him; and do good—To parents, orphans,
those in need, neighbours who are near, neighbours who are strangers; the
companion by your side, the way-farer (ye meet), and what your right hands
possess: For God loveth not the arrogant, the
vainglorious;— Qur'an 4:36

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"Actions are but by intention and every man shall have but that which he intended."
The Prophet's Hadith

"None of you (truly) believes until he wishes for his brother what he wishes for
himself."
The Prophet's Hadith

Forbearance and Forgiveness

A Muslim is accountable for what he does and what he fails to do in accordance

with not only the letter but also the spirit of the law. However, even though Islam
imposes a number of very rigid requirements and appears formalistic and inflexible,
one of the basic premises of the relationship among Muslims, and between Muslims
and others, is derived from one of the basic premises of the relationship between a
Muslim and his Creator, namely, forbearance and forgiveness.

In one of the Prophet's Hadiths it is stated that a person could do such evil during
his lifetime that there might be between him and the doors to hell only one step and
then he could repent and ask for God's forgiveness and do one good deed and enter
heaven. By the same token, a person may during his life do so much good as to be
one step removed from heaven and then do one evil deed that would be sufficient to
earn him hell. The meaning of the Hadith is to emphasize that, even though a
person may do good throughout his life, he should never be absolutely certain that
the good he has done all along is sufficient to carry him through; he should not
forget that one bad deed could overcome all the good ones. Conversely, a person
who has done evil all his life may repent even at the last moment and with one good
deed earn paradise.

The element of forbearance and forgiveness has to be predicated on knowledge,

awareness, and truth. Forbearance and forgiveness depend on the believer's
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recognition and acceptance of what he has done and his genuine repentance with an
intent not to repeat the misdeed. That is why Muslims are encouraged to forgive the
bad deeds of others committed against them.

Allah is described in the Qur'an as the Forgiving and the Merciful. Everything is
forgivable by Allah except Shirk (the negation of the existence of the Singularity,
Uniqueness and Oneness of the Creator.) Even so the mercy of God is infinite. A
man was once brought to the Prophet for trial because he denied the existence of
God. Upon review of the facts, it appeared that the man was in despair over a
personal tragedy. He had been found in the desert throwing his spear to the sky and
screaming that he wanted to kill God for the injustice that he had suffered. The
Prophet replied, "Is it not enough that he acknowledged the existence of God to
want to kill him?." The man was set free.

Freedom of choice:

Women in Islam

As in most of the nomadic tribes of the ancient world, women were deemed
unimportant in pre-Islamic Arabia. Indeed, in a society shaped by the rigors of
desert life, women were relegated to the margins of community life.

The advent of Islam fundamentally altered the status of women in several ways.
First, and most importantly, it overturned tradition by according women equal status
before Allah. No longer were women denied a human face. Their souls like the
souls of men were precious to Allah. They, like men, were worthy of dignity and
respect. As a result of this new status and the revolution it worked on Arab society
—women became pillars of early Muslim society and were counted among its
strongest supporters. Several women—notably Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet
Muhammad
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and wife of Ali, the fourth caliph—even played important roles in the propagation
of the faith. To the Shia, for example; Fatimah is an authoritative source of the
Prophet's sayings and deeds.

Tibetan Muslim sisters in the doorway of their home in Lhasa. (Aramco World
Magazine, January-February 1998; photo Kevin Bubriski).
The status of women under Islam also altered as a consequence of the spread of the
religion itself. As Islam became a world religion and its influence spread the
character of Arab society changed, requiring that women take a larger role in
society. As men hurriedly left their flocks and businesses to fight for Islam, women
readily assumed the burdens and responsibilities of the home.

The Prophet set an example for the treatment of women in marriage through his
relationship with his first wife Khadijah. Although fifteen years his elder,
Muhammad remained a faithful and devoted husband for twenty-six years, contrary
to the tradition of polygamy which prevailed at the time in Arabia. After her death
Muhammad remarried, but he always remembered Khadijah with love and spoke of
her with reverence. Khadijah was, in fact, Muhammad's first convert to Islam and
his strongest supporter in the struggle to establish the new faith.

Aishah bint abu Bakr (613-678) was Muhammad's favorite wife of later years.
Noted for her education and intelligence, in particular her ability to read and write,
she was often consulted about the teachings of the Prophet after his death. She
played an important role in the life of the early community, most famously by
opposing the succession of Ali after the death of Uthman, the third khalifa.

Behold! the angels said: "O Mary! God giveth thee glad tidings of a word from
Him: his name will be Christ Jesus, the son of Mary, held in honour in this world
and the

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hereafter and of (the company of) those nearest to God;...
Qur'an 3:45

The new, elevated status of women is apparent in numerous Qur'anic proscriptions

which set out women's rights and obligations. On protecting the dignity and self-
respect of women, for example, the Qur'an is emphatic and unequivocal: One of the
seven hudud crimes is maligning a woman's reputation.

O Mankind: Be careful of your duty to your Lord who created its mate and from
them twain hath spread abroad a multitude of men and women. Be careful of your
duty toward Allah in who ye claim (your rights) of one another.

Q. 3Explain the method of preaching by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in

Medina?

Answer:

Method of preaching by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in Medina:

As Islam faced more political and religious opposition in Mecca, Muhammad and
his followers migrated to Medina in 622 CE.

The Delegation from Medina

A delegation from Medina, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important

clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to serve as the chief
arbitrator for the entire community. There was fighting in Yathrib (Medina) mainly
involving its Arab and Jewish inhabitants for around a hundred years before 620.
The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially
after the battle of Bu’ath, in which all the clans were involved, made it obvious that
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the tribal

15
conceptions of blood feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless
there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases. The delegation
from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow citizens to accept Muhammad
into their community and physically protect him as one of their own.

The Hijra in 622 CE

The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina,
320 kilometers (200 miles) north, in 622 CE. Muhammad instructed his followers to
emigrate to Medina until nearly all of them left Mecca. According to tradition, the
Meccans, alarmed at the departure, plotted to assassinate Muhammad. In June 622,
when he was warned of the plot, Muhammad slipped out of Mecca with his
companion, Abu Bakr.

On the night of his departure, Muhammad’s house was besieged by the appointed
men of Quraysh. It is said that when Muhammad emerged from his house, he
recited the a verse from the Quran and threw a handful of dust in the direction of the
besiegers, which prevented them seeing him. When the Quraysh learned of
Muhammad’s escape, they announced a large reward for bringing him back to
them, alive or dead, and pursuers scattered in all directions. After eight days’
journey, Muhammad entered the outskirts of Medina, but did not enter the city
directly. He stopped at a place called Quba, some miles from the main city, and
established a mosque there. After a fourteen-days stay at Quba, Muhammad started
for Medina, participating in his first Friday prayer on the way, and upon reaching
the city was greeted cordially by its people.

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Muhammad in Medina

Among the first things Muhammad did to ease the longstanding grievances among
the tribes of Medina was draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina,
“establishing a kind of alliance or federation” among the eight Medinan tribes and
Muslim emigrants from Mecca. The document specified rights and duties of all
citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including
between the Muslim community and other communities, specifically the Jews and
other “Peoples of the Book”). The community defined in the Constitution of
Medina, Ummah, had a religious outlook, also shaped by practical considerations,
and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.

The first group of pagan converts to Islam in Medina were the clans who had not
produced great leaders for themselves but had suffered from warlike leaders from
other clans. This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan
population of Medina, with some exceptions.

Reconciliation and Consolidation of the Islamic State

Around 628 CE, the nascent Islamic state was somewhat consolidated when
Muhammad left Medina to perform pilgrimage at Mecca. The Quraysh intercepted
him en route and made a treaty with the Muslims. Though the terms of the
Hudaybiyyah treaty may have been unfavorable to the Muslims of Medina, the
Quran declared it a clear victory. Muslim historians suggest that the treaty
mobilized the contact between the Meccan pagans and the Muslims of Medina. The
treaty demonstrated that the Quraysh recognized Muhammad as their equal and
Islam as a rising power.

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Islam Ascendant

After eight years of warring with Mecca and finally conquering the city in 630 CE,
Muhammad united Arabia into a single Islamic state.

The Constitution of Medina

Upon his arrival in Medina, Muhammad unified the tribes by drafting the
Constitution of Medina, which was a formal agreement between Muhammad and all
of the significant tribes and families of Medina, including Muslims, Jews,
Christians, and pagans. This constitution instituted rights and responsibilities and
united the different Medina communities into the first Islamic state, the Ummah.

An important feature of the Constitution of Medina is the redefinition of ties

between Muslims. It set faith relationships above blood ties and emphasized
individual responsibility. Tribal identities were still important, and were used to
refer to different groups, but the constitution declared that the “main binding tie”
for the newly created Ummah was religion. This contrasts with the norms of pre-
Islamic Arabia, which was a thoroughly tribal society. This was an important event
in the development of the small group of Muslims in Medina to the larger Muslim
community and empire. While praying in the Masjid al-Qiblatain in Medina in 624
CE, Muhammad received revelations that he should be facing Mecca rather than
Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted to the new direction, and his
companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the tradition of facing
Mecca during prayer.

Q. 4What are the effects of Islamic rule on humanity in the world in history and

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compare it with other religions and their rule?

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Answer:

Effects of Islamic rule on humanity:

Some proponents of human rights are deeply sceptical of Islam (and religion in
general for that matter). They argue that the two are inherently incompatible. To be
sure, there are plenty of examples of Islam being used to legitimise violations of
human rights today: Think of Saudi Arabia’s use of whipping and other inhuman
punishments, Pakistan’s blasphemy legislation, or the many gender discriminatory
laws in other Muslim-majority countries. But this is not all there is to say about
Islam and human rights. If we listen to some of the many Muslim voices in
contemporary human rights debates, a much more nuanced picture emerges. There
are at least four different positions among Muslim state actors, civil society
organisations and intellectuals today.
“All rights are subject to Islamic shari’ah”
Some flat out reject the whole concept of human rights. They consider human rights
to be a Western invention, grown out of Western history and based on Western
values of secularism and individualism – and as such irrelevant to the Muslim
world. “The ideal of ‘human rights’ (…) is not a universal value common to all
human beings regardless of religious belief,” the British Hizb Ut-Tahrir writes in
one of its pamphlets.
Instead, they – and other human rights critics – prefer to talk about Islamic rights,
based on the Qur’an and Islamic tradition. “Islam has laid down some universal
fundamental rights for humanity as a whole,” said Abul A’la Mawdudi, an
important figure in the Islamist movement in the middle of the 20th century.
According to Mawdudi, the right to life, security, freedom and justice are basic
Islamic rights. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation’s 1990 Cairo Declaration
on Human Rights in
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Islam is a concrete attempt at formulating such Islamic rights. The declaration states
that “fundamental rights and universal freedoms (…) are an integral part of the
Islamic religion” and that “all the rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration
are subject to the Islamic Shari’ah.”
“The normal scope of human rights”
Today we primarily find proponents of Islamic rights among Islamic extremists,
violent as well as non-violent. Only a small part of the world’s Muslims believe that
it is possible – or desirable – to replace universal human rights with Islamic rights.
Even the OIC rarely refers to its Cairo Declaration. But that does not mean that
there is not still a great deal of scepticism towards at least some human rights. As
the OIC’s Secretary General, Iyad Madani, says: “There are a number of issues that
go beyond the normal scope of human rights and clash with Islamic teachings.”
Sceptics like Madani think that Islam and human rights are only partially
compatible.
While for instance the right to education and work are fully acceptable from a
conservative Islamic point of view, certain gender rights are, according to many,
“beyond the normal scope of human rights,” threatening traditional family
structures, gender roles and values. While the vast majority of Muslim-majority
states have ratified the UN Women’s Convention, many have formulated so-called
shari’ah reservations, preserving the right to reject those parts of the convention that
– in their view – contradict Islamic law. Similarly, many believe that the right to
freedom of expression should be curtailed to protect religious sentiments, whether
through blasphemy laws or other legislation preventing ‘defamation of religion’.
According to the human rights sceptics, then, Islam and human rights are
compatible only to the extent that human rights do not challenge Islamic law. If the
two are to fully reconcile, certain rights must be adjusted, reinterpreted and if

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necessary cancelled – because Islamic law is, in their perspective, unchangeable and
god-given.

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“There is nothing in Islamic law that prevents human rights”
“There is nothing in Islamic law that prevents human rights – and if there is, it is
due to misunderstandings and wrong interpretations of the law.” This is what a
British imam said at a workshop on Islam and human rights. He, and many others,
rejects the stark conservatism of the human rights sceptics, arguing that Islamic law
can be re-interpreted in ways that are more compatible with human rights.
While Islamists’ rigid interpretations of Islamic law seem to dominate in Muslim
societies today, historically we can find many examples of much more flexible,
pragmatic interpretations. Just over a century ago, Islamic modernists advocated for
a reform of classical Islamic jurisprudence, seeking to integrate modern (Western)
values and ideas instead of starkly rejecting these, as many contemporary Islamists
do. Muhammad Abduh, a leading figure in Islamic modernism, said that Muslims
had to use reason to keep up with changing times, instead of relying on medieval
clerics’ outdated interpretations.
The Indonesian organisation Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), one of the world’s largest
Muslim organisations, is an example of this pragmatic position. NU seeks to
promote (certain) women’s rights through religious fatwas. Working pragmatically
through the established religious system, they, and other proponents of this position,
seek to push the boundaries for how Islamic law can be interpreted, facilitating
space for human rights, but without seriously challenging the religious authority of
Islamic law. Islamic law is, in other words, still the supreme authority under which
human rights need to be subsumed.
“The Qur’an is not a constitution”
For a smaller, but arguably growing, group of Muslims, pragmatic reforms of
Islamic law are not sufficient if Islam and human rights are to be reconciled.
Conflicts between the two, they argue, are not about misinterpretations of Islamic

23
law, but

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about the very notion of Islamic law. “The Qur’an is not a constitution,” the
Tunisian philosopher Mohamed Talbi claims. Similarly, the Egyptian legal scholar
Muhammad Said al-Ashmawy argued that sharia should not be understood as legal
rules, but as a set of ethical and social codes. Rather than trying to re-interpret
conservative Islamic jurisprudence, these liberal Muslim thinkers reject the
relevance of such jurisprudence.
Inspired by such thinking, some Muslim human rights activists argue that Islam is
fully compatible with human rights – not as a legal system, but as a set of ethical
and religious values that can strengthen and legitimise the legal standards of human
rights. Such human rights activism is found among many Muslim feminists and
women’s organisations. The international Muslim women’s movement Musawah,
for instance, engages in critical, historical studies
of the Qur’an and Islamic jurisprudence, demonstrating
how interpretations are determined by their contexts and shaped by humans rather
than god-given and definitive. A representative from Musawah says: “We try to
develop a feminist knowledge in Islam, based on principles of human rights,
constitutional guarantees and women’s lives today.” This brief overview shows that
the question of compatibility between Islam and human rights cannot be answered
with a simple yes or no. Instead, one has to ask what kinds of Islam are compatible
with what kinds of human rights, when, where and with whom. The different
positions outlined here illustrate that Islam entails a multitude of different voices,
interpretations and positions on human rights, promoted by different actors in
different historical, social, cultural and political contexts. If we want to strengthen
human rights, it is crucial to include all those Muslim voices engaging in the human
rights debate – the sceptics, the pragmatics and the liberal ones. The latter can
challenge conventional Islamist conceptions of human rights as a Western project

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and contribute to theological reform. But at the same time it is

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important to note that such actors rarely enjoy great popular support – and as such
they are not necessarily the best at anchoring human rights in local contexts. Here
the pragmatics may have better luck; they often enjoy greater popular support and
are able to build bridges to more conservative human rights sceptics. Finally, it is
important to note the criticism coming from these human rights sceptics and
opponents – not to give way to it, but to understand what and where it comes from.

Q. 5 Explain different religions of world with Islam and highlight the

differences and commonalities.

Answer:

When asked how much various religions resemble their own, the public cites
Protestantism and Catholicism as the faiths most like theirs. Overall, more than
four- in-ten non- Protestants in the survey (44%) say that the Protestant religion and
their own faith are similar (including 12% saying they are very similar), slightly
more than say Protestantism and their own faith are somewhat or very different
(38%). Of non- Catholics, 43% see mostly similarities between Catholicism and
their own faith, while roughly half (49%) see mostly differences. More than one-
third of non-Jews say Judaism is somewhat or very similar to their own faith (35%),
while 47% say it is somewhat or very different. By comparison, the public is even
more likely to see differences rather than similarities between their own religion and
Mormonism, Islam, Buddhism or Hinduism. In fact, majorities say that each of
these faiths is different from their own religion, with sizeable numbers saying that
these religions are very different from their own (37% say this about Mormonism,
40% about Hinduism, 44% about Buddhism and 45% about Islam).

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Protestants see Catholicism as the religion most like their own, followed by
Judaism. Among Protestants in the survey, white evangelicals (49%) and white
mainline Protestants (50%) are somewhat more likely than black Protestants (39%)
to see their religion as similar to Catholicism. But all three groups have roughly the
same impression of Judaism’s similarity with their own faith (39% similar among
white evangelicals, 34% among both white mainline Protestants and black
Protestants). Fewer Protestants see Mormonism (22%), Islam (15%), Hinduism
(9%) or Buddhism (7%) as similar to their own faith.

Catholics, especially white, non-Hispanic Catholics, name Protestantism as the faith

that is most similar to Catholicism. Interestingly, Catholics see greater similarities
between Catholicism and Protestantism than do Protestants. After Protestantism,
Catholics see Judaism as most like their faith. Indeed, Catholics are slightly more
likely than Protestants to say their faith is similar to Judaism. Less than a quarter of

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Catholics (22%) see Mormonism as similar to their religion, 19% see Islam as
similar, 16% see Buddhism as similar, and 12% see Hinduism as similar.

Compared with other groups, fewer of the religiously unaffiliated see their own
beliefs as similar to Catholicism, Protestantism and Judaism. However, the
religiously unaffiliated are more likely than any other group in the survey to see
their own beliefs as similar to Buddhism (26%).

Analysis of the survey reveals that perceptions of similarity with religious groups
are linked with more favorable views of these groups. For instance, non-Catholics
who see mostly similarities between their own faith and Catholicism are much more
likely than those who see mostly differences to view Catholicism favorably (76%
vs. 54%). And two-thirds of those who see mostly similarities between their own
faith and Islam have a favorable view of Muslims (65%), compared with fewer than
half of those who see mostly differences with Islam (37%).

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