Physical Science Notes GRD 9

REPUBLIC OF NAMIBIA
KAVANGO WEST REGIONAL COUNCIL

DIRECTORATE OF EDUCATION, ARTS AND CULTURE
PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE
ENHANCING NOTES
PHYSICAL SCIENCE GRADE 9

PREPARED NOTES FOR GRADE 9 LEARNERS, BASED ON THE SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES OF THE REVISED SYLLABUS. 2020
Compiled By:
1. Ms Homateni Rauha (Kanuni Haruwodi CS)
2. Mr Sapararo Simon (Nkurenkuru CS)
3. Mr Hamusira Peter (Ncamagoro CS)
4. Mr Sakaputu Paulus (Ruuga CS)
5. Mr Kalyata Jonas (DoEAC-KW)
When Excellence Becomes A Tradition, Greatness Will Sky-Rocket

Physical Science Grade 9 Prepared Notes & Activities for Kavango West Region Page 1
About this booklet
This is a Physical Science Grade 9 booklet containing notes and activities aligned to the revised
syllabus for implementation in 2018. Each specific objective in the syllabus is addressed and after
the end of each topic an activity based on exam-type of questions is given to assess learners on what
has been learned. This booklet is written in simple English with appropriate diagrams/pictures
relevant to the topic/subject. This booklet is divided into five topics.
All rights reserved. No part of this booklet may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmittted, in any form or any means, without the prior permission in writing of the Directorate of
Education, Arts and Culture – Kavango West region.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Topic 1: Scientific processes………………………………………………………………………04
Topic 2: Matter……………………………………………………………………………………..33
Topic 3: Acids, Alkalis (Bases), Metals and Non-metals………………………………………….64
Topic 4: Mechanics…………………………………………………………………………………87
Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism………………………………………………………………...124
TOPIC 1: SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES
1.1 Estimating and measuring
SO1: Find a measurement by following a sequence of instructions; use appropriate techniques;
handle apparatus/material competently and have due regard to safety
Define scientific processes
 Scientific processes are activities done by scientists to help us understand the world.
Examples of scientific processes
 Estimating, measuring, observing, experimenting, classifying, analyzing, presenting results.
Safety precautions during practical in the laboratory

 When you conduct practical investigations, there are safe measures that you need to take
into consideration.
 Most chemicals and substances that you will work with in the laboratory will have labels on
them to indicate the possible dangers from the chemical.
 The label gives the information that is needed in order to handle the chemicals and materials
appropriately to prevent danger.
Safety measures
 Your safety is very important when conducting practical investigations.
 Liquids such as acids may spill onto your skin or get into your eyes and may cause irritation.
Some of the things to do to ensure safety
 Study the warning signs on the bottles of chemicals and take necessary precautions.
 Wear safety goggles to protect your eyes.
 Wear gloves, laboratory coats and closed shoes to protect your skin.
 Wear earmuffs to protect your ears.
 Do not eat, drink or smoke in the laboratory.
 Avoid inhaling too deeply when smelling things, shaft the smoke to your nose.
 When working with flammable substances, be careful not to cause fires and do not smoke.
SO2: Estimate or measure and record area, volume, length, mass, time and temperature
Estimating and measuring
Define estimating
 Estimating is to make a sensible guess about something.
Define measuring
 Measuring: to find he exact amount/quantity of something as specified by units.
 We use instruments to measure.
 We must know the correct instruments for us to get the correct results.
Useful tips in measuring
 Use correct and appropriate instruments.

 Measure in the correct/specified units.
 Understand the reading or marking on the instrument.
 Make your eyes to be at the correct angle to avoid parallax error.
 Take readings at the bottom of the meniscus.
 Place instruments on flat surfaces.

 Set the instruments to zero before you start. E.g. digital thermometers, digital scales
 When using a ruler, make sure the zero is straight with the starting point.
 Repeat the measurements at least 3 times and calculate average.
Explain the important of repeating measurements
 To get accurate results.
Quantities to be measured
 Length, mass, time, temperature, volume and area.
NB: define each quantity, name/identify the instrument for each quantity and name the units for
each quantity.
 Length: the distance between two points. Or measurement of something from end to end.
 Mass: the amount of matter in an object. Or how heavy or light something is.
 Time: the duration of something. Or how long something takes.
 Temperature: how hot or cold something is. Or the measured amount of heat in a particular
place.
 Volume: the amount of space contained in an object.
 Area: the size of a flat surface calculated by multiplying its length by width.
Quantities Units SI unit Instruments/ Apparatus

1. Time Hours, seconds, minutes second (s) Watch, clock, stopwatch
2. Length Cm, mm, km, m meter (m) Ruler, measuring tape
3. Temperature Kelvin degree Celsius Kelvin Thermometer
C (K)
4. Volume Cm3, mm2, ml3 m3 Measuring cylinder
L
5. Force Newton (N) N Force meter, Spring balance, newton

meter
6. Current Amperes (A) A Ammeter
7. Voltage Volts (V) V Voltmeter
8. Resistance Ohms Ω Ω Ohmmeter
9. Mass Tones(t), Kg, g kg 1. Triple beam balance
2. Top- pan balance
3. Kitchen scale
4. Bathroom scale
5. Level arm scale
6. Electronic pan scale
7. Balance scale
Measuring length
 Length is a measure of the distance between two points.
 The measuring instrument you will use will depend on the object you want to measure.
 You can measure length using a ruler, tape measure or builder’s tape measure.
Activity
Measure the following lines using a ruler in cm and write the measurements in the boxes
provided.
Measuring Area
 Area is the product of two lengths. So if you know how to measure length, you can also
calculate the surface area of an object.
Formula used to calculate area

1. Square
Area= side ×side

A= s×s
2. Rectangle
Area= length ×width

A=: l × w
3. Triangle
Area= ×base ×height

A= ×b×h
4. Circle:
NB: d is the diameter and r is the radius

Area= pi π × radius 2
Area= π × r2
5. Parallelogram
Area= base ×height
A= b ×h
6. Trapezium
Area= = (b1 +b2) ×height or (a +b) ×height

A= (b1 +b2) ×h or (a +b) ×h
Activity
Measure the lengths of the following shapes and calculate the area.
a.
b.
c.
Measuring volume
 Volume is the amount of space a solid or liquid takes up.
 Volume is commonly measured in litres or millilitre, but these are not the SI units for
volume.
 The SI unit is cubic metre (m3), but this unit is too big for laboratory work, therefore
the smaller unit, cubic centimeter (cm3) is used.
Measuring volume of liquids

Instruments used for measuring volume of liquids
1. Measuring Cylinder
 A measuring cylinder is a transparent cylinder (we can see through), and it is
graduated/marked off or calibrated in mm3.
* Usually you will see two measurements at the top of the cylinder. One of the
measurement is the maximum volume that the cylinder can measure, and the other is
the temperature at which the volume measured would be most accurate.
2. Burette
 A burette is a vertical glass tube, about 1 cm long, graduated in in ml or cm3 with a
fine tap at the bottom.
 It is open at the top.
 The zero mark is at the top, near the open end of the tube.
 Burettes are used to in chemical laboratories to measure the volume of the liquid
used
 You can take the volume of the liquid used on the side. Remember :1cm3=1ml
3. Pipette
 A pipette is a glass bulb with two open ends.
 The bottom end is narrow and has a small hole in it, while the upper end is open and
wide.
 You should use a pipette filler when using pipettes, particularly when handling
reagents such as acids.
 A pipette is used to transfer a measurement amount of liquid from one container to
another.
Measuring volume of solid object

 If the solid object has a regular shape you can measure its dimensions and find the
volume of the object by calculating.
 Dimensions- the measurements of an object.
Volume of a cuboid
V=l × b × h
Volume of a cube
V=s ×s × s
Volume of cylinder
V=∏×r2×h
Cuboid
Cube
V= s ×s × s
V= l ×w × h
Cylinder
Measuring volume of irregular objects.

 There are two methods we can use: displacement method and Eureka can
1. Displacement method is a way of measuring the volume of an object by placing
it in the water and noting the increase in the level of the water.
Apparatus
 A measuring cylinder (wide enough for the stone or object)
 Water
 A piece of string
Procedure
 Fill the measuring cylinder with water up to the level that will cover the object
 Note the volume of the water (volume )
 Tie the object to the string
 Lower the object slowly, so that it is fully immersed (covered) in water.
*Be careful not to let any water splash out and do not lower too much of the string
into the water.
 Note the new volume of the water (volume 2)
 Calculate the volume of the object by subtracting volume 1 into volume 2
*Volume of object= final volume – initial volume
V= V2 –V1
2. Eureka Can
 Instead of using a measuring cylinder we can use a Eureka Can.
Procedure
 Fill the Eureka Can to the spout with water
 Place the beaker under the spout
 Carefully lower the object into Eureka Can and collect the water that
flows into the beaker.
 Pour the water collected in the beaker into the measuring cylinder and
note the volume.
 The volume of the object is the volume of the water in the measuring
cylinder.
Measuring Mass
 Mass is commonly measured with a triple-beam balance or an electronic scale.
 Mass is commonly measured with a triple-beam balance or an electronic scale.
Use these tips to measure mass accurately:

 Remove any particles of dust to avoid getting an incorrect mass.
 Zero the balance or scale.
 Place objects carefully on the balance or scale
 Do the measurement away from any wind, because this can affect your reading.
Measuring time
Time is how long something takes.
Instruments Used to measure time

1. Analogue stop clocks
 Stopwatches measure intervals in seconds.
Tips to remember when using a stopwatch to measure time in an experiment.
 Ensure that you know which one is the minute hand and which is the second hand on the
analogue clock.
 Digital stopwatches usually have three controls: one to start and stop the timing, one to reset
the clock to zero and one to change the mode from a stopwatch to a normal watch.
 Test the stopwatch by practicing a few times. Start, stop and reset to see that it works and
that you are comfortable with how it works.
 Start the clock when you want to begin timing.
 Stop the clock at the end and take a reading.
2. Digital stopwatches
Measuring temperature
 Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
 An alcohol thermometer is commonly in the laboratory, though a mercury thermometer
could also be used
NB: Mercury vapour is highly toxic. The vapour is easily released if a mercury thermometer
breaks.
SO3: Convert units of length, mass, time, area and volume

Converting between metric units
Conversion of units
 Changing units from one unit to another unit.
 Length- the distance between two points. Or measurement of something from end to end.
 1cm= 10mm
 cm = 5mm
 1m =100 cm
 m =50 cm
 1km=1000m
 km = 500m
 1m =1000mm
 m = 500 mm
EQUIVALENT LENGTHS
1 cm = 10 mm 1m = 1000 mm 1 m = 100 cm 1 km = 1000 m

Mass - the amount of matter in an object. Or how heavy or light something is.
 1t = 1000kg
 t = 500 kg
 1kg = 1000g
 kg = 500g
Activity: Change into kilograms or grams.
2000 g = kg 500 g = mg 250 g =_ kg
½ Kg = g ¾ kg = g ¼ Kg = g
3 Kg = g 6453 g =_ kg 8g = kg
Time -the duration of something. Or how long something takes.
Activity
Name………………………………………………………………… Date………………………
Mixed Units Conversion of Time
Convert into given units of measurement.
1. 21 mins = secs
2. 13 mins 42 secs = secs
4. 19 mins = secs
5. 12 mins = secs
6. 1 min 19 secs = secs
8. 27 mins = secs
9. 18000 secs = hours
10. 4 hours 35 mins = secs
11. 1 day 1 hour = mins
12. 34 days 576 hours = days
13. 2450 secs = hours
14. 10080 mins = days
15. 7 years = ________________ months
Total: 15 Marks
Area
Area= length ×breadth or Area = side x side
A = l × b or A = S x S
Units of area are Square centimeter (cm2), Square meter (m2),
Activity: Convert the units of area
a. 81 km2= ________________________________m2
b. 32m2= _________________________________cm2
c. 15 cm2= _______________________________mm2
d. 23 0000 m2=_______________________________km2
e. 612 m2= __________________________________ cm2
Volume
Volume = Length x breadth x height
Units of volume are cubic centimeter (cm3) and cubic meter (m3)
Activity: Convert the units of volume

a. 55 m3=_____________________cm3
b. 1 780m3= __________________km3
c. 6 780 mm3= ________________cm3
d. 89 km3=___________________m3
1.2 Stating the aim (question) of an investigation
SO1: Outline that investigations are a way to find out new information, explore the world around
us, and develop new ideas to explain the world around us and to check the results of other
scientists.
Planning and conducting investigations
What are investigations?
 Are ways of finding out information, explore the world around us, develop new ideas to
explain the world around us and to check the results of other scientists.
SO2: Explain the first steps to an investigation as:
- choosing the right question or aim of the investigation
- planning how to collect information or data
Steps for planning an investigation
Step 1: identify the question (problem).
Step 2: state the aim of the investigation.
Step 3: make a hypothesis (guess or predict the outcome).
Step 4: plan how to conduct the investigation. This includes getting all the materials needed.
Step 5: conduct the investigation. Record all your findings.
Step 6: make conclusions and present your results.
SO3: Explain how to make a test fair by identifying an appropriate control

Making a test fair
 To make a test fair, change one factor at a time while keeping the other factors
constant/same.
Choosing an appropriate control
 Making one part of the experiment different from others.

 The control does not have the variables the person is studying.
 The quantities of the control remain unchanged throughout the experiment.
SO4: Explain the importance of a zero reading or the use of a control

Explain the importance of the control in an experiment
 It ensures that only the factors that are being studied affect the outcome of the investigation.
Explain the concept of “zero reading”
 Zero reading is to set the instrument/device at 0 before you start using it.
Explain the importance of zero reading
 To get accurate measurements.
SO5: identify dependent (what you measure) and independent variable (what you are changing)
Variables
 Variables refer to something that can be changed.
 In an experiment, a variable is something that is being measured.
There are three types of variables
1. Independent variable
2. Dependent variable
3. Control variable / constant variable
1. Independent variable
 The variable the experimenter/scientist changes in order to study the effect of the
changes.
 The person controls it.
 In graphs, it is plotted on the X-axis.
2. Dependent variable
 The outcomes as a result of manipulating the independent variables.
 This is the results being measured in the experiment.
 In graphs, it is plotted on the Y-axis
3. Control variable / constant variable

 The variable that is controlled and kept the same to make sure that the effects
observed are those caused by the manipulation of independent variable.
SO6: Explain direct proportionality and inverse proportion

Proportion
 The way in which variables are related.
Types of proportion
 Direct proportion
 Indirect / inverse proportion
Direct proportion
 This is when variables change in the same way.
 If one variable increase, the other one also increase in the same ratio. If one doubles, the
other one also doubles.
 If one variable decreases, the other variable also decreases in the same ratio. If one
halves, the other one also halves.
 Direct proportion produces a straight line graph.
Indirect proportion / inverse proportion
 This is when variables changes in an opposite manner.
 If one variable increases, the other one decreases in the same ratio.
 When one variable doubles, the other one halves.
 Inverse proportion produces a curved graph
1.3 Recording and presenting Results

SO1: Explain the importance of units and recorded results of experimental investigations.
. Define recording
 Noting down the findings of investigations or experiments.
State ways how data/information can be recorded
 Using devices like audio recorders, cell phones, cameras, etc.

 Writing using a pen.
 Plotting a chart or a graph.
 Drawing a diagram of what you observed.
 Take pictures.
NB: when recording physical quantities by writing, you must write the name of the quantity
and the units used.
State the importance of recording results of investigations
 So that the results can be verified.

 So that the person does not forget the findings.
 To analyze the data collected.
Units of measurement
 Units refer to a specific measure of amount of a given physical quantity.

 Units are represented by a letter, a word or group of letters written after numerical figures.
For example 125m, 100⁰C, 25m/s, 75kg etc.
Importance of unit of measurement
 It help to show the other person the exact amount.

 To show which measurement system was used.
 To assist in solving mathematical problems.
 Units give us an idea of how much of the physical quantity under consideration is being dealt
with. For example, how large the volume is, how long the distance is, how fast the moving
body is, how much something is etc.
 Units put meanings to numerical data. Majority of the numerical data that we use are of no
meaning if not bearing units of measurements. For example, see if you can make sense of the
following information;
 The car was moving at a speed of 200 [km/h or m/s or mil/h?]

 The volume of this container is 250 [litres or m3 or cm3 or ml or dm3?]
 I will come after 30 [minutes or seconds or days or years or hours?]
 I weigh 250 [kg or gram or pounds]
These statements are meaningless due to the absence of units of measurements.
NB: Any numerical answer without units is meaningless except ratio
SO2: Present results and conclusion of experimental investigations
Handling data
 Handling information is to locate, organize and present results in a way that can other
people can understand.
Presenting results
 This is communicating the results to other people.
Ways to present results
 Posters
 Pictures
 Charts e.g. pie charts
 Drawings
 Graphs e.g. line graph, bar graph, pictographs, and histograms.
Presenting data in table and graphs
Presenting data in a table form
When drawing a table to record data, take the following into consideration.
 Each table must have a heading.

 Use a pencil and a ruler to draw the table outline.
 The table can be horizontal or vertical.
Drawing horizontal tables

 If the table is horizontal, each row must have a heading that gives the physical quantity and
the appropriate unit.
 Record the independent variable in the first row and the dependent variable in the second
row.
 Use a solidus (/) to separate the quantity and the unit.
Time/minutes
Temperature/oC
Drawing vertical tables
 If the table is vertical, each column must have a heading that gives the physical quantity and
the appropriate unit.
 Record the independent variable in the first column and the dependent variable in the
second column.
 Use a solidus (/) to separate the quantity and the unit.
Time/minutes Temperature/oC
 Enter the data in the table using a pen

 The unit should only be included in the heading of the row or column, do not write the units
in the body of the table.
 The data must be consistent in terms of the number of significant figures or decimal places
in a particular row or column.
Using data in a table to plot graph

When drawing graph, note the following.
 Use a pencil to draw the graph.

 Each graph must have a heading.
 The heading of the table must be dependent versus independent variable. E.g. Temperature
vs Time graph.
 The graph must be as large as possible.
 Use an appropriate scale.
 The scale on each axis can be different.
 Use a scale that will make use of more than half of the space on the graph.
 Label the independent variable on the horizontal axis or X-axis with its unit separated by
“/”.
 Label the dependent variable on the vertical axis or Y-Axis with its unit separated by “/”.
 The graph may have more than one curves drawn on it.
 The points must be drawn clearly.
 Use dots ● or crosses × or encircled dots to plot the points in line graphs.
Ways of representing plotted graphs
1. Straight line graph – use a ruler to draw a straight line connecting all the points
2. Line of best fit – draw a straight line to connect some points. Make sure the number of
points above and below the straight line are the same.
3. Smooth curve – use your freehand to connect the points. Do not use a ruler.
SO3: Handle and process experimental observations and data, including dealing with anomalous
or inconsistent results.
General concepts of error
 The concept of error is based on the understanding that no physical quantiy can be
measured perfectly.
 No measurements are exact.
 There are always errors in the measurements.
 If you take a measurement and repeat, you might get a different value.
 It is therefore importance to repeat the measurement for at least 3 times and calculate
the average.
Types of errors
1. Absolute error
2. Relative error
3. Determinate error
4. Indeterminate error
1. Absolute error
 It tells the range of possible values that can be taken using particular unit of
measurement. E.g. length could be measured as10 ±0.5.
2. Relative error
 It gives an indication of how good a measurement is relative to the size of the thing being
measured. E.g. an error of 1cm is very significant in a measurement of 2cm, but virtually
irrelevant in a measurement of 10m
3. Determinate errors (Systematic error)

 Is when you are using an incorrect standardized instrument which is not zeroed or when
you are using a wrongly analytical method.
4. Random or indeterminate error
 Is to take reading incorrectly. They occur randomly and may not be easily detectable
1.4 Evaluation and reasoned explanation of results
SO1: Evaluate presented results or experimental data by applying scientific knowledge and
interpret and draw appropriate conclusion from practical observations and data.
Evaluation of results.
 Evaluate the results of an experiment by looking at the general scientific knowledge,

interpret results and draw appropriate conclusion from the practical investigation.
Observation Conclusion
1. The white solid object change to The ice is melting
colourless liquid
2. When you feel water getting Temperature rises/ increases

warmer
3. Bubble formed in water Water is boiling

4. Steam can be seen on top of the Water vapour is condensing
beaker and water droplets
formed on the beaker
S02: Analyse anomalous (inconsistent) results, discuss trends in results, identify sources of error
and suggest possible preventive measures.
Anomalous (inconsistent) results - means errors in an experiment.
 Results that are unusual from what is expected.

 They do not follow the trend. They are out of the range.
 They are anomaly.
 Anomaly means something that do not fit in the range.
 Such results make the whole results less reliable.
 Anomalous point will be in a straight line with others.
 They are odd-results.
 Once you detect an odd result, restart the whole process.
 In the set of measurements: 2, 1, 2, 11, 3, 4. 11 is the anomaly point. It is out of the range.
Common sources of systematic errors
 Not setting the instrument to zero before the experiment starts.
 Poorly maintained instruments. E.g. not cleaning instruments after using them.
 Not knowing how to read instruments. E.g. reading volumes of liquids above the meniscus.
 Using wrong instruments. E.g. using a clinical thermometer to measure boiling points.
 Faulty reading of instruments by the use. E.g parallax error (an error caused by reading an
instrument at a wrong angle).
 NB: once you detect a systematic error, you must restart the whole experiment. .
General causes of errors in experiments
 Environment factors like sudden change in temperature.

 Not setting the instrument to zero before the experiment starts.
 Error of parallax (eyes at wrong angle).
 Taking wrong/incorrect readings.
 Doing calculations incorrectly. E.g. using wrong formula.
 Not knowing how to use instruments.
 Wrong conversion between units.
 Incorrect rounding of figures.
Possible improvements to reduce errors
 Set instruments to zero before the experiment starts.

 Record/take correct readings.
 Use correct formula in doing calculations.
 Repeat measurements and calculate average.
 Avoid error of parallax.
 Know how to use instruments given.
 Convert units correctly.
 Round of figures correctly.
TOPIC 2: MATTER
2.1. Building blocks of matter: atoms, elements, compounds, molecules and mixtures
SO1. Define a compound
 A compound is a chemical substance that contains two or more elements chemically

bonded together to form a new substance.
SO2. Outline that atoms, molecules and ions are the building blocks of all material.
The three building blocks of all matters are:
 Atoms
 Molecules
 Ions.
an atom
 An atom is the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist.
 Atoms can be combined to form molecules and ions.
a molecule
 A molecule can be defined as two or more atoms of the same or different elements that
are bonded together covalently.
 A molecule may be homonuclear, which means it consists of two atoms of the same
element such as
Hydrogen molecule (H2), nitrogen molecule (N2), oxygen molecules (O2). Such molecules are
refer to as diatomic molecules
 A molecule may be heteronuclear, which means it is a chemical compound composed of

more than one atom of different elements such as water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
an ions
 An ion is an atom or a group of atoms where the numbers of electrons are not equal to the
number of protons.
 When an atom gains electrons, it results into a negative charged ion. Non-metal atoms
will always gain electrons.
 Negative ions are called anions.
 When an atom loses electrons, it results into a positive charged ion. Metal atoms will
always lose electrons.
 Positive ions are called cations.
SO3. Distinguish between elements and compounds
 An element is a pure chemical substance that consists of only one type of atom.
 An element is represented by a Symbol eg. Sodium is represented by symbol Na.
Examples:
 Carbon(C) is an element with one type of atom.
 Diatomic nitrogen gas (N2) is a molecule composed of two nitrogen atoms each
and it’s an element.
A compound
 Is a chemical substance that consists of at least two different atoms

Examples
 water (H2O) composed of hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms
 Carbon dioxide gas composed of CO2 molecule which composed of carbon and oxygen
atoms and it is a compound.
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) composed of sodium ions and chloride ions and it is a
compound.
SO4. Revise from grade 8 to distinguish between elements, mixtures and compound
 A compound is a chemical substance that consists of at least two different atoms.
 An element is a pure chemical substance that consists of only one type of atom.
 A mixture consists of two or more different substances which are physically combined.
In a mixture, individual substances can be identified and be separated using a physical method.
Examples:
 Salty water,
 A mixture of sand and water,
 Air,
 Earth crust,
Activity 1
1. Define a compound [1]
2. Outline the following building blocks of matter
a) Atom[1]
b) Molecule [1]
c) Ion.[1]
3. Distinguish between element and compound.[2]
4. Complete the table by using a tick ( in the appropriate space.
Substance compound element mixture
Calcium oxide
Sea water
Nitrogen
Tungsten
2.2. The structure of the atom.

SO1. Revise from grade 8 the development of the atomic model (an atom consists of protons
and neutrons and is orbited by electrons that are arranged in shells that can contain a fixed
maximum number of electrons.
 An atom consists three particles:
o Protons
o Neutrons and
o Electrons.
 The protons and neutrons are found inside the nucleus of an atom while the electrons
move around/orbit the nucleus in energy level called shells.
 Electrons are always drawn with dots • or crosses × .
 Each shell can only take a maximum number of electrons.
 The first shell takes a maximum number of two electrons.
 The second shell can take a maximum of eight electrons.
 The third shell can takes the maximum of eight electrons
 The fourth shell takes the maximum of eight electrons.
The structure of the first 20 elements
 Every element is made up of very small particles called atoms.

 Atoms of different elements have a different number of protons called the atomic
number.
 Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
 Atoms have a very small, positively charged nucleus, with negatively charged
electrons outside the nucleus in energy levels.
S02. Draw the Bohr structure of the first 20 elements and analyses the structures in terms of:
 Atomic and mass number,

 electronic structure,
 the relative charges and masses of the protons, neutrons and electrons,
 the relationship between group number of the periodic table and number of electrons
in the outer shells and the relationship between periodic number of the periodic table
and number of shells in atoms.
The diagram showing the electronic structures of the first 20 elements
The relative charges and masses of the protons, neutrons and electrons.
Particle Relative charges Relative masses

Proton +1 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron -1 0
Describe the relationship between the atomic structures of an element to its position on the
periodic table.
Example 1: Lithium structure
 Lithium has one electron on its outer shell and a total of two shells.
 This indicates that lithium is found in group one because it has one electron on its outer
shell.
 It is found in period three because it has three shells
Example 2: Aluminium structure
 Aluminium has 3 electrons on its outer shell and a total of three shells.
 This indicates that aluminium is found in group 3 because it has three electrons on its
outer shell.
 It is found in period three because it has three shells.
Let us use sodium in the example on how to analyze the atomic structure.
1. Sodium (Na) is represented on the Periodic Table in a form of nuclide notation. As shown
below:
 Na is the symbol of sodium,

 The subscript 11(the small number at the bottom on the left hand side of
symbol Na) in the nuclide notation is called the relative atomic number of
sodium. Relative atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom.
 The numbers of protons are always equal to the number of electrons in a neutral
atom. (This is the number of electrons you need to draw on the shells when
drawing the atomic structure of sodium).
 The superscript 23(on symbol Na) the small number at the left top on the
nuclide notation is called the relative atomic mass number or a nucleon number.
 Relative atomic mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
Study the atomic structure of sodium and use it
 By analyzing the electronic structure of sodium:

o The relative atomic number of sodium is 11.
o The relative atomic mass number is 23 (by adding the number of protons
to the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom).
o There are a total of 11 electron giving us the electronic configuration
2,8,1.
o Sodium is found in group one of the Periodic Table because it has one (1)
electron on the outer shell.
o Sodium is found in period 3 because it has three shells.
The table showing analyzed information about the first 20 elements

Element Symbo Relativ Number Relativ Number Electronic Numbe Grou Perio
l e of e of configuratio r of p d
atomic neutron atomic electron n shell
number s mass s
number
Hydrogen H 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
Helium He 2 2 4 2 2 1 0 1
Lithium Li 3 4 7 3 2,1 2 1 2
Beryllium Be 4 5 9 4 2,2 2 2 2
Boron B 5 6 11 5 2,3 2 3 2
Carbon C 6 6 12 6 2,4 2 4 2
Nitrogen N 7 7 14 7 2,5 2 5 2
Oxygen O 8 8 16 8 2,6 2 6 2
Fluorine F 9 10 19 9 2,7 2 7 2
Neon Ne 10 10 20 10 2,8 2 0 2
Sodium Na 11 12 23 11 2,8,1 3 1 3
Magnesiu Mg 12 12 24 12 2,8,2 3 2 3
m
Aluminium Al 13 14 27 13 2,8,3 3 3 3
Silicon Si 14 14 28 14 2,8,4 3 4 3
Phosphoru P 15 16 31 15 2,8,5 3 5 3
s
Sulfur S 16 16 32 16 2,8,6 3 6 3
Chlorine Cl 17 18.5 35.5 17 2,8,7 3 7 3
Argon Ar 18 22 40 18 2,8,8 3 0 3
Potassium K 19 20 39 19 2,8,8,1 4 1 4
Calcium Ca 20 20 40 20 2,8,8,2 4 2 4
Activity 2
1. Name the particles of an atom.[3]

2. Draw the Bohr structure of the following elements
a) Hydrogen [1]
b) Phosphorus [1]
3. Complete the table by filling in the missing information
Particle Relative charge Relative masses
Proton +1 a)
b) 0 c)
Electron d) -1
4. Study the atomic structure of element Y and answer questions.
a) Use the Periodic Table to:

i) Identify the element represented by structure Y[1]
ii) The group and period to which element Y is found. [2]
b) Describe the relationship between the period number and the structure of element
Y.[1]
Activity
1. The table shows information about different elements Q, R and S
a) Use the periodic Table to complete the table below.

[5]
Element Number of proton Number of Electronic Group Period

electrons configuration
Q 5 5 a ……….. 3 2
R 17 b …… 2,8,7 c …… d ……
S 20 e ……… 2,8,8,2 2 4
2.3. The Periodic Table
SO1. Revise names and symbols of elements of the Periodic Table in grade 8(expand to
include all halogens, noble gasses, period four transition metals, tungsten, lead, gold, mercury
and uranium).
Remember: A Periodic Table is a classification of elements into groups and periods according to
their properties with metals on the left and nonmetals on the right.
The names and symbols of the first 20 elements

Element name symbol
1. Hydrogen H
2. Helium He
3. Lithium Li
4. Beryllium Be
5. Boron B
6. Carbon C
7. Nitrogen N
8. Oxygen O
9. Fluorine F
10. Neon Ne
11. Sodium Na
12. Magnesium Mg
13. Aluminium Al
14. Silicon Si
15 Phosphorus P
16 Sulfur S
17. Chlorine Cl
18. Argon Ar
19. Potassium K
20. Calcium Ca
All halogens (elements in group 7)

Element Name Symbol
1. Fluorine F
2. Chlorine Cl
3. Bromine Br
4. Iodine I
5. Astatine At
All the noble gases (group 0 elements)

Element Name Symbol
1 Helium He
2 Neon Ne
3 Argon Ar
4 Krypton Kr
5 xenon Xe
6 Radon Rn
All period four transition metal
Element name Symbol

Scandium Sc
Titanium Ti
vanadium V
Chromium Cr
Manganese Mn
Iron Fe
Cobalt Co
Nickel Ni
Copper Cu
Zinc Zn
Other important metals
Element name Symbol
1. Tungsten W
2. Gold Au
3. Lead Pb
4. Mercury Hg
5 Uranium U
Activity
1. Match the element on the left with their correct symbols on the right. The first one is
already done for you as an example.
Element symbol
1.Uranium Co
2. Mercury F
3.Nickel Mn
4. Cobalt Sc
6. Fluorine Kr
7. Bromine Xn
8. Scandium Ni
9. Manganese U
10. Xenon Br
11. krypton Hg
Activity
1. look at the incomplete Periodic Table below
a) Which letter shows an element which is a noble gas?

b) Indicate the correct position of hydrogen and nitrogen by writing their correct symbol
on the correct positions on the periodic table.
c) How many electrons are on the outer shell of element represented by letter B?
d) In which period do we find element represented by letter C above?
2.4. Bonding
SO1: Describe and distinguish between covalent and ionic bonding as different types of
bonding and relate bonding to the position (group) of elements in the Periodic Table.
The two types of bonding are:
 Covalent bonding
 Ionic bonding
Covalent bonding
 Is the sharing of electrons when atoms combine;

Ionic bonding/electrovalent bonding
 Ionic bonding is the transfering of electrons from a metal atom to the non-metal atom.
2.4.1. Covalent bonding
SO1. Describe how non-metal atoms combine with other atoms by sharing electrons in their
outer shells with the result that both atoms achieve full outer shells.
 In covalent bond the outer shells partly overlap and electrons are shared in the overlapped
area.
 Atoms may form multiple covalent bonds - they share not just one pair of electrons but
two or more pairs.
 Atoms of different elements will form either one (single), two (double), three (triple) or
four (quadrant) covalent bonds with other atoms.
 The number of electrons shared is equal to the group number.
 The table gives more detail on this rule:
Example No of bonds
Number of
of formed
electron shared
Element
Group 4 Carbon 4 Quadrant bond
Group 5 Nitrogen 3 Triple bond
Group 6 Oxygen 2 Double bond
Group 7 Chlorine 1 Single bond
Hydrogen 1 Single bond
Draw Bohr structures to illustrate covalent compounds. (From grade 8 work)
Diatomic molecule of hydrogen (H2)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is made up of one carbon atom and two atoms of oxygen.
Water or Hydrogen oxide (H2O) molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms and oxygen
covalently bonded.
2.4.2. Ionic/electrovalent bonding
SO1. Describe how the reaction between a metal atom and a non-metal results in the
transferring of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms so that both achieve a full
outer shell and form positive ions(cation) and negative ions (anion) respectively.
 Ions are electrically charged particles formed when atoms loss or gain electrons.
 This loss or gain leaves a full outer shell, so the electronic structure of an ion is the same
as that of a noble gas (such as helium, neon or argon).
 Metal atoms lose the electron, or electrons, in their outer shell (highest energy level)
and become positively charged ions
 A positive charged ion is also known as cation.
 Non-metal atoms gain an electron, or electrons, to become negatively charged ions.
 A negative charged ion is also known as anion
There is a quick way to work out what the charge on an ion should be:
 The number of charges on an ion formed by a metal is equal to the group

number of that metal.
 The number of charges on an ion formed by a non-metal is equal to eight minus
the group number.
 Hydrogen forms H+ ions
Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Example
Na Mg Al C N O Cl He
element
Charge + 2+ 3+ Note 1 3- 2- - Note 2
Symbol of ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ Note 1 N3- O2- Cl- Note 2
Note 1: Carbon and silicon in group 4 usually form covalent bonds by sharing electrons.
Note 2: The elements in group 0 do not react with other elements to form ions.
SO2. Predict the positive and negative charges of ions (in terms of attained noble gas
electronic structures.)
 The group number is the same as the positive ion formed by a metal atom.
 Eight minus the group number is equal to the negative charge formed by a non-
metal atom.
Example: lithium is a metal atom in group one and will form a lithium ion with a charge of 1+.
 Lithium ion is written as
3p
4n
4
 Fluorine is in group seven.

 Therefore, eight minus seven will give a negative charge. (8-7= 1-)
 Fluoride ion is written as
SO3. Define ions
 Ions are atoms with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more
electrons.
 Examples- cation have lost electron while anion have gained electrons in order to
obtain a noble gas structure.
 In the above structure sodium atom lost one electron to form Sodium ion.
 Chlorine atom gained an electron and forms a chloride ion.
SO4. Draw Bohr structure of ionic compounds

Rules for drawing the structure
 Electrons are indicated by crosses(×) or dots(•)

 Electrons from different atoms should be differentiated by crosses and dots
 Arrows should be used to show electron transfer.
 Transferred electrons should be indicated only once in the anion and not in the cation.
 Only the outside shell will be indicated in the bonding sketch.
Ionic bonding between sodium and oxygen to form sodium oxide
Bonding between sodium and chlorine to form sodium chloride (table salt)
Bonding between magnesium and fluorine to form magnesium fluoride.
Bonding between calcium and chlorine to form calcium chloride.
SO5. Explain ionic (electrovalent) bonding
 Ionic (electrovalent) bonding can be explained as the electrostatic attraction between

oppositely charged ions (cation and anion).
Example:
 Sodium ion which is a positively charged is attracted to a negatively charged ion of

chlorine during the formation of sodium chloride compound.
SO6. Describe the lattice of an ionic compound
 The lattice of an ionic compound is a regular arrangement of alternating positive and

negative ions.
 The lattice of sodium chloride will be shown as follow:
 The oppositely charged ions in a crystal lattice are held by strong ionic
bonds (electrostatic forces of attraction) in a huge three-dimensional structure.
SO7. Write the formulas of ionic compounds including polyatomic ions ( , ,
-,
 An ionic compound is always electrically neutral.(not positive or negative)

 In the formula of an ionic compound, the positive ion (cation) is given first followed by
the negative ion (anion).
 For example: Sodium chloride is an ionic compound with the formula NaCl (Na is a
cation while Cl in an anion) in this formula.
Step by step on how to come up with the formula of a compound.
1. Identify the elements/ions in the compound.
2. Write down their symbols.
3. Write their charges (for group 1, 2 and 3 the charge is group number and for group 7, 6
and 5 you subtract the group number from 8)
Example: The correct symbol of sodium chloride can be obtained as follow.
Sodium chloride
element Sodium Chlorine
symbol Na Cl
charge 1+ 1-
Swop 1 1
Ratio 1 1
Simplify (if 1 1
possible)
Formula Na1 Cl1
Therefore the formula of sodium chloride (table salt) is NaCl.
Remember: we do not write number 1 next to the symbol.
Writing the formula of calcium chloride
Elements Calcium Chlorine

involved
Correct Ca Cl
symbol
Charge 2+ 1+
Swop 1 2
Ratio 1 2
Simplify 1 2
Formula Ca1 Cl2
The formula of calcium chloride is CaCl2
Formula of compound involving polyatomic ions
 Polyatomic ions are ions consisting of more than one element but acts as single ions.
 Below is the table of common polyatomic ions with the formulas and charge
Polyatomic ion Formula Charge
Sulfate 2-
Nitrate 1-
Carbonate 2-
Ammonium 1-
Hydrogen 1+
carbonate
Hydroxide 1-
Example: The formula of magnesium sulfate
Element/ion Magnesium Sulfate
involved
Symbol Mg SO4
charge 2+ 2-
Swop 2 2
ratio 2 2
simplify 1 1
Formula Mg1 SO4
The formula of magnesium sulfate will be MgSO4
Note:
 Some metals can form more than one ion in different chemical state.
 For those ones we add Roman numerals in brackets to show the charge of the
cation.
 This is called stock notation system for example Copper (II), iron (III) etc.
Example: The formula of Copper (II) nitrate

Element/ion Copper Nitrate
involved
Symbol Cu NO3
Charge 2+ 1-
Swop 1 2
Ratio 1 2
Simplify 1 2
Formula Cu (NO3)2
Formula of copper (II) nitrate is Cu(NO3)2
Activity
1. Describe and distinguish between covalent and ionic bonding [2]
2. Define ion. [1]
3. Outline ionic bonding.[1]
4. Outline the arrangement of ions/ electrovalent bonding. [1]
5. Sodium chloride is an example of ionic compound. Identify the anion (negative ion)
in that compound..[1]
6. Draw the Bohr structure of the following compounds and write the correct formula
for each
a) Litium Oxide [3]

b) Carbon dioxide [3]
c) Sodium fluoride [3]
7. Write the correct formulae of the following compounds.
a) Ammonium carbonate [1]
b) Copper oxide [1]
c) Copper (II)oxide [1]
d) Sodium hydroxide [1]
e) Iron (III) chloride [1]
2.5. Chemical change

SO1. Describe the process of chemical change and compare it to physical change.
 Chemical change is the process by which a new substance is formed.

 Physical change is the process by which no new substance is formed.
The difference between physical and chemical change can be summarized as follow:
Chemical change Physical change
New substances are formed No new substances formed
Heat is always involved Little or no heat is involved

Difficult to reverse Easy to reverse
It is a permanent change It is a temporary change
Examples of chemical change

 Striking a match
 Burning wood
 Burning candle

Example of physical change
 Water evaporating from wet floor
 A school shirt drying
 Ice melting
SO2. Outline the course of chemical change as:

Reactant(s) Product(s)
A+B C+D
C A+B
Apply these terms to various examples

Example 1: In the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen, hydrogen oxide is formed.
The word equation will be written as follow:
Hydrogen + Oxygen Hydrogen oxide
 In the word equation above, the reactants are hydrogen and oxygen and;
 Hydrogen oxide is the product.
 The plus (+) sign on the reactant side is read as react with and the arrow ( ) as
giving.
Example 2: Mercury oxide Mercury + Oxygen
SO2. Describe experiments to illustrate the difference between a physical change (e.g.
boiling water) and a chemical change (e.g striking a match)
Water boiling experiment

1. Aim
 To determine whether heating water is a physical or a chemical change.
2. Materials needed
 Bunsen burner
 water
 Beaker
 Ice in a clear glass
3. Method (what to do)
 Pour water in the beaker and heat it for a period of 5minutes.
 Hold a glass with ice just above the boiling water and observe what happens.
Cold glass
water
Bunsen burner
4. Results of the observation

 When water is heated, it boils and form steam.
 The steam condenses into water when it touches a cold glass and form water
droplets on the surface.
5. Conclusion drawn from the observation.
 Boiling water is a physical change because no new substance is formed.
Striking a match experiment

1. Aim
 To determine whether striking a match is a physical or a chemical change.
2. Materials needed
 A match stick
3. Method (what to do)
 Strike matches stick and observe what happens until it stops burning.
4. Results of the experiment
 During the tricking matches stick experiment, the match stick head glows into hot
flames.
 This process cannot be reversed.
 Heat is given out to the surrounding.
5. Conclusion drawn from the observation

 It is chemical change because new substances are formed which is carbon
dioxide, energy etc and cannot be reversed.
SO4. Identify new substances formed by chemical reactions and discuss that the properties
of the reactants differ completely from those of the product(s)
 Burning wood is an example of a chemical change.
o Burning wood is a chemical reaction where wood is chemically combining with

oxygen to form coal, carbon dioxide and energy as new products.
o The properties of carbon dioxide and coal (products) are completely different
from that of wood and oxygen (reactants).
SO5. Outline that a chemical reaction involves a change in energy and distinguish between
exothermic reactions (energy given out) and endothermic reactions (energy taken in)
 During a chemical reaction, heat energy is either given in (causing the decrease in the
temperature) or taken out (causing the increase in the temperature of a substance).
Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic reaction
 Exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction in which energy is given off to the

surrounding.
Example: wood burning, piece of charcoal burning, burning magnesium ribbon
 Endothermic reaction is a chemical reaction in which energy is taken in from the

surrounding.
Examples: ice melting, baking soda reacting with vinegar, sodium hydrogen carbonated
decomposing and photosynthesis.
SO6. Outline that exothermic reaction often needs an initial input of energy to start them off
but that after this they will proceed spontaneously.
 Exothermic reaction often needs an initial input of energy to start them off but after
this they will proceed spontaneously.
Example: For wood to burn, you need to start the fire by striking the match stick and support the
burning process to start until the wood catches fire and burn without further support.
SO7. Recognize reactions in which energy is spontaneously given off
 Some chemical reaction in which energy is spontaneously given off (without any
input)
Examples:
 the oxidation of a piece of sodium,
 The reaction of an organic substance with potassium permanganate.
 The reaction of sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid below.
SO8. Suggest reactions which are exothermic but requires energy to start them off.
 Burning of wood,
 Burning of magnesium ribbon,
 Burning candle,
 Striking a match
SO9. Discuss the energy or temperature changes in some endothermic reactions such as
heating baking powder to liberate carbon dioxide in the baking process and the reaction
between sodium hydrogen carbonate and acid.
Heating baking powder (during baking of cakes)
 When baking powder is heated, energy is needed (taken in) to break the bond between
the atoms of sodium hydrogen carbonate to form new compounds such as sodium
carbonate, carbon dioxide and water.
 The carbon dioxide produced during the reaction causes the dough to rise.
The reaction between sodium hydrogen carbonate and acid

 When sodium hydrogen carbonate reacts with acid, the bond between the components
forms a compound breaks up to form sodium carbonate, water and carbon dioxide.
 Causing a decrease in temperature.
SO10. Write word equations for the reactions of chemical change
 Wood burning
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
 Calcium carbonate reacting with hydrochloric acid

Calcium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + Carbon dioxide + Water
 Photosynthesis in plants
Carbon dioxide + water Glucose + Oxygen
2.6. Combustion
SO1.Describe combustion and recognize that corrosion of metals and respiration are all
examples of the same type of reaction which involves the reaction of a substance with oxygen.
 Combustion is a chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen as they

burn.
 There are reactions that are similar to combustion reaction, they all involve the
reaction with oxygen but no burning is taking place.
 These are:
o Corrosion of metals and
o Respiration
SO2. Suggest examples of combustion from everyday life.
 Burning a match,
 burning a fire,
 Burning a candle,
 Burning fuel,
 Burning methylated spirit
 Burning paraffin.
SO3. Discuss examples of the combustion of element which require heat to initiate (start) the
reaction and predict the products of combustion.
 Some elements can undergo combustion reaction but requires heat to start the
reactions.
Examples:
Burning magnesium ribbon in air
 Magnesium reacts with oxygen in the air to form magnesium oxide and energy is
given off
Burning calcium in the air
 Calcium takes a while to reacts with oxygen in the air and then burst into a bright
flame forming calcium oxide and energy.
SO4. Write the word equation for the combustion reaction above.
 Reaction of Carbon with Oxygen

Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
 Reaction of magnesium with Oxygen

Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
2.7. Decomposition reaction

SO1. Describe the decomposition reaction (heating) of copper carbonate, copper sulfate
(hydrated) and ammonium carbonate and observe the chemical changes and products formed.
 Decomposition is the breaking down of substances to form simpler ones as a result of

heating.
Describe decomposition of copper carbonate
 Copper carbonate is a green fine powder.

 When it is heated, it breaks down into copper oxide(black in colour) carbon dioxide
(colorless gas and water colorless liquid
Describe decomposition of copper sulfate
 Hydrated copper sulfate is blue in colour and in form of crystals.
 When it is heated, it breaks down to form anhydrous copper sulfate (whitish in

colour) and water. (Anhydrous means without water).
 This change is reversible because if you put a drop of water on the hydrated copper
sulfate it will turn blue.
Describe decomposition reaction of ammonium carbonate

 Ammonium carbonate is a white solid.
 When heated it remains white but produce ammonia gas, carbon dioxide and water.
SO2. Write the word equation for the decomposition of the reactions above
 Word equation for the decomposition of copper sulfate

Hydrated copper sulfate → anhydrous copper sulfate + water
 Word equation for the decomposition of copper carbonate
Copper carbonate → Copper oxide + carbon dioxide + water
 Word equation for the decomposition of ammonium carbonate.
Ammonium carbonate → ammonia + Carbon dioxide + water
2.8 Synthesis reaction

SO1. Identify a number of synthesis reactions in which elements combine to form
compounds, such as the combination of iron and sulfur or magnesium and oxygen.
Synthesis reaction is a chemical reaction in which simpler substances are combined to form
more complex ones.
 When chlorine gas is passed over heated iron, iron (II) chloride gas is formed.
 When iron and sulfur is mixed and heated a black solid called iron sulfide is formed.
 When magnesium ribbon is burned in oxygen, it reacts vigorously as it burns with a

bright flame and form a powder called magnesium oxide.
SO2. Explain that many useful substances such as drugs, plastics and fertilizers are made
from simple starting materials by synthesis reactions.
 Many useful substances are made using synthesis reaction.

Examples: Pharmaceutical drugs such as ARV used to treat HIV and AIDS, NPK fertilizers, and
plastics.
SO3. Relate photosynthesis to a natural occurring synthesis reaction and recognize that it is
endothermic.
 Photosynthesis is a natural occurring synthesis reaction in which plants makes their

own food by combining carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to form glucose and
oxygen.
 Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction because heat is taken in during the
reaction.
SO3. Write down word equations for synthesis reaction
Reaction between iron and sulfur
Iron + Sulfur Iron sulfide
Reaction between magnesium and Oxygen
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
Photosynthesis reaction
Carbon dioxide + water + sunlight Glucose + Oxygen
Activity
1. Change in nature can be classified as physical change and chemical change
b) Describe the process of chemical change and compare it to physical change. [2]
c) Outline the general course of a chemical reaction. [1]
d) Study the word equation give below.
Sodium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid → Sodium chloride + water.
From the above word equation, identify:
i) Reactants [2]
ii) A product which is a salt [1]
e) Write down the formula of magnesium chloride. [1]
f) Distinguish between exothermic and endothermic reaction.[ 2]
g) The diagram A, B, C shows some chemical reactions. Classify them as combustion,

decomposition and combustion reaction on the spaces below each reaction.
_________________________ ________________________ ______________________[3]
TOPIC 3: ACIDS, ALKALIS (BASES), METALS AND NON- METALS
3.1 Acids and alkalis (bases)
SO1: Identify and name examples of acids in everyday life, discuss that acids are common in
foods, particularly fruits, and that they have a sour taste
 Many substances around us contain acids.

 Acids are common in foods such as lemon juice, vinegar and apples.
Examples of weak acids found in our everyday life
Substance Name of the acid

vinegar Acetic acid
Oranges lemons apples Citric acid
Sour milk omaere Lactic acid

Bee sting Formic acid
Fizzy drinks Carbonic acid H2CO3
Examples of strong acids (mineral acids)

 Hydrochloric acid- HCL
 Sulfuric acid-H2SO4
 Nitric acid-
Acids can be divided into two groups:
1. Organic acids – found in common foods such as lemon juice, vinegar, apples.
2. Mineral acids – produce from minerals e.g. hydrochloric acid
Bases and alkalis

SO2: Identify and name examples of bases used in everyday life, recognise that bases are
common in cleaning materials and that they have a bitter taste and a soapy feel when rubbed
between fingers (NOTE: no chemical should be touched unless in very dilute state; no chemical
should be tasted)
Base- is a substance that neutralizes acid by accepting hydrogen ions from it.
Alkalis -are base that are soluble dissolve in water and produce hydroxide OH ions solution.
Example of substances that contain bases and alkalis:

 baking soda
 ammonia
 potassium hydroxide
 sodium hydroxide
 eno
Cleaning materials that contain bases:

 Soaps
 Toothpaste
 Toothpaste
 Detergents e.g. foam bath liquid sunlight bleach omo Handy Andy.
SO3: relate acids’ chemical composition to hydrogen ions and negative anions (e.g. nitric acid/
nitrates, sulfuric acid/ sulfates and carbonic acid (hydrogen) carbonate/ carbonates
An acid – is a compound that contains hydrogen and dissolves in water to produce hydrogen
ions in solution.
 All acids contain the positive hydrogen ion H+ .
 This is the characteristic ion of an.
 However acids also contain negative ion or anion.
 When an acid is dissolved in water dissociates breaks up completely into its hydrogen
ions and the associated anion.
 For example in hydrochloric acid the word equation is:
Hydrochloric acid → hydrogen ions + chloride ions

Examples of acids and their ions
Name of acid formula Name of positive ion Name of negative ion (anion)
(cation)
Nitric acid HNO3 Hydrogen ion H+ Nitrate ion 𝑁𝑂
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Hydrogen ion H+ Sulfate ion SO42-
Carbonic acid H2CO3 Hydrogen ion H+ Carbonate ion (𝐶𝑂
Hydrochloric acid HCl Hydrogen ion H+ Chloride ion 𝐶𝑙
SO4: describe pH as a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution
 A pH value is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution.

 pH stands for power of hydrogen/potential hydrogen measure of acidic/ alkalinity .
The PH scale
SO5: relate the pH scale from 0 to less than 7 to the measure of acid strength or hydrogen ion
involved.
 The pH scale runs from 0 to 14.

 Acids have a pH from 0 to less than 7.
 The value 7 is neutral. It indicates neither acid nor alkali.
 The pH of strong acid is from 0 to less than 4 and that of weak acid is from 4 to less than
7.
 The strength of an acid is a measure of how easily it ionizes to produce hydrogen ions.
SO6: Relate the pH scale from more than 7 to 14 to the measure of the alkaline character of an
aqueous solution (an alkali is a base that is soluble in water)
 Alkaline solutions have a pH of more than 7.

 An alkali is a base that is soluble in water.
 The strength of a base is measured using the pH scale.
 Strong alkalis have high pH of more than 11 to 14.
 Weak alkalis have pH of more than 7 to 11.
The PH scale - is the scale used to measure indicate the acidity or alkalinity of aqueous
solution.
 The PH scale runs from 0 to 14.

 Acids are found from 0 to less than 7
 Alkalis are found from more than 7 to 14.
 7 is neutral the substance is neither acidic nor alkaline .
 Alkali- is a base that is soluble in water.
Red Orange yellow green greenish blue blue purple
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Acids Neutral Alkalis
Indicators
SO7: outline that an indicator is a chemical that changes colour when an acid or an alkali is
added to it, that indicators can be used to detect acids and alkalis
Indicators - are chemicals that change colour when they are added to acids or alkalis.
 Indicators are used to detect substances that contain acid or alkali.
Types of indicators
Litmus papers are stained with litmus which is used to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of a
substance.
 Blue litmus turns red under acidic condition.
 Red litmus will turn blue under alkaline condition.
Universal indicator
 Is a mixture of dyes.
 Like litmus it can be used as a solution universal indicator solution or as a paper
universal indicator paper .
 It goes a different colour at different PH value as shown in PH scale.
SO8: outline the properties of acids such as their effect on indicators such as litmus and
universal indicator (liquid or paper)
EFFECT ON INDICATOR
Substance Red litmus paper Blue litmus paper Universal

indicator(liquid or
paper)
Apple Remains red Turns red Turns yellow
Orange juice Remains red Turns red Turns yellow
Vinegar Remains red Turns red Turns yellow
Hydrochloric acid Remains red Turns red Turns red or orange
Sulfuric acid Remains red Turns red Turns red or orange
Properties of acids
 Acids have sour taste

 They are corrosive eat away metals and skin therefore never taste or touch them in the
laboratory.
 They turn blue litmus paper red
 They have PH number less than 7.
 They react with metal to form salt and hydrogen gas
 They dissolve in water to produce hydrogen ions.
 Acids can be divided into two groups:
 Organic acids – found in common foods such as lemon juice vinegar apples.
 Mineral acids – produce from minerals e.g. hydrochloric acid.
SO9: outline the properties of alkalis such as their effect on indicators such as litmus and
universal indicator (liquid or paper)
EFFECT ON INDICATOR
Substance Red litmus paper Blue litmus paper Universal

indicator(liquid or
paper)
Baking soda Turns blue Remains blue Turns greenish blue
sodium hydrogen
carbonate
Household ammonia Turns blue Remains blue Turns blue
Toothpaste Turns blue Remains blue Turns greenish blue
Washing soda Turns blue Remains blue Turns blue
sodium carbonate
Calcium hydroxide Turns blue Remains blue Turns purple
Properties of alkalis
 Alkalis are bases that dissolve in water

 Alkalis have bitter taste
 Alkalis have smooth soapy feeling in a solution
 Alkalis react with acids to form salt and water
 SO10: measure the pH of a variety of solutions
Practical investigation
Aim: Find the pH of various solutions
You will need:
 Universal indicator paper  Lime water calcium
with chart hydroxide
 Universal indicator liquid  Sodium hydroxide
with chart  Household cleaner
 Droppers  Distilled water
 Test tube rack with 11 test
tubes
 Dilute acetic acid
 Dilute hydrochloric acid
 Dilute sulfuric acid
 Carbonated water
 Soap water
Procedure
1. Cut the universal indicator paper into small pieces
2. Use the droppers to put drops of the solutions on your indicators
3. Remember to rinse the dropper before you use it for another solution or use different
droppers for each solution.
4. Compare the colour produced with the colours on the pH chart. This will tell you what the
pH of the solution is.
5. Record your results in a table using the following headings: substance indicator colour pH.
6. Add small amount of each solution to the test tubes.
7. Use another dropper or rinse the used dropper properly and add three to five drops to each
solution
8. Repeat steps 3 and 4.
Strong and weak alkalis
SO11: distinguish between weak alkali such as soap water and lime water, and strong alkalis such
as sodium hydroxide using a universal indicator and by referring to the pH scale
 Strong alkalis/bases-are bases with more hydroxide ion. The pH values range from 11-14
 Weak bases/alkalis-are bases with less hydroxide ions. The pH values range from 8-10
Examples of Strong alkalis:
 Sodium hydroxide
 Potassium hydroxide
 Calcium hydroxide
Examples of weak alkalis:
 Ammonia
 Soapy water
 Metal oxides e.g copper oxide
 Lime water
SO12: distinguish between weak acids such as acetic acid [vinegar] and strong acids such as
hydrochloric and sulfuric acids using an indicator and by referring to the pH scale
Weak acids
 Their pH value ranges from 4 to less than 7.
 Are acids with less hydrogen ions.
Example:
 Acetic acid in vinegar
 Carbonic acid in fizzy drinks
 Lactic acid in sour milk
 Citric acid lemon
Strong acids
 Their pH value ranges from 0 to less than 4.

 Are acids with more hydrogen ion.
NB! All acids turn blue litmus paper red.

Example:
 Hydrochloric acid
 Nitric acid
 Sulfuric acid
Activity 1
1 Which of the following compounds is an alkali?
A. sodium hydroxide
B. sulfuric acid
C. sulfur dioxide
D. pure water
2 The diagram shows different PH ranges
Which PH range represents the PH of weak acid?
3. In an experiment grade 9 learners measured the pH of a few household substances. The table
shows the results.
Substance pH
Hydrochloric acid 2
Baking soda 8
Lemon juice 4
Pure water 7
Soap 9
Washing soda sodium carbonate 12
a) Suggest what the learners used to measure the PH (1)
b) Use the table to identify
i. A weak acid 1
ii. A strong acid 1
iii. A weak alkali 1
c) State the name of the reaction between an acid and a base. 1
d) Suggest the name of the acid and alkali that can be used to prepare calcium sulfate 2
e) Write the general word equation for the reaction between an acid and a carbonate 3
f) Outline a test to confirm that a solution is acidic. 2
g) With reference to the pH distinguish between a weak alkali and a strong alkali. 2
3.2 : Neutralisation
SO1: describe the reaction of a base and an acid and predict the products formed
Neutralisation - is the reaction between bases/alkali and acids.
 When acids react with bases/alkalis they produce salt and water.
 The general word equation will be:
Base + acid → salt + water
Example: Sodium oxide base + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride salt + water
SO2: discuss the acidity of soils and the use of lime to neutralise acidic soil
 Soils sometimes are acidic because of calcium ions which leached out by rain.
 Carbonic acid and sulfuric acid fall on soils.
 Crops do not grow well in acidic soils. So a base called lime (calcium oxide) is added to the
acidic soil.
 Rain water converts lime to slaked lime calcium hydroxide which neutralizes acidic soil.
SO3: write down word equations for the reactions involving bases
 Copper oxide + Sulfuric acid → copper sulfate + water

 Sodium hydroxide + nitric acid → sodium nitrate + water.
 Calcium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → calcium sulfate + water
 Sodium oxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water
SO4: describe the reaction of an acid on a carbonate and carry out a test for the carbon dioxide
evolved
The reaction of acids with carbonates
 Acids react with carbonates to give produce salt water and carbon dioxide.
The general word equation is:
ACID + CARBONATE→METAL SALT + CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER
Test for carbon dioxide
 Test: Bubble dissolve the gas through clear lime water
 Results: The clear lime water will turns milky cloudy
Or
 Test: add a lighting splint match into the test tube of carbon dioxide.
 Results: Carbon dioxide will extinguish it put it off
SO5: write down word equations for the reactions involving acids
 Hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate → calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

 Sulfuric acid + sodium carbonate → sodium sulfate + water + carbon dioxide
 Nitric acid + calcium oxide → calcium nitrate + water
 Sulfuric acid + copper oxide → copper sulfate salt + water
SO6: describe the applications of neutralisation reactions in everyday life: - use of acid to clean
scale off kettles - lemon changes the colour of tea - use of a weak base to remove acidic stains on
cloth and vice versa
Applications/Uses of neutralization
1. Cleaning electric kettle: weak acids such as vinegar can be used to clean scales from a
kettle.
2. Adding lemon juice to tea: neutralises tea changes the colour of tea
3. Removal of acid stains from clothes: ammonia/soap can be used to remove acid stains from the
clothes.
4. Treatment of indigestion: neutralisation can also be used to treat indigestion build up acids in
stomach.
Bases/antacids like calcium carbonate aluminum and magnesium hydroxide are used in this
medicine.
5. Treatment of acidic soils: lime which is a base is often added to acidic soils to neutralise them
for plants to grow well.
6. Prevention of teeth decay: sugary foods produce acids in our mouth which can decay our teeth.
Tooth paste which is alkaline can be used to neutralises cleans these acid.
7. Insect sting treatment: bee stings are naturally alkali injects. Bee sting can be treated
neutralised by rubbing baking soda to relief pain.
*wasp stings: are naturally alkaline injects. Can be treated neutralised by rubbing vinegar.
SO7: describe the pH scale and be able to describe the pH of strong and weak acids and alkalis
and the pH of pure water
 The PH scale - is the scale used to measure indicate the strength of acids and bases/
alkalis
 The PH scale runs from 0 to 14.
 Acids are found between 0 to less than 7
 Alkalis are found between more than 7 to 14.
 7 is neutral the substance is neither acidic nor alkaline .
 Pure water is neutral. So its pH value is 7
SO8: describe neutralisation as one method of preparing salts, e.g. table salt
 Neutralization is one method of preparing salts (table salts)

 Salt is a substance that is formed when an acid reacts with an alkali
There are three methods to prepare salts:
1. The reaction of an acid on metal

2. The reaction of an acid on a base
3. The reaction of acid on a carbonate
Examples of word equations to prepare salts:
1. Acid and a metal

Zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + hydrogen gas
2. Acid and a base (neutralization)

Copper hydroxide + sulfuric acid → copper sulfate + water
Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water
3. Acid and carbonate

Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid→ calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water
SO9: name and describe the preparation of salts (such as copper sulfate or table salt) by a
neutralisation reaction (from CuO & H2SO4 for CuSO4, NaOH & HCl for NaCl)
Name of the salt Prepared from Type of reaction

Copper sulfate CuSO4 Copper oxide & sulfuric acid Neutralization reaction
CuO & H2SO4
Sodium chloride NaCl Sodium hydroxide & Neutralisation reaction
hydrochloric NaOH & HCl
Naming salts
The name of salt is usually made up of two words:

1. The first word name comes from the first part of the base metal name . E.g
 Calcium hydroxide forms calcium salt.
 Copper carbonate forms copper salt.
 Magnesium hydroxide forms magnesium salt.
 Sodium oxide forms sodium salt.
2. The second word name of the salt comes from acid. E.g
 Sulfuric acid forms sulfate.
 Hydrochloric acid forms chloride.
 Nitric acid forms nitrate
 Carbonic acid forms carbonate.
Examples:
 Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid →sodium chloride + water.
 Potassium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → potassium sulfate + water.
 Sodium oxide + nitric acid → sodium nitrate + water.
SO10: outline that the use of certain medicines (e.g. antacid) is based on the phenomenon of
neutralisation
 Neutralisation can also be used to treat indigestion build up acids in stomach.

 Bases/antacids like calcium carbonate aluminum and magnesium hydroxide are used in this
medicine.
 If your stomach is overproducing hydrochloric acid this leads to indigestion.
 Indigestion tablets or medicine e.g. Rennies eno and antacids are alkaline bases to
neutralize these acids.
SO11: write down word equations for the neutralisation reactions

The general word equation for neutralization is:
ACID + BASE → SALT + WATER

Examples
 Calcium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → calcium chloride + water.
 Potassium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → potassium sulfate + water.
 Sodium oxide + nitric acid → sodium nitrate + water.
 Copper oxide + sulfuric acid → copper sulfate + water
3.3: Metals
SO1: identify elements on the Periodic Table and given experimental or theoretical data to classify
materials as metals or non-metals according to physical properties such as density, shininess,
electrical conductivity, malleability, coldness to touch
 Metal – are elements found on the left side of periodic table.

 These elements have metallic properties.
 As you move to the right across the periodic table the elements gradually become less
metallic.
Properties of metals and non-metals
Property Metal Non-metal

Physical state Solids except mercury Solid liquid or gas bromine
is the only liquid
Appearance Shiny cold to touch Mainly non-shiny iodine is
an exception
Conductivity Good conductors Poor except graphite
Malleability Good malleable Poor/ brittle
Ductility Good ductile poor
Melting point Usually high Usually low except carbon
Boiling point Usually high Usually low
Density Some are high dense low
Physical properties of metals
 Are usually solid at room temperature except mercury

 They have high densities
 Have high melting and boiling point except mercury
 Are hard and strong
 Are ductile can be pulled into wires except mercury
 Are good conductors of heat and electricity
 Are shiny when freshly cut
 Are malleable can be hammered into different shapes except mercury.
Chemical properties of metals
 Most reactive metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides bases
 They react with acids to form salt and hydrogen gas
 They react with water to form metal hydroxide bases/alkalis
SO2: arrange metals in order of reactivity from a consideration of their chemical properties
 Metals can be arranged in a reactivity series according to the way in which they react with
other elements and substances.
 This means that they can be arranged in a reactivity series according to their chemical
properties.
Reactivity series – is an arrangement of metals in order of their reactivity.
Order of reactivity series
Potassium (most reactive)
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Zinc increasing
Iron reactivity
Tin
Lead
copper
Silver
Gold
Mining metals
SO3: state that a number of important metals are mined in Namibia (U, Cu, Au, Sn) and show, on a
map of Namibia, where the main ore deposits are.
The main metals mined in Namibia are:
 Uranium
 gold
 zinc
 copper
 lead
The main ore a rock from which a metal is extracted/obtained deposits in Namibia are shown in
the map in figure .
The main metals mined in Namibia
Alloys
SO4: define alloy
An alloy – is a mixture of a metal with other metals or carbon
SO5: describe an alloy as a mixture of a metal with other metals or carbon
 Alloys are a mixture of metals and other metals or carbon

 Metals are not often used in their pure form.
 They are formed by mixing molten metals
 Steel brass and bronze are all alloys
 Steel is made from a mixture of iron and the non-metal carbon.
SO6: explain that the properties of metals can be changed, often to make them more useful, by
mixing them with other elements
 Making alloys create substances with properties that make the metal more useful.
 Alloys formed when properties of metals are changed and become more useful
 Alloys are stronger than any of the individual element
 Pure metals are more soft and flexible to be used.
 Alloys generally are far more useful than the pure metals from which they originate.
SO7: discuss everyday uses of alloys and be able to name their components and describe some of
their special properties (especially brass, bronze and steel)
Alloy contents uses properties
Brass Copper 70% Door handles Harder than copper

Ships fittings Does not corrode
Zinc 30%
Decorates
Musical instruments
Bronze Copper 95% Ships propellers Harder than brass
Sculptures statues Does not corrode
Tin 5%
Ornaments decorative
Solder Tin 50% Joining wires and Low melting point
pipes Sets hard
Lead 50%
Duralumin Aluminum 95% Aircraft parts Lighter and stronger than

aluminum
Copper 5%
Steel Iron 70% Knives Does not corrode

stainless Cutlery table knives
Chromium 20%
spoons forks
steel
Nickel 10% Kitchen sinks
Car parts/bodies
Wires pipes
SO8: describe the reactions between metals and:
- water and test any gas released
- dilute acids and test any gas released
- air
- pure oxygen
The reaction between metals and water
 The first three metals in the reactivity series when react with water they will
produce metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
The general equation is:
METAL + WATER → METAL HYDROXIDE + HYDROGEN GAS
Examples of word equations
Potassium + water → potassium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Calcium + water → calcium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Other metals react with water to produce metal oxides and hydrogen gas.
Example:
Magnesium + water → magnesium oxide + hydrogen gas
NB! Potassium react very violent with cold water (catches fire)
Sodium reacts violent with cold water.
The reaction between metals and acids
When metals react with acids they form produce salt and hydrogen gas.
ACID + METAL → METAL SALT + HYDROGEN GAS
Example:
Hydrochloric acid + magnesium → magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas
Sulfuric acid + copper → copper sulfate + hydrogen gas
Test for hydrogen
Test: expose the gas to a lighting splint match .
Results: explodes with a popping sound.
The reaction between metals and air/ pure oxygen

 Metals high in the reactivity series such as potassium and sodium react with air to
produce oxides.
 Other slow reactive metals react with air to produce/form rust. This rust is oxide.
 The reactions of potassium sodium and magnesium are more vigorous in pure
oxygen than they are in air.
The general equation is:
METAL + AIR (OXYGEN) → METAL OXIDE
Examples:
Potassium + oxygen → potassium oxide
Sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide
Iron + oxygen → iron oxide
SO9: state that carbon dioxide does not support combustion except for that of a very reactive
substance such as magnesium (cross reference to 2.6)
 Carbon dioxide does not support combustion
 However magnesium burns in carbon dioxide because when heated the oxygen in carbon
dioxide is able to bond with magnesium to form/produce an oxide.
 Carbon will be formed as a by-product.
SO10: explain that the oxides and hydroxides of Group I and II metals are basic and form an alkali
when dissolved in water
 The alkali metals from group I of the periodic table are called alkali metals because
they form oxides and hydroxides that dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions.
Example:
METAL OXIDE + WATER → METAL OXIDE
 Sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide
 Sodium oxide + water → sodium hydroxide
 Sodium hydroxide is a strong base that dissolves in water to form an alkaline metal
hydroxide solution.
 The group II metals are called alkaline-earth metals.
 Their oxides and hydroxides do not dissolve as easily in water as those of the group I
metals but some of them such as magnesium hydroxide will dissolve in water to
form alkaline solutions.
 Calcium hydroxide will also dissolve in water to form lime water, which is a weakly
alkaline solution.
SO11: describe the reactions between acids and:

- metal oxides and metal hydroxides (cross reference to 3.3)
- metal carbonates and test any gas released
The reaction between acids and metal oxides (bases)

 Oxides and hydroxides of metals are bases.
 An acid reacts with a base to produce salt and water.
 Both oxides and hydroxides of metals when react with acids they neutralize each other
forming salts and water.
Examples:
1. Acid + metal oxide → metal salt + water
Sulfuric acid + magnesium oxide → magnesium oxide + water
2. Acid + metal hydroxide → metal salt + water

Nitric acid + calcium oxide → calcium nitrate + water
The reaction of acids with metal carbonates

 Acids react with carbonates to give produce salt water and carbon dioxide.

ACID+ CARBONATE→METAL SALT + CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER
 Sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + carbon dioxide + water
 Copper carbonate + sulfuric acid → copper sulfate + carbon dioxide + water
 Nitric acid + calcium carbonate → calcium nitrate + carbon dioxide + water
Test for carbon dioxide
Test: dissolve lime water into a test tube gas jar of carbon dioxide
Results: The lime water will turn milky cloudy
Or
Test: Add a lighting splint match into the test tube of carbon dioxide.
Results: Carbon dioxide will extinguish it put it off
SO12: write down word equations for the reactions involving metals
METAL + AIR (OXIGEN) → METAL OXIDE
Examples:
 Potassium + oxygen → potassium oxide
 Sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide
 Iron + oxygen → iron oxide
ACID + METAL → METAL SALT + HYDROGEN GAS
Example:
 Hydrochloric acid + magnesium → magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas
 Sulfuric acid + copper → copper sulfate + hydrogen gas
Activity2
1. The diagram shows tests for gas X
What is gas X
A. Ammonia
B. Carbon dioxide
C. Hydrogen
D. Oxygen
2. Which statement is correct for all metals?
A. They are soluble in water.
B. They are dull.
C. They conduct electricity.
D. They have lower melting point
3. Describe two applications of neutralization reactions in everyday life. 2
4. A number of important metals such as uranium and zinc are mined in Namibia.
(a) i State the name the main metal that is mined near Tsumeb. 1
ii Give two properties of metals. 2
5. The table shows the observations made when three metals are reacted with cold water and
with air.
metal observations
cold water air
Calcium Reacts fast with cold water

Produces gas Burns vigorously with a flame.
Iron No reaction Melts giving sparks.
Magnesium Reacts slowly Burns vigorously with a bright white flame
a) Arrange the metals in order of reactivity from the most reactive to the least reactive 2
B State the name of the gas produced when metals react with water. 1
C) Alloy is a mixture of metals.

(i) State the two metals that are mixed to form bronze 2
(ii) Explain the advantage of changing the physical properties of metals by forming
alloys.
3.4: Non – metals

SO1: describe the reactions (if any) of carbon, phosphorus (red) and sulfur with oxygen
 Non-metals are found on the right side of the periodic table.

 Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic oxides.
 If non – metals react with air instead of pure oxygen the incomplete combustion occurs and
produces a monoxide.
e.g. Carbon+ air → carbon monoxide
Non-metal + oxygen → non-metal oxide acidic
Examples:
1. Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid
2. Sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide

Sulfur dioxide + water → sulfurous acid
3. Nitrogen + oxygen → nitrogen oxide

Nitrogen oxide + water → nitric acid
4. Phosphorus + oxygen → phosphorus pentoxide
Phosphorus pentoxide + water → phosphoric acid
Properties of non-metals
1. They are dull
2. Good insulators poor conductors of heat and electricity
3. They are not malleable
4. They are not ductile
5. They have low melting point and boiling point
6. They have low density
7. They are weak
8. They react with oxygen to form non-metal dioxides or oxides
9. Non-metal oxides dissolve in water to form acid
10. They do not react with acids
SO2: recognise the acidic nature of non-metal oxides
 Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature.

 Such as: carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and phosphorus pentoxide
SO3: describe the reactions between non-metals and:
- pure oxygen
- air (incomplete combustion with the formation of monoxide)
 Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic oxides.

 If non-metals react with air instead of pure oxygen the incomplete combustion occurs and
produces a monoxide
SO4: describe the reactions between non-metal oxides and water
 Non-metal oxides react with water to form acid non-metal oxide + water → acid
Examples:
1. Carbon dioxide + water →carbonic acid
2. Sulfur dioxide + water → sulfuric acid
3. Nitrogen oxide + water → nitric acid
4. Phosphorus pentoxide + water → phosphoric acid
Acid rain
SO5: predict the role of non-metal oxides in the formation of acid rain
 The acidic oxides formed by non-metals are responsible for acid rain under some
circumstances.
 Acid rain occurs when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere
take part in chemical reaction and dissolve in rain water making it acidic.
O6: write down word equations for the reactions involving non-metals
 Sulfur dioxide + water → dilute sulfuric acid in acid rain / in clouds
 Nitrogen oxides + water rain → nitric acid acid rain
 Carbon dioxide + water →carbonic acid
 Phosphorus pentoxide + water → phosphoric acid
Acidic oxides (pollutants)

 Sulfuric dioxide is the most important pollutant that leads to acidification and the acid
rain is sulfuric acid.
 Most of this sulfur comes from burning fossil fuels. Wildfires and volcanoes also
contribute to acid rain.
 Other pollutants include: carbon dioxide carbon monoxide nitrogen oxide unburnt
hydrocarbons e.g. methane.
Effects of acid rain to the environment

 Damages buildings
 Damage plants and kill animals that live in water.
 Damage human skin
 Corrode metals
 Destroy stone structures.
Activity3
1. What is the product of an incomplete combustion of a pure carbon?
A carbon dioxide
B carbon monoxide
C Nitrogen oxide
D Sulfur dioxide
2 Sulfur and nitrogen are non-metals which react with oxygen to form non-metal oxides.
(i) State the name of the oxide formed when sulfur reacts with oxygen. 1
(ii) Describe the effect of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides on the environment 2
TOPIC 4: MECHANICS
4.1 Force, weight, mass, work and energy
SO1: Recall from earlier work the use of forces in everyday life and that force is measured in
newton.
Force
 Force is an effect of push and pull.
 The unit of force is Newton (N).
Instruments/apparatus used to measure force are

 force meter
 spring balance
 Newton meter
The line represents the size of force and an arrow represents the direction of the force.
Weight
Friction
Pushing force
Upthrust
A- Weight/ gravity
B- Friction
C -Air resistance
Uses of force in everyday life
 To walk on the road.
 To lift objects
 To throw a ball or to move a given body by a particular speed or direction (effect of force)
Effect of force
 Force can change shape and size of an object.
 Force can change direction of a moving object.
 Force can change the speed of an object.
 Force can cause an object to turn or spin
 Force can make an object move or stop it from moving.
Types of force
1. Contact force
 Force that acts when objects touch each other.
Example:
 Friction/Air resistance/water resistance
 Driving force or thrust
 Upthrust
 Tension
2. Non-contact force
 Force that acts over a distance
Example
 Force of gravity
 Magnetic forces
 Electrostatic forces
SO2: Differentiate between mass and weight

Weight and Mass
Mass Weight
Mass is the amount of matter in an object. Weight is the force of gravity that pulls an
object toward the Centre of the earth.
Instrument used to measure mass: Instrument used to measure weight:
Top pan balance, Beam balance, balance Spring balance, force meter and newton
scale. meter.
Units: grams (g) or Kilograms (kg) Unit: Newton (N)
mass= weight = mass gravity

w= m
m=
1000g = 1kg
SO3: Calculate the weight of an object on the earth if the mass is given and vice versa
Weight = Mass x gravitational field strength (g)
Example
1.A schoolbag has a mass of 6kg on the earth’s surface. Calculate its weight on earth
Weight = Mass x g
= 6 kg x 10 N/Kg
= 60N
2. Calculate the weight of an apple with a mass of 200g on earth

NB: first convert mass to kilogram by dividing with a 1000(200g ÷ 1000)
Weight = mass x g
= 0.2 kg x 10 N/kg
=2N
3. Calculate the mass of the truck that weighs 25 000 N on Earth
Mass = = = 2 500 kg
4. Suppose the weight of an object is 10N, Calculate the objects mass on the centre of the earth.
Mass=force of gravity (weight) ÷ 10kg/ N
=60N÷10kg/N
= 6 kg
SO4: Relate mass and weight to work
Work done
 Mass gives weight and this force is used to get work done
 When an object has more mass, it will require more work.
5kg
8kg
SO5: Interpret the formula work = force x distance (W=F x d) and calculate the amount of work
done when moving objects over a distance.
Work = Force x Distance OR W = F X d

(N) x (m)
Worked examples:
1. Jacob climbs a tree of height 10m in 2 seconds. If Jacob weight is 400N, calculate:
a) Work done by Jacob.
Work = Force x distance

= 400N x 10m
= 4000J
2. Mercia has a mass of 30kg and runs up the stairs with a vertical height of 3m.the actual distance
covered is 5m. Calculate the work done by Mercia running up the stairs
NB: first convert 30kg of mass to force (mass × gravitational field strength)
Force = mass × 10N/kg Work done = Force x distance

= 30 kg x 10N/kg = 300N x 3m
= 300N = 900J
SO6: Relate the force component (F) in W =F x d as weight =mass x earth’s gravitational field
strength (g) (w = m X g)
 Weight, gravity and force are the same

 Use the same unit Newton (N)
 Use the same formula Weight =mass x gravity (10) when calculating force.
SO7: Apply W =F x d = m x g x d = w x h to calculate the amount of work done when lifting

objects of different masses and weights to different heights (h)
1. Moses pushes a wheelbarrow full of bricks. The total mass of the wheelbarrow and bricks is 20
kg.
a) Calculate the weight of the 20 kg wheelbarrow. State the formula you used.
(g = 10 N/kg) (2)
b) Calculate the work done by Moses when pushing the wheelbarrow with a horizontal force of
175 newton over a 25 m distance. Show your working. (3)
2. John is 3m tall and lift a stone of 5kg up to his height. Calculate work done by John.
Weight= mass x gravitational field strength
W = F x d = 5kgx 10N/kg
= 50N = 50N x 3m
= 150J
SO8: Explain the relationship between work and energy (if work is done on a body, energy is
transferred to it.
 If work is done on an object(body) energy is transfer to it
 The unit of work done and energy is the same, joule (J).
NB: Energy should be transferred to an object in order to move it

This amount of energy transferred by the force to move an object is called work.
The relation between work and energy is direct.
Activity
1. Briefly explain the difference between mass and weight (2)

2. John has a mass of 20Kg, calculate his weight. (3)
3. Calculate the amount of work done when a force of 50N is used to pull a box over a distance of
8 m. (3)
4. Explain the relationship between work and energy (2)
Total: (10 marks)
Activity
Activity
1. A ride at a theme park consists of a car of mass 4800 kg, which holds 20 people and falls
2. a vertical distance of 55m. Its maximum speed during the fall is 30 m/s.
(a) If the average mass of a passenger is 60kg. Calculate the total mass of the car and 20
passengers. (3)
(b) Calculate the weight of the car and 20 passengers. (2)
(c) Calculate the work done in raising the car and 20 passengers from the bottom to the top of
its 55 m fall. (2)
(d) State the formula for calculating work done (1)
(e) What is the unit of work and weight (2)
Total: (10 marks)
4.2 The kinetic particle theory of matter
SO1: Outline the kinetic particle theory of matter, specifically that;

-matter consists of particles
-there are spaces between the particles
-the particles move continuously (and the speed of particles depends on the temperature)
-there are attracting forces between the particles which keep an object together.
Matter
 Anything that has mass and occupies space (volume)
The kinetic particle theory of matter states that: -

 matter consists of particles
 there are spaces between the particles
 the particles move continuously (and the speed of particles depends on the temperature)
 there are attracting forces between the particles which keep an object together.
SO2: Describe by means of the kinetic particle theory of matter the processes of expansion,
compressibility and diffusion in solid, liquids and gases.
Expansion
 It is an increase in the size of an object as a result of heating.
When a substance is heated

 particles gain heat energy
 particles vibrate or move faster
 particles move further away from each other
 forces between particles weaken
Expansion in solid
There is limited expansion in solid because particles are tightly packed together.
Examples of expansion
 Ball and ring
 Bar and gauge
 Bimetallic strip
Expansion in liquid
 All liquid expands at different rates.
 Ethanol expand more than other liquids, that is why is used in thermometer (mercury and
ethanol).
Expansion in gases
 Gas expand more than solid and liquid. Expansion and contraction of air is a result of heating
and cooling e.g. hot air balloon.
NB: Gases expand very fast and more than solid and liquid, because particles are far apart, have
more energy and weak attractive force between particles.
Compressibility (Compression)
 Refers to squeezing, pressing or squashing of particles/reducing the amount of space a substance

occupies.
 Solid and liquid cannot be easily compressed, because particles are close together and held
together by stronger interparticle forces. while gases are easily compressed because of the large
spaces between particles.
Uses of compressibility of gases

 Aerosol spray cans
 Gas cylinders
 To inflate tyres
Diffusion
 The movement of particles from the region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration
Diffusion in liquid
 Particles of a liquid also diffuse, but at a slower rate
 If a solid dissolve in a liquid, the particles can diffuse e.g. tea bag in hot water, dissolving
potassium permanganate in water.
Examples
 Tea bag dissolve in hot water
 potassium permanganate dissolved in water
 Sweet aid dissolved in water
Diffusion in gas
 Particles in gas move randomly in all directions, this make diffusion to take place faster in
gases.
 The rate of diffusion of a gas depends on the speed at which the particles move. (Lighter
particles travel faster than heavier particles)
 hydrogen gas (the lightest gas) diffuses faster than any other gas.
SO3: Distinguish between states of matter in terms of differences in the behaviour and
arrangement of particles as follow.
SOLID LIQUID GAS
arrangement of - tightly/ closely - loosely arranged - far away from each

particles packed - in a disorderly other
- in an orderly pattern pattern - in a disorderly
called lattice pattern
Spaces between - very small spaces - larger spaces - very large spaces
particles
Motion of - vibrate in a fixed - move around over - move around freely
particles position short distance over long distances
- slide past each other
Forces between - strong forces - weaker forces - very weak forces
particles
Kinetic energy of - the least kinetic - more kinetic energy - the most kinetic
particles energy energy
Shape - fixed shape or - not fixed shape - not fixed shape
- has a definite shape - takes the shape of a - takes the shape of a
container container
volume - fixed volume or - fixed volume - not fixed volume
- has a definite - has a definite - takes the volume of
volume volume the container
Solid: particles are held together by strong forces: can vibrate but they are not able to move around.
Liquid: have weak force to hold particles together, but not strong enough to prevent them from
moving around.
Gases: have very weak force to hold particles together thus particles move randomly and freely in
the air.
SO4: Explain that the change from one state of matter to another involves an energy change;
heat energy is either given out or taken in.
 The change from one state of matter to another involves an energy change, where by heat
energy is either given out (exothermic) or taken in (endothermic).
Resublimation
Melting Evaporation
SOLID LIQUID GAS
Freezing Condensation
Sublimation
SO5: State that if energy is taken in during a change of state, then the particles will gain kinetic
energy and will move faster and that if energy is released, the particles will have less kinetic
energy and move more slowly (exothermic and endothermic)
Change of state
 If energy is taken in during a change of state, then the particles will gain kinetic energy and will
move faster (endothermic).
 If energy is released, the particles will have less kinetic energy and move more slowly
(exothermic).
SO6: Explain physical changes in terms of the kinetic particle theory of matter
Resublimation
Melting Evaporation
SOLID LIQUID GAS
Freezing Condensation
Sublimation
Melting: Change of state from solid to liquid.
 When solid is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy, because the particles vibrate
faster.
 The particles break free of the attractive forces holding them together and move freely
forming a liquid.
Evaporation: Change of state from liquid to gas.

 When the liquid is heated, the particles of a liquid gain kinetic energy and moves
further apart from each other
 They overcome the inter-particle forces to escape from the surface of the liquid
forming a gas.
Condensation: change of state from gas to liquid.

 When a gas is cooled, the particles of the gas lose heat energy and move more
slowly and closer together. This form a liquid.
Freezing: Change of state from liquid to solid.

 When a liquid is cooled, the particles of the liquid lose heat energy
 They slow down and come very close together. This will form a solid.
Sublimation: Change of state from solid to gas.

 This means that the substance changes into a gas directly, without melting to form a liquid
 When a solid is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy to break all inter-particle
forces holding it and changes into a gas.
Activity
(1) State the kinetic particle theory of matter (3)

(2) Describe by means of the kinetic particles’ theory of matter in the processes of expansion and
compressibility. (4)
(3) Explain physical changes in terms of the kinetic particle theory of matter. (3)
Total: (10 marks)
Activity
1. The diagram shows a ball-ring apparatus made of metal and wooden handle. The ball goes
through the ring at room temperature.
Only the ball is heated and put onto the ring.

(a) State what is observed. (1)
(b) Explain using the kinetic theory of matter, what happen to the ball. (2)
(c) Briefly explain why ball –ring apparatus handle made of wood is. (3)
(d) Name other two examples of expansion in solid. (2)
Total: (8 marks)
Activity
Investigate diffusion in a gas and a liquid. Observe the demonstration carefully and then answer the
questions that follow.
Part A: Diffusion in a gas
 A ball of cotton wool is soaked in ammonium hydroxide and another in dilute hydrochloric acid.
 The cotton wool is placed at the two opposite ends of a wide glass tube, which rests between
two stands.
 The tube is then sealed with a rubber stopper at each end and a stopwatch is started.
 After a while, you should be able to see a ring or cloud of white smoke forming in the tube.
Part B: Diffusion in a liquid
 A solution of potassium permanganate has been injected into the water at the side closest to the
zero mark of the ruler
 A stopwatch is started as soon as the potassium permanganate solution has been injected.
Questions
1. Name the compound that makes up the cloud of white smoke in part A. (2)
2. How long did it take for the cloud of white smoke to appear in the tube in part A (1)
3. (a) Which substance diffused faster: the ammonium hydroxide or the hydrochloric acid? Give a
reason for your answer. (2)
(b) Determine the rate at which each of these substances diffused. (1)
4. (a ) How long did it take for the potassium permanganate to reach the same point along the
tube in part B, as where the smoke cloud formed in part A. (1)
(b) Determine the rate of diffusion of the potassium permanganate solution. (1)
5. (a) compare the rate of diffusion in a gas and a liquid based on your observation. (1)
(b) Explain why the rate of diffusion in a gas and a liquid is different. (2)
4.3 Pressure
SO1: Relate pressure (p) to the force that is exerted per area (unit of pressure; pascal (Pa)
=1N/m) and outline that due to the smallness of the unit pascal the unit kilopascals (kPa) will be
used.
Pressure
 The force applied per unit area
Formula of pressure
Pressure = OR (p= )
 The unit of pressure is Pascal (pa)

 1 pa = 1N/m
 1 kilopascal(kPa) = 1 000 pascals (Pa)
NB: due to the smallness of the unit pascal, the unit kilopascals is used
SO2: Interpret the relationship between force and area; explain, for example, what happens to
the pressure when either the force or the area is changed and use the formula
pressure=force/area (p =F/A) and do simple calculations.
 Pressure is indirectly proportional to pressure.

 When area increase, pressure decrease
 When area decrease, pressure increase
What happen to pressure when the force or area is changed?
 when a large force is applied on a small area, pressure will be high.

 When small force is applied on a large area, pressure will be low.
100N
100N
Area=10m2
2
Area=2m
Pressure= 50pascal
Example: Pressure= 10pascal
A) Calculate the pressure exerted if a force of 2 500 Newton acts on:

i. 500m2
Pressure =
= 5 Pa
ii. 250m2
Pressure =
SO3: Suggest why the spoor of some light animals such as springbok is usually deeper in the
sand than that of heavy ones such as elephant.
Two factors that affect pressure

 Surface area
 Force applied
Why the spoor of light animals such as springbok is deeper in the sand than that of heavy
ones such as elephant
 Springbok’s spoors area are much smaller and the weight is applied to small area. The
smaller the surface area, the greater the pressure exerted)
 Elephant has large flat spoor and the weight is applied to a large surface area. (The
larger the surface area, the smaller the pressure exerted)
Activity
1. A brick measures 8 cm by 10 cm by 25 cm and has a mass of 5 kg.
a) Calculate the area of the smallest side. (1)
b) Calculate the area of the largest side. (1)
c) Find the weight of the brick. (2)
d) Calculate the pressure of the brick when it is placed on the largest side. (2)
e) Calculate the pressure of the brick when it is placed on the smallest side. (2)
f) Describe the conclusions you can reach about the relationship between pressure and area.
(2)
2. A learner did an experiment to investigate the pressure in liquid. The graph below shows the
result of the experiment.
a) Use the graph for pure water to find the pressure at a depth of: (2)
(i) 4 cm ……………………………….
(ii) 5 cm ……………………………….
b) Calculate the depth of pure water at depth of 1, 2 kPa. (2)
c) Use your knowledge on pressure to answer the question below.
Explain why a dam wall is much thicker at the bottom than at the top? (2)
4.4 Hydrostatic pressure
SO1: Relate that the pressure is the same in all directions at the same depth in a given liquid and
explain how pressure in liquids is affected by: -the depth under the surface of the liquid and-the
density of the liquid.
Hydrostatic pressure
 Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by liquids
 It is measured using Manometer
 Pressure increases with depth, because of the increased weight of the liquid column at the
bottom
Factors that can affect hydrostatic pressure are

 Depth (height) of the liquid
 Density of the liquid
Depth under the surface of the liquid

 This is the downward force, when volume increases as height (depth) increases hydrostatic
pressure will also increase in proportion to depth measured from the surface.
 If the depth increases, hydrostatic pressure will also increase.
 Pressure is directly proportional to depth
 The holes were punched in horizontal line
 The water spurts out to the same distance
 Pressure is the same in all directions at the same depth in a given liquid.
 The holes were punched in a vertical line

 The water spurts out to different distances
 The pressure increased with depth
 The hole at the bottom of the liquid exerts more pressure than other holes on top
Density of the liquid

 The denser the liquid, the higher its mass for a specific volume and hydrostatic pressure will be
high at the bottom, because more particles are pushing down.
 Denser liquid exerts more pressure than less dense liquid
 Denser liquid spurts further distance than less dense liquid
Investigating pressure in liquid
Investigation pressure exerted by different liquids
* Different types of liquids exert different amounts of pressure

* More denser liquids (e.g. water) exert more pressure than less dense liquid (e.g. o
SO2: Identify and describe the applications of hydrostatic pressure
Application of hydrostatic pressure

 Machines that use liquid pressure are called hydraulic machines
 Pressure is applied on the liquid by means of pistons within cylinders
 When pressure is exerted on the pistons it is applied on the liquid which in turn
transmit it through the machine
Examples of Hydraulic machines

 Car brakes
 Hydraulic jacks
 Pressure pumps
Simplified outline of a hydraulic jack
hydraulic brake
NB: A simple hydraulic machine consists of two connected liquid-filled columns.
 The input column has a smaller surface area than the output column.
 Because of the relationship between force and area, to achieve a constant pressure, the force
exerted on the output column is more than what was applied on the input column.
SO3: Outline the application and dangers of hydrostatic pressure in scuba or deep-sea diving
Application of hydrostatic pressure in scuba or deep sea

 The scuba diver experiences a lot of hydrostatic pressure at a greater depth.
 Divers who dives deeper will have to wear special suits to withstand the high-water pressure at
great depth.
Dangers of hydrostatic pressure in scuba or deep sea diving

 High hydrostatic pressure that exceeds the limit diver’s lungs might collapse.
 The solubility of gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen changes at high pressures
which affects physiological processes.
 It causes decompression sickness (condition) that develops when gas bubbles form in the blood
because of a sudden reduction in external pressure)
SO4: Suggest how pressure is transmitted uniformly throughout a liquid and relate this to
applications such as pressure pump, brakes and hydraulic jacks
Application of hydrostatic pressure

 machine that use liquid pressure are called hydraulic machine
 pressure is applied on the liquid by means of pistons within cylinders
 when pressure is exerted on the pistons it applied on the liquid which in turn transmit it
throughout the machine.
Hydraulic machines
 Car brake
 Hydraulic jacks
 Pressure pumps
Activity
1. State the unit of pressure (1)

2. Explain the relationship between force and area when one is changed (2)
3. Outline the application and dangers of hydrostatic pressure in scuba (sea diving). (3)
4. Discuss why the spoor of light animals such as springbok is deeper in the sand than that of
heavy ones such as elephant. (3)
2.
5. A force of 100N is applied to a liquid in a cylinder with a surface area of 50cm What is the
pressure in the liquid? (3)
2.
6. If the cylinder in example1 is connected to a cylinder with a surface area of 150cm What mass
will the second cylinder be able to lift if 100 N is applied to cylinder 1. (3)
7. Explain why is the pressure the same in all directions at the same depth in a given
liquid. (2)
8. Name two factors that affect pressure in the liquid. (2)
Total: (19 marks)
Activity
The picture illustrates the transmission of pressure through a liquid.
4.5 The behaviour of gases and gas pressure
Name one example of a systems or machine that uses the transmission of pressure through a liquid
to function (1)
(a) In a hydraulic system, a force of 400 N is applied to a piston of area 0.0004 m.
(i) Calculate the pressure transmitted through the brake fluid (3)
(ii) Calculate the force on a piston of area 0.002 m that is connected to the system (3)
(iii) State the influence of the following factors on the pressure in a liquid.
(a) Depth (1)
(b) Density of the liquid (1)
4.5 The behaviour of gases and gas pressure
SO1: Outline the existence of atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure
 Is the weight of the air pressing down on the surface of the earth.
The existence of atmospheric pressure

 The atmospheric pressure, the belt of air around the earth, exerts pressure in all directions on
objects.
 Atmospheric pressure increases as the altitude decreases
 Atmospheric pressure works in all directions and is large enough to keep the card on the glass of
water.
SO2: Relate the causes of the difference between atmospheric pressure inland and at the coast in
Namibia to what effect this has on respiration, boiling point water, wind and tyre pressure in cars
or the inner tube of a soccer ball
Factors that affect atmospheric pressure

 Height above sea level: atmospheric pressure is highest at sea level, because the column of air
pressing down on an object is at its maximum height. Atmospheric pressure is less inland than
at the coast.
Atmospheric pressure
Low
Inland
E.g. Windhoek
High Coastal area
Sea E.g. Walvisbay
 Temperature: When air is heated, the particles gain energy. They move faster and further away
from each other, which cause the air to expand. The lower the density of the air, the lower the
pressure. Hot air rises and atmospheric pressure is lower in areas that are very hot.
 Amount of water vapour in the air: water vapour is less dense than oxygen and nitrogen in the
air. In areas where there is more water vapour in the air, such as the coast, the atmospheric
pressure will be lower than in areas with very dry air.
Effects of the difference in atmospheric pressure between coastal and inland areas
 At high altitudes there is less oxygen available in the air, this may cause breathing problem
 Air resistance is less at high altitudes than at the coast, because the air is less dense
 At the coast a pumped car tyre seem to inflate slightly more at high altitudes, because the
atmospheric pressure is lower. The pressure in the tyre can therefore push out the tyre more.
 The boiling point of a liquid is lower at lower atmospheric pressure than at high atmospheric
pressure. At sea level, water boils at 100 degree Celsius. The boiling point of water decreases by
approximately 1degree Celsius for every 500m increase in altitude.
SO3: Explain the use of barometer to measure atmospheric pressure in the prediction of weather.
Measuring atmospheric pressure

 Atmospheric pressure is measured using a barometer.
NB: simple barometer involves pushing down an inverted tube on the surface of a liquid. The air is
then removed from the tube. This forms a vacuum. As there is no air that exerts a downward force
inside the tube, the liquid from outside pushes up into the tube as the result of atmospheric pressure.
Aneroid barometer: an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure without the use of liquid.
SO4: Explain the existence of gas pressure with particular reference to atmospheric pressure.
 Gas is one of the three state of matter, this means that gas has weight like solid and liquid. Gas
pressing on an object applies pressure.
SO5; Derive and explain, from the kinetic particle theory of matter, the behaviour of gases (e.g.
Gas pressure caused by particles colliding with the wall of the container)
From the kinetic particle theory of matter

 Gas pressure is the result of the collisions of gas particles. The more collisions occur, the higher
the pressure inside the container if the volume is constant.
SO6: Discuss qualitatively the relationship between volume and pressure of a gas (when one
of temperature, volume or pressure is changed.
Pressure and increase in temperature

 if the volume of gas is constant, its pressure increases with an increase in temperature.
Pressure and volume
Factors affect the number of collisions between gas particles
(a) Change in temperature: increase in temperature results in the particles moving faster and
collide more often.
 When the volume is fixed as in a closed container the gas pressure increases.
 When a gas is cooled, the particles have less kinetic energy, they do not move faster and collide
as often.
 This decrease pressure at a fixed volume, Pressure of a gas is directly proportional to
temperature when the volume remains unchanged.
(b) Change in volume; when the volume of the container decreases, pressure inside the container
will increase, because there is less space in which the particles can move to. This will cause
particles to collide more often.
 When the volume of a container increases, pressure inside the container will reduce, because
there are more space in which the particles can move. This reduces the number of collisions that
take place.
(c) A change in the number of gas particles in a container; when more particles are added to a
container of a fixed volume, it becomes more crowded in the available space. Particle will collide
more often and the pressure in the container increases. When there are only a few particles in a
container of a specific volume, they will collide less often and the pressure will be less
Activity
1. Explain the use of a barometer to measure atmospheric pressure. (2)

2. Outline the existence of atmospheric pressure (2)
3. Discuss qualitatively the relationship between volume and pressure of a gas (2)
4. State the difference between atmospheric pressure inland and at the coast in Namibia. (4)
Total: (10 marks)
4.6 Density of substances
SO1: Define density
Density: is the mass per unit volume for a material
SO2: Use the formula density=mass/volume (p=m/v) gram per cubic centimetre or
kilogram per cubic metre.
Density =
Mass
Density Volume
Unit of density is gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3) or kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Example:
1. 10 cm3 of metal P has a mass of 136g. What is its density?
Density =
= 13.6g/cm3
2. 1g/cm3 of water has a mass of 100g. What is its volume?

Volume =
= 100cm3
SO3: Outline that for a specific material the density is constant and unique at a specific
temperature.
Densities of substances
 For a specific material the density is constant and unique at a specific temperature.
The table below shows the density of most common substances in g/cm3
Substance Density g/cm3 Substance Density g/cm3

air 0.0012 aluminium 2.7
cork 0.25 steel 7.8
softwood 0.6 copper 8.9
petrol 0.8 iron 7.9
mercury 13.6 lead 11.3
water 1.0 gold 19.3
SO4: Use density to identify substances (note; the symbol for density is ‘p’ (rho) while the symbol
for pressure is the letter ’p’
 Pure substances have constant densities. e.g water have a density of 1 g/cm3.
 For an impure substance the density may be lower or higher due to impurities.
4.7 Floating and sinking
SO1: Use density to determine whether an object will float or sink in a liquid.
 Solid object made of a material less dense than the liquid will float, while an object made of a
materiel denser than the liquid will sink (up thrust force)
 Objects with densities lower than that of water (1g/cm3) will float on water.
 Objects with densities higher than that of water (1g/cm3) will sink in water.
SO2: Explain the forces of floating when objects (boats) float in liquids and the up thrust on a
balloon filled with a gas lighter than air.
Forces of floating when objects (boat) float in the liquids
The up thrust on a balloon filled with a gas lighter than air.

 Balloon filled with a gas denser than air, it will sink downwards, because the weight of the filled
balloon is greater than the up-thrust force of the air.
SO3: Outline the up-thrust force on floating objects (Archimedes’ principle not required).
 If an object is denser than the liquid in which it is submerged, it will weight more than the liquid
it displaces and the up-thrust force will not be enough to keep it afloat.
SO4: Relate the weight of water displaced by an object in water to the up thrust force while
floating or sinking with reference to 4.1 that weight=force.
 If a substance is less dense than the liquid, it will float on the liquid.
 If the density of a substance is greater than that of the liquid, the substances will sink in the
liquid.
SO5: Calculate density from experimental results and investigate whether objects will float or
sink.
The table below shows experimental results and it also indicates whether an object it will float or
sink in water.
Name of objects Mass(kg) Volume(cm) Density (kg/cm) Float/sink

Stone 20 3
Book 5 4
Plastic 2 4
Coca-Cola can 5 0.5
Brick 12 0.75
Bag of cement 10 2.5
Bag of mahangu 20 2.5
Activity
Activity
The following results were obtained in an experiment to determine the density of an aluminium
bolt. The mass was determined by using a triple beam balance.
The volume was obtained by water displacement.

Results the density of an aluminium bolt
Measuring cylinder reading 2 130cm
Measuring cylinder reading 1 90cm
Mass of aluminium bolt 108g

(a) State the volume of the aluminium bolt (1)
(b) Calculate the density of the aluminium bolt (3)
(c) Explain the effect of density of air on atmospheric pressure at sea level and higher up on a
mountain (2)
(d) What would be the expected reading on an aneroid barometer at sea level (1)
(e) State the effects of the atmospheric pressure at sea level and inland on the following:
(i) Respiration (1)
(ii) Wind resistance (air resistance) (1)
(iii) Boling water (1)
Total: (10 marks)
Practical work
Investigate the density of ice compared to water (work in groups)
What you need
 A measuring cylinder that ice will fit into

 A scale/ balance
 Distilled water at room temperature
 Distilled water at 0C
 Frozen distilled water
What you do
1. Find the mass of the empty measuring cylinder by weight it
2. Add 100cm3 of water at room temperature to the measuring cylinder.
3. Weight the cylinder when it contains water and subtract reading 1 from reading 3.
4. Read the volume of the liquid using the scale on the measuring cylinder.
5 Calculate the density of the water.
NB: Now we will calculate the density of the ice by first finding its volume using the method of
displacement of water.
6. First find the mass of the ice by quickly placing it on the scale and weight it.
7. Partly fill a measuring cylinder with water at 0C.
8. Read the volume
9. Drop the ice into the water and hold it under with a needle. Make sure all the ice is
submerged.
10. Read the new volume.
11. The difference between the two volumes is the volume of the ice.
12. Calculate the density of the ice using the formula above.
13. Write your findings
TOPIC 5: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
5.1 Charge and static electricity
SO1: Outline the existence of electrons and protons as introduced in the chemistry section
and explain the existence of charge by the imbalance of electrons and protons (positive
and negative).
 Every atom has particles called electrons and protons.

 Electrons orbit in shells around the nucleus of an atom and has negative charge (-).
 Protons are found in the nucleus of an atom and has positive charge (+).
Explain the existence of charge
Charge exist due to an imbalance of electrons and protons.
+++ +++
+=+ +=+
Positively Charged Negatively Charged
 When the number of electrons (-) and protons (+) are the same, the material is neutral.
 When the number of electrons (-) are more than protons (+), the object is negatively charged.
 When the number of protons (+) are more than electrons (-), the object is positively charged.
 These charges result in attraction (for unlike charges) and repulsion (for like charges).
SO2: Show and explain how charges on a charged electroscope are able to discharge by
flowing into the Earth.
Discharging an electroscope Earth
Electroscope can be discharged
 By touching the metal cap (disc) with a bare hand (finger) for charges to flow through the
body into the Earth.
 By connecting a conductor to the metal cap (disc) for electrons to flow into the Earth.
Activity
1. Explain the existence of charge. (1)
2. Study the diagrams below and answer questions.
State what will happen at A and B (2)
3. The diagram shows a representation of a negatively charged piece of material.
Negatively charged object
– + – + –
– + – + –
– + – + –
– + – + –
– + – + –
On the diagram insert enough positive charges (+) to make the object neutral. (2)
4. In an experiment to demonstrate how charges affect other objects close to another. The charged
polythene rod is brought close to another charged polythene rod that has been suspended from a
nylon thread.
Nylon thread
Charged Polythene rod (-)
a) What happens to the suspended rod? (1)
b) Give a reason for your answer in (a). (2)
5. Look at the diagram and answer questions.
a) Name the instrument above. (1)
b) What is the function of the above apparatus? (1)

c) State the part labelled B (1)
d) Explain how to discharge the above apparatus. (1)
5.2 Electrical current
SO1: Explain that electrical current is determined by the flow of charges and is measured in
Amperes (A) using an ammeter.
 Electrical current is the flow of charges.

 Instrument used to measure electrical current is Ammeter.
 Unit of electrical current is Ampere.
 The symbol of electrical current is (I).
 Ammeter is always connected in series
 Formula of current = Voltage OR Charge
Resistance Time
SO2: Draw, setup and interpret circuit diagrams and use symbols for electrical components.
Electrical Circuit Symbol Name of components Function of components
Bulb Convert electrical energy into

light energy.
Cell
Store chemical energy which
is converted into electrical
… Battery energy.
Open switch To turn current on and off
Closed switch
Ammeter To measure current
Voltmeter To measure voltage
Conducting wire To conduct electric current
Fuse To protect applicants
Variable resistor or Rheostat To vary resistance in the

circuit
Resistor To reduce current
Types of circuit diagrams
 Series Circuit
 Parallel Circuit
 Series Circuit – Components are connected one after the other.
Switch
 Parallel Circuit – Components are connected across each other.
SO3: Explain the connection of cells and bulbs in series and parallel.
 To connect cells in series, the positive terminal of one cell is connect to the negative terminal
of another cell.
 To connect cells in parallel, the positive terminal of all the cells are connected with one set of
wire, and the negative terminals of the cells is connected with another set of wire.
 To connect bulbs in series, wires connect directly from one bulb to the bulb.
 If one bulb fuse(break) in series circuit, other bulbs will not light, because the circuit is
incomplete.
 To connect bulbs in parallel, bulbs are connected across each other with wires in the circuit.
 If one bulb fuse in parallel circuit, other bulbs will still light because current will still flow in
other branches of the circuit.
SO4: Predict and measure, using an ammeter, electrical current at different positions in
series and parallel circuit.
2A 2A A1 = 2A
A2 = 2A
A3 = 2A
2A
 Current in series circuit is the same at any position in the circuit.

 The ammeter reading at A1, A2 and A3 are the same.
2A 2A A1 = 2A
A2 = 0.75A
A3 = 1.25A
0.75A A4 = 2A
1.25A
 Current flows through different branches in parallel circuit.

 If the bulbs are unidentical, the current will be split according to the resistance of the bulb i.e.
more current will flow through the bulb with less resistance and less current through bulb
with high resistance.
 If bulbs are identical, the current will be split equally in all the branches.
 The sum of the current in the different branches of the parallel circuit is equal to the total
current drawn from the cells.
SO5: Distinguish between static electricity and electrical current.
Static electricity – Non-moving charges or electricity at rest.
Electrical current – Flow of charges.
Activity
1. State the unit of electric current. (1)
2. Draw circuit symbol of the following electrical components.
a) Fuse (1)
b) Variable resistor (Rheostat) (1)
c) Battery (1)
3. The diagram below shows two ways of connecting light bulbs
a) In which way are the light bulbs connected in:
i) Circuit A (1)
ii) Circuit B (1)
b) Describe what will happen to the brightness of the other bulbs if an identical bulb was added
in:
i) Circuit A (2)
ii) Circuit B (2)
4. Explain what will happen to other bulbs in the circuit if one bulb is removed
i) Circuit A (2)
ii) Circuit B (2)
Activity
1. Distinguish between static electricity and electrical current. (2)
2. Distinguish between a conductor and insulator. (2)
3. Study the electric circuit below.
When the switch is closed, the reading on is 0.6A

What will be the reading for A2 and A3. (2)
4. Learners connected the circuit below to determine current at different positions.
The reading on A is 0.7A and the reading on A is 0.4A. Predict the reading on Ammeter A3 and
A4. (2)
Activity
1. The diagram shows an electric circuit where two identical bulbs are connected to a battery and
component x
a) i) State the name of component x. (1)
ii) Draw a circuit symbol for ammeter in the space provided on the diagram. (1)
iii) State the type of connection of the light bulbs connected in the circuit above. (1)
b) i) Calculate the current through the circuit before component x is closed. State the
formula you have used. (3)
ii) State how the current would change when component x is closed. (1)
c) Explain what would happen to the current when the number of cells is increased in above
circuit. (1)
5.3 Potential difference (P.d) and electrical energy
SO6: Outline that electrical current requires a source and discuss that a cell is a source of
chemical energy that can be used to produce electrical energy and identify the positive
and negative terminal of a cell.
– Electrical current requires a source such as a cell or battery to generate electric flow in a
circuit.
– A cell is a source of chemical energy that can be used to produce electrical energy.
– A cell has two terminals namely:
 Positive terminal
 Negative terminal
(+) (-)
SO1: Outline that electrical current is the flow of charges. Current will only flow in a closed
circuit and the current is made to flow around a circuit by the difference in electric
potential between the poles of a cell.
 Electrical current is the flow of charges.

 When the switch is open or the circuit is incomplete, current will not flow.
 Electrical current (charges) will only flow in a closed circuit, because the circuit is complete.
 When a cell or battery is connected in a circuit, the difference in electrical potential between the
poles of a cell or battery makes current to flow around a circuit.
SO2: Explain that potential difference is measured in volts and measured across an electrical
component in a circuit using a voltmeter.
 Potential difference – is the energy used to drive electric charges around the complete circuit.
 Another name of potential difference is voltage.
 Potential difference is measured with an instrument called volt meter.
 The unit of potential difference or voltage is called volts.
 Voltmeter is always connected in parallel or across an electrical component in a circuit.
SO3: Recall that electricity is a source of energy that is easily converted into other forms of
energy.
 Electricity can be easily converted into other forms of energy needed daily e.g. electrical energy
is converted to heat energy that is used for cooking and to heat/light in housed and factories.
 Electric motor converts electrical energy into kinetic energy which is used in washing machines
and model brains.
 In circuits, electrical energy is converted into light and heat.
 In water, electrical energy is converted into heat energy.
Electrical energy Sound energy
Radio
Electrical energy Heat energy
Kettle
SO4: Explain and use a circuit board to show how electrical energy can be converted into
heat and light.
 When the circuit is complete, chemical energy from the cells changes into electrical energy
which is converted into light and heat as the bulb lights.
Chemical energy Electrical energy Light and Heat
SO5: Use a fuse wire to show the heating effect of an electrical current.
 Fuse wire is a conductor which allows current to pass through it.
 A fuse will melt (break) if the current flowing through it becomes too large due to a fault such
as short circuit or overload.
 When the fuse wire melts, it breaks the circuit and current stops flowing.
 This current disconnect prevents possible damage to appliances.
SO6: Demonstrate and discuss the generation of electricity form other forms of energy such
as chemical (cells and coal), solar, potential (hydroelectric) and kinetic (wind and
water) energy.
Electricity from coal
 In thermal power stations, coal is burnt to produce heat. Chemical energy in coal is converted
into heat energy, which is used to heat water to make steam. The steam turns turbines and this
kinetic energy is converted into electrical energy by a generator and electricity is produced.
Chemical energy Heat energy Kinetic energy Electrical energy
Electricity from water
 In Hydroelectric power stations, water falls down to turn turbines. Then turbines turn generators
to produce electricity.
Gravitational Potential energy Kinetic energy Electrical energy
Electricity from the sun(solar)
 Solar cells convert light energy form the sun into electrical energy.
Solar energy Electrical energy
Electricity from wind
 When wind blows, it turns the blades or the wind mills which drives turbine to generate
electricity.
Wind energy Kinetic energy Electrical energy
Activity
1. Study the diagram below to answer questions.
…
Y
a) Identify component x and y. (2)
b) State the unit of potential difference (voltage). (1)
c) State the name of the source of energy in the circuit above. (1)
d) On the diagram draw a circuit symbol of the voltmeter to show how it can be connected to
measure voltage across bulb B1, only. (2)
e) Explain how the brightness of the bulbs will be after another identical bulb b is connected is
series with bulbs B1 and B2. (2)
2. The circuit diagram below shows how components are connected in a circuit.
State the names and functions of instruments C1 and C2. (4)
3. Look at the circuit below and answer the questions that follow.
a) Use an equation V = V1 + V2 + V3 to calculate the total voltage across the whole circuit, if
the voltage across each bulb is 1.5V. (2)
b) Describe the relationship between V, V1, V2 and V3. (2
4. The diagram below shows a cell.
Identify the parts labelled A and B. (2)
Activity
1. The circuit diagram below shows two resistors connected in parallel to a battery.
…..
a) Select the position, A, B or C, where an ammeter should be connected to measure the total
current in the circuit. (1)
b) Determine the voltage across R2. (1)
c) Explain how the voltmeter is connected in the circuit diagram above. (2)
d) Explain how component “p” works in the circuit. (1)
2. The diagram shows an outline of how electricity is generated at the power station A and B.
Station A
Station B
a) With the aid of the diagram above, explain how electricity is generated at station B. (2)
b) Write energy conversion taking place at station A when electricity is produced. (3)
c) Which station A or B generates electricity free of air pollution? (1)
d) Give a reason for your answer at (c). (1)
5.4 Resistance
SO1: Explain that resistance is opposition to current flow is measured in ohms using an
ohmmeter.
 Resistance is opposition to current flow.

 The instrument used to measure resistance is called ohmmeter.
 The unit of resistance is called ohms Ω
V
Formula of resistance
I R
Resistance = Voltage OR R= V
Current I
SO2: Discuss that different materials have different resistance.
 Different conducting materials have different resistance for specific purposes.

 For example, Tungsten has higher resistance than copper.
 Copper is used for conducting wires and tungsten is used to make filament of the light bulb.
SO3: Explain the resistance in circuits using different numbers of resistors or bulbs in series
or parallel.
Resistors in series
 The more the number of resistors (bulbs) in series, the higher the total resistance.
 The total resistance is equal to the sum of each resistor connected in series.
Formula for calculating total resistance of resistors connected in series
R = R1 + R2 + R3 ……...
Example: Calculate the total resistance in the following circuit.
Rtotal = R1 + R2
= 3Ω + 2Ω
= 5Ω
Resistors in parallel
 The more the number of resistors (bulbs) connected in parallel, the lower the total resistance.
 The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is less than resistance of each resistor.
Formula for calculating total resistance of resistors connected in parallel.
1 = 1 + 1 OR Rtotal = R1 x R2
Rtotal R1 R2 R1 + R2
Example: Calculate the total resistance in the following circuit.
6V
1 = 1 + 1 Rtotal = R1 x R2
Rtotal R1 R2 R1 + R2
OR
= 1 + 1 = 3x2
3 2 3+2
= 2 + 3
6 6 = 6
5
= 5
= 1.2Ω
6
= 6
5
= 1.2Ω
SO4: Explain the effect on the resistance of a wire if:
The length of the wire
 When the length of a wire (conductor) is increased, resistance will also increase.
The longer the length of a wire the higher the resistance.
The diameter of the wire
 When the diameter of a wire (conductor) is increased, the resistance will decrease.
The thicker the diameter of a wire, the lower the resistance.
The thinner the diameter of a wire, the higher the resistance.
Diameter Diameter
The temperature of the wire
 When the temperature of a wire (conductor) is increased, resistance will also increase.
The higher the temperature of a wire, the higher the resistance.
SO5: Explain how a Rheostat is used to vary resistance and current.
 Rheostat is an electrical device or instrument which is used to control current by varying

resistance.
 When the length of resistance wire of a rheostat (variable resistor) increase, the amount of
current flowing through in the circuit decreases.
 When the length of resistance wire of a rheostat decrease, the amount of current flowing through
in the circuit will increase.
 The higher the resistance, the lower the current flows in the circuit or vice versa
SO6: Identify examples of the everyday use of rheostats or variable resistors, such as in
volume controls in radios and light dimmers
Uses of rheostat (variable resistor) in everyday life.
 To control volume in radio and Tv

 Used in light dimmers
 To adjust thermostat in heating system e.g. Iron
 Computer joysticks
 Electric blenders and mixers
Activity
1. Define the term resistance. (1)
2. The circuit diagram shows two resistors R1 and R2 of different resistance connected to a 4.8V
battery.
…..
a) State the instrument used to measure resistance and its unit. (2)
b) State the formula for calculating resistance. (1)
c) Calculate the resistance flowing in the circuit. (2)
d) If the resistance of R1 is 5Ω and R2 is 3Ω. Calculate the total resistance for a combination of
resistors R1 and R2. Show your working. (3)
e) On the diagram, draw a circuit symbol of the rheostat to show how it can be connected to
vary resistance. (1)
f) Another resistor R3 is connected to the circuit in the same way as R1 and R2. Complete the
table below using word increase, decrease or no change to state what happens to the
current, voltage and resistance of the circuit. (3)
Resistance
Voltage
Current
Activity
1. The diagram below shows two conductors.
i) Which of these conductors will cause greater resistance. (1)
ii) Give a reason for your answer. (1)
2. Apart from the factor mentioned above, state other two factors affecting the resistance of a wire.
Explain how these factors affect the resistance of the wire. (4)
3. State two uses of a rheostat (variable resistor) in everyday life. (2)
4. Complete the table by using the word increase or decrease to summarise what happens to the
current when resistors are added to a circuit. (2)
Resistors added to a circuit Total current
Resistors added in series i)
Resistors added in parallel ii)
Activity
1. In the circuit below, the crocodile clip can be connected to points v, w, x, y and z on a resistance
wire. The current is read each time the crocodile clip is connected at different point. The results
are shown in the table below.
a) Describe what happened to the current as the crocodile clip was moved from v to z. (2)
b) Describe what will happen to the brightness of the light bulb as the crocodile clip is moved
from v to z. (2)
c) Explain what would happen to current readings if a resistance wire with a thicker diameter is
used. (1)
d) Calculate the resistance of the wire at point w. (3)
e) Use the word increase or decrease to complete the table below in order to summarise the
influence of the length and diameter of wire on its resistance.
Length of wire increased Diameter of wire decreased
Resistance
2. The diagram shows an electric circuit.
3V
2Ω
a) Calculate:
i) The total resistance in the circuit. (2)
ii) The value of R2 if R1 is 2Ω. (2)
b) Explain what would happen to current if another resistor R3 is added to the circuit. (2)
5.5 Electrical circuits (Cells, and resistors, bulbs in series and parallel).
SO1: Identify and construct circuits.
Series Circuit Parallel Circuit
 Electrical circuits can be constructed in series and parallel.

 Circuit symbols are used to draw circuits in series and parallel.
 Cells, and resistors (bulbs) can be connected in circuits in series and parallel.
SO2: Draw the circuit symbols
Electrical Circuit Symbol Name of components
Bulb
Cell
… Battery
Open switch
Closed switch
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Conducting wire
Fuse
Variable resistor or Rheostat
Resistor
SO3: Measure current, resistance and potential difference at any place in the circuit.
Materials needed
 Conducting wires
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 Cells or (battery)
 Switch
 Variable resistor
 Resistor
 Ohmmeter
Method
 Connect ammeter in series to measure current flowing in the circuit.

 Connect voltmeter in parallel to measure voltage in the circuit.
 Connect ohmmeter in the circuit to measure resistance.
 Close the switch and take readings for current, voltage and resistance.
SO4: Explain effect on and magnitude of current, resistance and potential difference when bulbs
(or resistors) are connected in series and parallel.
The effects of the number of cells on current and potential difference when bulbs (or resistors)
and cells are connected in series.
 An increase in the number of cells connected in series increases the strength of the current and
potential difference across the cells in the circuit.
 The increase in number of bulbs connected in series, current decreases due to an increase in
resistance in the circuit.
 The more the light bulbs are connected in series, the dimmer they are in the circuit. Brightness
will decrease due to low current in the circuit.
 The sum of the voltage across the light bulbs in a series circuit is equal to the voltage across the
cell or battery.
The effect on current and potential difference when light bulbs (resistors) are connected in
parallel.
 When light bulbs are added in parallel circuit, their brightness remains the same, due to equal
amount of current flowing in each branch.
 The current divides equally in branches if the resistors (or bulbs) are identical.
 The current divides between different branches in parallel.
 Low current flows through resistors (light bulbs) with high resistance.
 High current flows through resistors (light bulbs) with low resistance.
 Potential difference across the branches of the circuit is the same as potential difference across
the battery.
 When cells are connected in parallel, the overall potential difference is the same as for one cell.
 The total resistance decreases when light bulbs (resistors) are added in parallel.
Activity
1. Draw the following circuit diagram using symbols.
a) A circuit in series consisting of 4 cells, 3 bulbs, an open switch and an ammeter. (4)
b) A circuit in parallel consisting of 3 cells, 4 bulbs, closed switch and a voltmeter across the
cells. (4)
2. The diagram shows apparatus used in the investigation of the relationship of potential difference
and current through eureka wire.
a) Using the circuit above
i) Draw a circuit diagram for the above setup of apparatus. (4)
ii) Insert into the circuit diagram a voltmeter to measure the potential difference across
the eureka wire. (2)
5.6 Magnetism
SO1: Outline that magnetism is a property of matter resulting in attractive and repulsive
forces, and that Earth has bar magnet properties.
 Magnetism is a property of matter which results in attraction or repulsion of forces.

 Magnetism is a force that acts at a distance.
 Magnets are objects which attract or repel other objects.
Outline that the Earth has bar magnet properties
 The Earth behaves like a giant bar magnet due to its Iron core.
 A freely suspended magnet will come to rest in North-South direction.
Distinguish between ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
Ferrous – are materials which can be attracted by magnets e.g. Iron, steel
Non-ferrous – are materials which cannot be attracted by magnets e.g. wood, plastic,
glass, paper etc.
Two types of magnets
1. Bar magnet N S
2. Horseshoe magnet N S
Properties of magnets
 It has two poles (North and South pole)

 The magnet is stronger at the poles.
 There is magnetic field around a magnet.
 Like poles repels each other.
 Unlike poles attracts each other.
 A freely suspended magnet will come to rest in North-South direction.
SO2: Identify metals that are attracted by magnets and those that are not.
Metals that are attracted by magnets are:
 Iron
 Steel
 Nickel
 Cobalt
 Alnico
Metals that are not attracted by magnets are:
 Copper
 Aluminum
 Tin
 Lead
 Zinc
 Brass
 Bronze
SO3: Sketch the magnetic field lines of forces around a magnet.
 Magnetic field is an area around a magnet where magnetic force results in attraction or
repulsion force.
 Magnetic field lines move from north pole to south pole of a magnet.
 Arrows are used to indicate the direction of magnetic fields.
SO4: Investigate the interaction between two magnets.
 Bring sides of 2 bar magnets close to each other.
 North pole to south pole (unlike poles of magnets) attract each other.
S N
 North pole to North pole.
S S
 South pole to South pole.
N N
 Like poles of magnets repel each other.
SO5: State uses of magnets, such as in speakers and to remove scrap metal from garbage.
Uses of magnets
 Loud speakers
 Generators
 To remove scrap metal from garbage
 Bicycle dynamos
 Electric motors
 Cell phones and telephones
 Fridge doors
 ATM cards
 Burglar alarm
SO6: Investigate that a magnet freely suspended will align itself with the Earth magnetic
field (by convention the North Seeking pole will be termed the North pole of the
magnet).
Materials needed
 Bar magnet and a string.
Method
 Tie a string around a bar magnet and suspend it on a fixed bar.
String
 When a magnet is freely suspended it will align itself in the North – South direction.
 The Earth has magnetic North and South pole.
 The North Seeking pole of a magnet points towards North pole of the earth and South Seeking
pole of the magnet points towards South pole of the magnet.
SO7: State the proper storing of magnets.
 Store magnets with iron keepers.

 Store at room temperature.
 Don’t drop or hit magnet.
Iron
N S Keeper
S N
Iron
Keeper
Activity
1. Outline the term magnetism. (1)
2. i) Distinguish between a ferrous and non-ferrous material. (2)
ii) Give two examples of a ferrous material. (1)
iii) Name two non-metal that cannot be attracted by a magnet. (2)
3. Learner at school x, investigated the magnetic field line around a magnet using Iron fillings.
S N
a) On the diagram, sketch magnetic field lines with arrows to show the direction of the
magnetic field around the bar magnet. Draw four line of each side of the bar magnet. (3)
b) Learner further investigated interaction between two magnets. The diagram below shows
two pairs, pair 1 and pair 2, of magnets brought close together.
Pair 1 Pair 2
N N S N
i) On the diagram, sketch the pattern of magnetic field lines between the magnetic poles
in each pair to show the interaction between the poles. (2)
ii) State whether the poles in each pair are attracting or repelling each other. (2)
Activity
1. a) Name two metals that can be attracted by a magnet. (2)
b) State two properties of magnet. (2)
2. State two uses of magnets. (2)
3. State the proper storing of magnets. (1)
4. Three bar magnets are placed next to each other as shown in the diagram.
Magnet 1 Magnet 2 Magnet 3
Label the poles of magnets how should their poles be placed for all the magnets to repel each
other in horizontal direction. (2)
5. The diagram shows planet earth behaves like a bar magnet
i On the diagram label the poles that represents the Earth’s magnet. (1)
ii) Explain what happens when a bar magnet is freely suspended. (2)
iii) Outline why the earth behaves like a bar magnet. (1)

Physical Science Notes GRD 9

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Physical Science Notes GRD 9

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REPUBLIC OF NAMIBIA

KAVANGO WEST REGIONAL COUNCIL

PHYSICAL SCIENCE GRADE 9

1. Ms Homateni Rauha (Kanuni Haruwodi CS)

2. Mr Sapararo Simon (Nkurenkuru CS)

3. Mr Hamusira Peter (Ncamagoro CS)

4. Mr Sakaputu Paulus (Ruuga CS)

5. Mr Kalyata Jonas (DoEAC-KW)

When Excellence Becomes A Tradition, Greatness Will Sky-Rocket

Topic 1: Scientific processes………………………………………………………………………04

Topic 3: Acids, Alkalis (Bases), Metals and Non-metals………………………………………….64

Topic 5: Electricity and magnetism………………………………………………………………...124

Define scientific processes

 Estimating, measuring, observing, experimenting, classifying, analyzing, presenting results.

Safety precautions during practical in the laboratory

 Estimating is to make a sensible guess about something.

 Measuring: to find he exact amount/quantity of something as specified by units.

 Use correct and appropriate instruments.

 Make your eyes to be at the correct angle to avoid parallax error.

 Take readings at the bottom of the meniscus.

 Place instruments on flat surfaces.

Explain the important of repeating measurements

 To get accurate results.

Quantities Units SI unit Instruments/ Apparatus

5. Force Newton (N) N Force meter, Spring balance, newton

Formula used to calculate area

Area= side ×side

Area= length ×width

Area= ×base ×height

NB: d is the diameter and r is the radius

Area= = (b1 +b2) ×height or (a +b) ×height

Measuring volume of liquids

Measuring volume of solid object

Measuring volume of irregular objects.

 Mass is commonly measured with a triple-beam balance or an electronic scale.

Use these tips to measure mass accurately:

Instruments Used to measure time

SO3: Convert units of length, mass, time, area and volume

1 cm = 10 mm 1m = 1000 mm 1 m = 100 cm 1 km = 1000 m

2000 g = kg 500 g = mg 250 g =_ kg

Time -the duration of something. Or how long something takes.

Mixed Units Conversion of Time

Convert into given units of measurement.

2. 13 mins 42 secs = secs

3. 3 mins 25 secs = secs

6. 1 min 19 secs = secs

7. 8 mins 15 secs = secs

9. 18000 secs = hours

10. 4 hours 35 mins = secs

11. 1 day 1 hour = mins

12. 34 days 576 hours = days

13. 2450 secs = hours

14. 10080 mins = days

15. 7 years = ________________ months

Activity: Convert the units of area

Activity: Convert the units of volume

c. 6 780 mm3= ________________cm3

SO3: Explain how to make a test fair by identifying an appropriate control

 Making one part of the experiment different from others.

SO4: Explain the importance of a zero reading or the use of a control

Explain the concept of “zero reading”

Explain the importance of zero reading

 To get accurate measurements.