Topics of today’s lecture

Relations

Equivalence relations

Partial order relations

Lattices
Relations
Relations

Definition
A (binary) relation on a set M is a subset R of M × M.
Thereby M × M = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ M} means the cartesian
product of M by itself.
x, y ∈ M:

x stands in relation R to y ⇔ (x, y ) ∈ R

Often x R y is written instead of (x, y) ∈ R

Watch order of x, y !
Always {x, y} = {y , x}, but (x, y) = (y , x) ⇔ x = y.
Relations

Example

(1) M set, xRy ⇔x =y (equality relation).

(2) S set, M = P (S) power set of S.
A, B ∈ M: A R B ⇔ A ⊆ B (set inclusion).
(3) M = R, xRy ⇔x ≤y (less-or-equal relation).
(4) M = Z, x R y ⇔ x | y (divisibility relation).
[x | y ⇔ ∃z ∈ Z : y = xz.]

x, y comparable ⇔xRy or y R x.
Equivalence relations
Equivalence relations

A relation on a set M is called:

I reflexive if x R x for all x ∈ M,
I symmetric if from x R y follows always y R x,
I anti-symmetric if from x R y and y R x follows
always x = y ,
I transitive if from x R y and y R z follows always
x R z.

Definition
A relation R of a set M is called equivalence relation if it
is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Examples of equivalence relations

(1) Equality relation (finest),

(2) x R y for all x, y ∈ M (coarsest),
(3) area equality of plane triangles,
(4) A, B set, f : A → B mapping,
a, b ∈ A : a R b ⇔ f (a) = f (b).
(5) Divisibility relation on Z no equivalence relation:
a|a (reflexive),
a | b, b | c ⇒ a | c (transitive),
a | b ; b | a.
Partitions and equivalence classes

Definition
A family P of non-empty subsets of a set M forms a
partition of M if holds:
S
(1) M = A∈P A,
(2) A, B ∈ P, A 6= B ⇒ A ∩ B = ∅.
The elements of P are called the blocks of the partition.

Definition
Let R be an equivalence relation on the set M.
For a ∈ M [a] = {x ∈ M : a R x} is called the
equivalence class of a (with respect to R).
Partitions

Lemma
Let R be an equivalence relation on the set M and
a, b ∈ M.
Then holds b ∈ [a] ⇔ [a] = [b].

Implication
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set M and
a, b ∈ M.
Then holds either [a] = [b] or [a] ∩ [b] = ∅.
Partitions and equivalence relations
Theorem
If R is an equivalence relation on the set M then the
associated equivalence classes form a partition of M.
Vice versa every partition Π of M yields an equivalence
relation of M whose equivalence classes are just the blocks
of Π if we define:

aRb⇔a and b lie in the same block of Π.

Coarsest partition: a single block (all-relation: x R y for all

x, y ∈ M).
Finest partition: all 1-element blocks (equality relation),
[a] = [b] ⇔ a = b.
Equivalence classes uniquely determined but not their
representatives.
Complete system of representatives: choose from every
equivalence class one representative.
The congruence relation
M = Z, n ∈ N chosen fixed.
a, b ∈ Z: a R b ⇔ n | (a − b).
Instead of a R b it is written
a≡b mod n
and read “a congruent b modulo n”.
≡ is called congruence modulo n (C. F. Gauss).
Reflexivity : n | (a − a) ⇒ a ≡ a mod n for all a ∈ Z.
Symmetry: a ≡ b mod n ⇒ n | (a − b)
⇒ n | (b − a) ⇒ b ≡ a mod n.
Transitivity: a ≡ b mod n, b ≡ c mod n ⇒
n | (a − b) , n | (b − c) ⇒ n | (a − c) as
a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) ⇒ a ≡ c mod n.
17 ≡ 3 mod 7, 17 6≡ 3 mod 8,
19 ≡ 19 mod 11, 4 ≡/ 22 mod 5,
16 ≡ −9 mod 5, a ≡ 0 mod n ⇔ n | a.
a ≡ b mod 2 ⇔ a, b both even or both odd.
Congruence classes
Division with remainder :
If a, b ∈ Z with b 6= 0 then there are uniquely
determined integers q, r with a = q · b + r and
0 ≤ r < |b|.
Theorem
Let a, b be integers and n ∈ N.
Then a ≡ b mod n if and only if when a and b
are divided by n they have the same non-negative
remainder.

Theorem and definition

Let n ∈ N. Then congruence modulo n is an
equivalence relation on Z. The associated equivalence
classes are called congruence classes modulo n.
There are exactly n different congruence classes modulo n
namely [0] , [1] , [2] , . . . , [n − 1].
Their totality is denoted by Zn .
Congruence classes
Note

1) [a] consists of all integers which when divided by n

have the same non-negative remainder as a.
2) a = qn + b ⇒ [a] = [b]. In particular [a] = [r ] if
a = qn + r , 0 ≤ r < n.
3) [a] = {a + kn : k ∈ Z} = a + nZ.

For n = 3 holds e. g. Z3 = {[0] , [1] , [2]},

[0] = 3Z = {. . . , −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, . . .},
[1] = 1 + 3Z = {. . . , −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, . . .},
[2] = 2 + 3Z = {. . . , −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, . . .},
Z = [0] ∪ [1] ∪ [2] disjoint union.
0, 1, . . . , n − 1 complete system of representatives for Zn ,
the smallest non-negative representatives.
Z3 = {[0] , [1] , [2]} = {[27] , [−5] , [101]}.
Partial order relations
Partial order relations
A relation R on a set H is called partial order relation if
R is reflexive, anti-symmetric, and transitive.
Example

1. (R, ≤) less-or-equal relation.

2. (N, |) divisibility.
3. (P (M) , ⊆) set inclusion.

Usually (H, ≤) is written for arbitrary partial orders.

Reflexivity a ≤ a for all a ∈ H,
Anti-symmetry a ≤ b, b ≤ a ⇒ a = b,
Transitivity a ≤ b, b ≤ c ⇒ a ≤ c.
Definition
If (H, ≤) is a partial order relation and x, y ∈ H then let

x <y ⇐⇒ x ≤y and x 6= y .
Partial order relations

Definition
Let (H, ≤) be a partial order relation and x, y ∈ H.
If x < y and there exists no z ∈ H with x < z < y
then x is called lower neighbor of y (resp. y upper
neighbor of x).

(R, ≤): no x ∈ R has lower or upper neighbor.

Visualisation of finite partial order relations by order diagrams
(Hasse diagram).
H set of non-trivial subsets of M = {a, b, c} partially
ordered by ⊆.
H = {1, . . . , 12}, divisibility.
Every non-empty subset of a partially ordered set is again
partially ordered under the same partial order.
There are exactly 16 non-isomorphic 4-element partial orders.
Chains

Definition
A subset K of a partially ordered set (H, ≤) is called
chain if each two elements of K are comparable.
The length of the chain K is |K |.
If (H, ≤) is a chain itself then (H, ≤) is also called
ordered or completely (totally) ordered.

Example

1) (Z, ≤), (Q, ≤), (R, ≤) are chains.

2) The chains of length 4 in H = {1, 2, . . . , 12} with
respect to divisibility are
{1, 2, 4, 12} , {1, 2, 4, 8} , {1, 2, 6, 12} , {1, 3, 6, 12}.
Minimal/maximal element
Definition
Let (H, ≤) be a partially ordered set.
I z ∈ H is called minimal element of H if no x ∈ H
exists with x < z.
I And y ∈ H is called maximal element of H if no
x ∈ H exists with y < x.

Example

1) (Z, ≤) has no minimal or maximal elements.

2) (N, ≤) has 1 as minimal element but no maximal
element.
3) H = {1, 2, . . . , 12} with respect to divisibility has 1 as
minimal element and 10, 8, 12, 9, 7, 11 as maximal
elements.
Lower/upper bound

Definition
Let S be a subset of the partially ordered set (H, ≤).
An element b ∈ H is called lower or upper bound (l. b. or
u. b.) of S, resp., if b ≤ s or s ≤ b, for all s ∈ S
holds.
Bounds of S do not have to exists;
even if they exist they do not have to belong to S.
E. g. has the subset {4, 10} of {1, 2, . . . , 12} with respect
to divisibility 1 and 2 as l. b. but no u. b.
If S is a finite chain in H then it has trivially l. b. and
u. b. in H.
Zorn’s lemma

Zorn’s lemma (maximum principle)

Let M be a partially ordered set in which every chain has an
upper bound.
Then there is at least one maximal element in M.
Principle of proof. No lemma but an axiom of formal set theory.
Zorn’s Lemma ⇔ axiom of choice
Typical application of Zorn’s Lemma
1) Every vector space has a basis.
2) Every ring with 1 has maximal ideals.
Infimum and supremum

Let (H, ≤) be a partially ordered set and S a subset of

H.
(1) y ∈ H is called infimum (largest lower bound) of S if
y is l. b. of S and aside from that holds a ≤ y for
every l. b. a of S.
Notation: y = inf S.
(2) z ∈ H is called supremum (smallest upper bound) of S
if z is u. b. of S and aside from that holds z ≤ b
for every u. b. b of S.
Notation: z = sup S.
Infimum and supremum
Note

1) inf S, sup S do not need to exist.

2) If inf S or sup S exist then they need not belong to
S.
3) If inf S or sup S exist then they are uniquely
determined.

Example
√
2 = sup x ∈ Q : x 2 < 2 .

(1) (R, ≤),
(2) H = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12} with respect to divisibility,
inf H = 2, sup H does not exist.
(3) (N, |); a, b ∈ N.
Every common divisor of a, b is l. b. of {a, b}.
Every common multiple is u. b. of {a, b}.
inf {a, b} = gcd (a, b), sup {a, b} = lcm (a, b).
Lattices
Lattices
Definition
A partially ordered set (M, ≤) is called lattice if inf {a, b}
and sup {a, b} for each two elements a, b ∈ M always
exist.
Examples of lattices
(1) Every chain is a lattice with inf {a, b} = a,
sup {a, b} = b if a ≤ b.
(2) (N, |) with inf {a, b} = gcd (a, b) and
sup {a, b} = lcm (a, b).
(3) n ∈ N fixed,
Tn = {a ∈ N, a | n} lattice, lattice of divisors of n,
inf {a, b} = gcd (a, b), sup {a, b} = lcm (a, b).
(4) P (M) power set lattice with respect to set inclusion,
inf {A, B} = A ∩ B, sup {A, B} = A ∪ B.
Examples of lattices

◦
|
(5) There is exactly one 3-element lattice namely ◦ .
|
◦
(6) There are exactly two non-isomorphic 4-element lattices.
Partial orders (lattices) are called isomorphic if they are
represented by the same Hasse diagram.
(7) There are exactly five non-isomorphic 5-element lattices.
Partial order diagram turned upside down yields diagram of
the dual partial order (of the dual lattice).
Partial order (lattice) self-dual if the same diagram arises.
(8) There are exactly 15 non-isomorphic 6-element lattices
namely . . . (exercise).