The Maurya Empire

Rise of the Maurya Empire

Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in 322 BCE when he

conquered the kingdom of Magadha and the northwestern Macedonian
satrapies.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the history and significance of the Maurya Empire

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The Maurya Empire was founded in 322 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya,

who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and rapidly expanded his
power westward across central and western India in order to take
advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the
withdrawal by Alexander the Great ‘s armies.
 According to legend, the teacher Chanakya convinced his disciple,
Chandragupta Maurya, to conquer the the kingdom of Magadha (the
Nanda Empire) when he was insulted by its king Dhana Nanda.
 Chandragupta Maurya expanded the Maurya Empire north and west as
he conquered the Macedonian Satrapies and won the Seleucid-Mauryan
war.
 In its time, the Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the
world.

Key Terms

 Chandragupta Maurya: The founder of the Maurya Empire; he lived

from 340-298 BCE.
 Nanda Empire: The kingdom led by Dhana Nanda; it was conquered by
Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE.
 Chanakya: Maurya’s teacher and loyal advisor during the foundation
and expansion of the Maurya Empire.
  Takshashila: An early city in modern-day Pakistan that was believed to
be one of the earliest global settings of learning and culture. It is now
modern-day Taxila.

The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power
in ancient India, ruled by the Maurya dynasty from 322-185 BCE. Originating
from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plain (modern Bihar,
eastern Uttar Pradesh) in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent, the
empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna). The empire was the
largest to have ever existed in the Indian subcontinent, spanning over 5
million square kilometres at its zenith under Ashoka.

The Empire was founded in 322 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya, who had
overthrown the Nanda Dynasty, and rapidly expanded his power,with
Chanakya’s help, westward across central and western India. His expansion
took advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the
withdrawal westward by Alexander the Great’s armies. By 316 BCE, the
empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the
satraps left by Alexander. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by
Seleucus I, a Macedonian general from Alexander’s army, and gained
additional territory west of the Indus River.

In its time, the Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world. At
its greatest extent, the empire stretched to the north along the natural
boundaries of the Himalayas, to the east into Assam, to the west into
Balochistan (southwest Pakistan and southeast Iran) and into the Hindu Kush
mountains of what is now Afghanistan. The Empire was expanded into
India’s central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and
Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested
regions near Kalinga (modern Odisha), until it was conquered by Ashoka. It
declined for about 50 years after Ashoka’s rule ended, and it dissolved in 185
BCE with the foundation of the Shunga Dynasty in Magadha.

Conquest of Magadha and foundation of the Maurya Empire (c. 321 BCE)

According to several legends, Chanakya traveled to Magadha, a kingdom that

was large and militarily powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was
insulted by its king Dhana Nanda, of the Nanda Dynasty. Chanakya swore
revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire.
The Nanda Empire originated from the region of Magadha in ancient India
during the 4th century BCE, and lasted until between 345-321 BCE. At its
greatest extent, the empire ruled by the Nanda Dynasty extended from Bengal
in the east, to the Punjab region in the west, and as far south as the Vindhya
Range. The rulers of this dynasty were famed for the great wealth that they
accumulated.

Chanakya encouraged the young Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take
over the throne of Magadha. Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta
gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, who
were upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of King Dhana, as well as the
resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men
included the former general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya,
the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the
rulers of small states.

Maurya devised a strategy to invade Pataliputra, the capital of the Nanda

Empire. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from
the city to a distant battlefield in order to engage Maurya’s forces. Meanwhile,
Maurya’s general and spies bribed the Nanda’s corrupt general, and created
an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of
the heir to the throne.

Upon the civil unrest in the kingdom, Nanda resigned and disappeared into
exile. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasa, and convinced him
that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Nanda Dynasty, and that he
should remain in office. Chanakya reiterated that choosing to resist would
start a war that would severely affect Magadha and destroy the city. Rakshasa
accepted Chanakya’s reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately
installed as the new King of Magadha in 321 BCE, at the age of 21. Rakshasa
became Chandragupta’s chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of
an elder statesman.
Statue of Chandragupta Maurya at the Birla Mandir Hindu temple, Delhi: Chandragupta
Maurya conquered the kingdom of Magadha to found the Maurya Empire in 231 BCE, at the
age of 21.

Northwest Expansion

With his new seat of power in Magadha, Chandragupta Maurya defeated the
remaining Macedonian satraps, and consolidated his reign of the new Maurya
Empire. He rapidly expanded his power westward across central and western
India, taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the
withdrawal westward by Alexander the Great’s Greek armies. By 320 BCE,
the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India. Chandragupta Maurya
would become the first emperor to unify India into one state, creating one of
the world’s largest empires in its time, and the largest ever in the Indian
subcontinent.
The Maurya Empire c. 320 BCE: The Maurya Empire when it was first founded by
Chandragupta Maurya c. 320 BCE, after conquering the Nanda Empire when he was only about
20 years old.

Expansion of the Maurya Empire

After winning the Seleucid-Mauryan war, the Maurya Empire expanded into
the southern Indian subcontinent under the rule of Ashoka the Great.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the expansion of the Maurya Empire

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The Seleucid Empire tried and failed to reconquer the northwestern part
of the Maurya Empire during the Seleucid-Mauryan war, from 305-303
BCE.
 As part of the peace offering, the Maurya Empire gained five territories
in exchange for 500 war elephants.
 Several Greeks remained at the Mauryan court as ambassadors to the
Hellenistic world.
 Chandragupta Maurya was succeed by his son, Bindusara, in 298 BCE,
and then by Bindusara’s son, Ashoka the Great, in 272 BCE.
 Under Ashoka the Great, the Maurya Empire expanded into the southern
part of the Indian subcontinent.
 Ashoka erected the Edicts of Ashoka, which state his policies and
accomplishments, and which were written in both Greek and Sanskrit.

Key Terms

 satrapies: The governors of the provinces of the ancient Median and

Achaemenid (Persian) Empires, and several of their successors, such as
the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires.
 Ashoka the Great: Lived 304-232 BCE. As the king of the Maurya
Empire, he conquered the Indian subcontinent.
 Seleucus: The king of the Seleucid Empire who tried to reconquer
northwestern Indian, but lost the Selecucid-Mauryan War.
  Edicts of Ashoka: Stone edicts that depicted the policies and
accomplishments of Ashoka the Great, and were written in both Greek
and Sanskrit.

The Seleucid-Mauryan War

In 305 BCE, Emperor Chandragupta Maurya led a series of campaigns to

retake the satrapies left behind by Alexander the Great when he returned
westward. Seleucus I fought to defend these territories, but both sides made
peace in 303 BCE.

Seleucus, one of Alexander’s generals, received Babylonia and, from there,

expanded his dominions to include much of Alexander’s near eastern
territories. Seleucus established himself in Babylon in 312 BC, the year used as
the foundation date of the Seleucid Empire. He ruled not only Babylonia, but
the entire enormous eastern part of Alexander’s empire. The Seleucid Empire
was a major center of Hellenistic culture. In the areas where a Greek-
Macedonian political elite dominated (mostly urban), it maintained the
preeminence of Greek customs.

In 305 BCE, Seleucus I tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India in

order to claim them for the growing Seleucid Empire. Little is known of the
campaign in which Chandragupta fought with Seleucus over the Indus Valley
and the region of Gandhara—
a very wealthy kingdom that had submitted decades earlier to Alexander the
Great.

Seleucus lost the Seleucid-Mauryan War, and the two rulers reconciled with a
peace treaty. The Greeks offered a Macedonian princess for marriage to
Chandragupta, and several territories, including the satrapies of
Paropamisade (modern-day Kamboja and Gandhara), Arachosia (modern-day
Kandhahar), and Gedrosia (modern-day Balochistan). In return,
Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants, a military asset which would play a
decisive role in Seleucus’ victory against western Hellenistic kings at the
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.
The Maurya Empire c. 305 BCE: Chandragupta extended the borders of the Maurya Empire
toward Seleucid Persia, after defeating Seleucus c. 305 BCE.

In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched two Greek ambassadors,

Megasthenes and, later, Deimakos, to the Mauryan court at Pataliputra. Later,
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt, sent an ambassador
named Dionysius to the Mauryan court. Thus, continuing ties between the
Hellenistic world and the Mauryan Empire.

Expansion Under Bindusara

Chandragupta Maurya ruled from 322 BCE until his voluntary retirement and
abdication, in favor of his son, Bindusara, in 298 BCE. Bindusara (320-272
BCE) was the son of Maurya and his queen, Durdhara. During his reign,
Bindusara expanded the Maurya Empire southward, with Chanakya as his
advisor. He brought 16 states under the Maurya Empire and thus conquered
almost all of the Indian peninsula. Bindusara ignored the friendly Dravidian
kingdoms of the Cholas, ruled by King Ilamcetcenni, the Pandyas, and
Cheras. Apart from these southern states, Kalinga (modern-day Odisha) was
the only kingdom in India independent from Bindusara’s empire.
The Maurya Empire c. 290 BCE: Bindausara (ruler 298-272 BCE) extended the borders of the
empire southward into the Deccan Plateau c. 290 BCE.

Ashoka the Great

Bindusara died in 272 BCE, and was succeeded by his son, Ashoka the Great
(304-232 BCE). As a young prince, Ashoka (r. 272-232 BCE) was a brilliant
commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As monarch, he was
ambitious and aggressive, reasserting the Empire’s superiority in southern
and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga (262-261 BCE) that
proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka’s army succeeded
in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an
estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare,
including over 10,000 of Ashoka’s own men. Hundreds of thousands of
people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he
personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse.
Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the
teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and violence. He sent out
missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries.
Extent of the Maurya Empire at its height in 265 BCE: Ashoka the Great extended into Kalinga
during the Kalinga War c. 265 BCE, and established superiority over the southern kingdoms.

As ruler, Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa (the principle of “to not

injure”) by banning hunting and violent sports activities, and ending
indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged
Kalinga had been forced into hard labor and servitude). While he maintained
a large and powerful army to keep the peace, Ashoka expanded friendly
relations with states across Asia and Europe, and sponsored Buddhist
missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the
country. Among these works were the construction of stupas, or Buddhist
religious structures, containing relics. One notable stupas created during the
reign of Ashoka was The Great Stupa, which stands in Sanchi, India. Over 40
years of peace, harmony, and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most
successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized
figure of inspiration in modern India.

The Edicts of Ashoka

Perhaps one of the greatest-known accomplishments of Ashoka was his

creation of his edicts, which were erected between 269 BCE and 232 BCE. The
Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent.
Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan, and as far south as Andhra (Nellore
District), Ashoka’s edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although
predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in Greek, and one
in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka’s edicts refer to the Greeks, Kambojas,
and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also
attest to Ashoka’s envoys’ travels to the Greek rulers in the west as far as the
Mediterranean. Ashoka’s edicts also mentioned social and cultural attributes
of his empire, emphasizing Buddhism, though not condemning other
religions. For this, the Edicts of Ashoka are known as an early document that
promoted religious tolerance.

An Edict of Asoka: Bilingual inscription (Greek and Aramaic) by king Asoka, from Kandahar.
Kabul Museum

Centralization in the Maurya Empire

The Mauryan Empire encouraged economic prosperity through political

stability and a unified central government.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the significance of the political stability offered by the Mauryan Empire

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points

 The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces, each governed by
the Kumara, who served as the king’s representative.
 Emperor Ashoka maintained a massive standing army to protect the
Mauryan Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South
Asia.
 Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka’s grandfather, had established a single
currency across India, a network of regional governors and
administrators, and a civil service to provide justice and security for
merchants, farmers and traders that continued throughout the Mauryan
Dynasty.
 The Mauryan international network of trade extended to the Greek states
and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia and into Southeast Asia.

Key Terms

 Khyber Pass: A strategically important trade stop on the modern

boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan.
 Arthashastra: An ancient Indian treatise on government, statecraft,
military, and economy.
 Kumara: A royal prince who oversaw the Mauryan provinces on behalf
of the emperor.
 standing army: A permanent army composed of full-time soldiers that is
not disbanded during times of peace.

Employing a carefully organized bureaucratic system, the Maurya Empire

was able to maintain security and political unity across large parts of western
and southern Asia. This included a common economic system supporting
stable agriculture in its vast landholdings, as well as successful trade and
commerce. Through this centralized authority, which included a powerful
military, the rulers of the empire bound together the previously fractured
regions of the Indian Subcontinent.

Unification and Military

Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, ruled from 324-
297 BCE, before voluntarily abdicating in favor of his son, Bindusara, who
ruled from 297 BCE until his death in 272 BCE. This led to a war of succession
in which Bindusara’s son, Ashoka, defeated his brother, Susima, and rose to
the throne in 268 BCE, eventually becoming the greatest ruler of the Maurya
Dynasty.

Before the Mauryan Empire, the Indian subcontinent was fragmented into
hundreds of kingdoms. These were ruled by powerful regional chieftains with
small armies that engaged in internecine warfare. The Mauryan Army
eliminated regional chieftains, private armies, and even gangs of bandits, who
sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas.

The Mauryan Army, the largest standing military force of its time, supported
the expansion and defense of the empire. According to scholars, the empire
wielded 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants, while a vast
espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security
purposes. Although Emperor Ashoka renounced offensive warfare and
expansionism, he maintained this standing army to protect the empire from
external threats and maintain stability and peace across Western and Southern
Asia.

Administration

The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces, with the imperial
capital at Pataliputra, near the Ganges River in the modern state of Bihar in
India. The Edicts of Ashoka, a collection of inscriptions made during Ashoka’s
reign from 268-232 BCE, give the names of the Maurya Empire’s four
provincial capitals: Tosali in the east, Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri in the
south, and Taxila in the north.

The organizational structure began at the imperial level with the emperor and
his Mantriparishad, or Council of Ministers. The head of the provincial
administration was the Kumara, or royal prince, who governed the provinces
as the king’s representative, with the assistance of Mahamatyas, who were
essentially regional prime ministers. Through this sophisticated system of
bureaucracy, the empire governed all aspects of government at every level,
from municipal hygiene to international trade.
Maurya Empire at its greatest extent (dark orange), including vassal kingdoms (light orange), 265
BCE: The Maurya Empire provided political stability with a unified central government, which
in turn encouraged economic prosperity.

Centralization and Taxation

Chandragupta Maurya, the father of the dynasty, established a single

currency across India, a network of regional
regional governors and administrators,
and a civil service to provide justice and security for merchants, farmers, and
traders.
Through the disciplined central authority of the Mauryan Empire, farmers
were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings. Instead,
they paid a nationally administered system of taxation that was strict but fair.
The system operated under the principles of the Arthashastra, an ancient
Indian treatise on economic policy, statecraft, and military strategy. Written in
Sanskrit and adhering to Hindu philosophies, the Arthashastra includes books
on the nature of government, law, civil and criminal courts, ethics, and
economic topics, including markets and trade, agriculture, mineralogy,
mining and metals, forestry, and others.

Although regimental in revenue collection, the Mauryan Empire funded

numerous public works projects to enhance productivity. Like his father and
grandfather, Ashoka sponsored the construction of thousands of roads,
waterways, canals, rest houses, hospitals, and other types of infrastructure.

Under continued Mauryan rule, political unity and military security

encouraged a common economic system, increased agricultural productivity,
and enhanced widespread trade and commerce for the first time in West and
South Asia.

Coins of the Maurya Empire: Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India,
including these silver punch mark coins with symbols of wheel and elephant, 3rd century BCE

Trade and Commerce

The Maurya Empire’s political unity and internal peace encouraged the
expansion of trade in India. Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty during
Ashoka’s reign, the Mauryan international network of trade saw great
expansion.

The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan,

became a strategically important point of trade and interaction with the
outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became
trading partners. Trade also extended through the Malay Peninsula into
Southeast Asia. India’s exports included silk, textiles, spices, and exotic foods.
The outside world gained new scientific knowledge and technology through
expanded trade with the Mauryan Empire.

Ashoka’s Conversion
Mauryan emperor Ashoka embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass
deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for
conquest.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Discuss the effects of Ashoka the Great’s conversion to Buddhism

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 While the early part of Ashoka’s reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty,
he became a follower of the Buddha’s teachings after his conquest of
Kalinga.
 According to a contemporary text, the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka
converted to Buddhism because he “felt remorse on account of the
conquest of Kalinga because, during the subjugation of a previously
unconquered country, slaughter, death, and taking away captive of the
people necessarily occur.”
 In one source, his conversion is presented as a gradual process coming
from intense personal anguish, rather than spurred by a specific event.
 As a Buddhist emperor, Ashoka believed that Buddhism is beneficial for
all human beings, as well as animals and plants, so he built a number of
stupas. He also well spread Buddhism to neighboring kingdoms.
Key Terms

 Dharma: Cosmic law and order, behaviors that are considered to be in

accord with the order that makes life and the universe possible,
including duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues, and ‘‘right way of
living.” Also specifically signifies the teachings of the Buddha.
 Edicts of Ashoka: A collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka,
as well as boulders and cave walls, made by the Emperor Ashoka of the
Mauryan Empire during his reign, from 269 BCE to 232 BCE.

Background: Conquest of Kalinga

While the early part of Ashoka’s reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he
became a follower of the Buddha’s teachings after his conquest of Kalinga on
the east coast of India in the present-day states of Odisha and North Coastal
Andhra Pradesh. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and
democracy. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy, it was quite an
exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma.
Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined
with the concept of bravery and dharma. The Kalinga War happened eight
years after his coronation. From Ashoka’s 13th inscription, we come to know
that the battle was a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100,000
soldiers and many civilians who rose up in defence; over 150,000 were
deported. When he was walking through the grounds of Kalinga after his
conquest, rejoicing in his victory, he was moved by the number of bodies
strewn there and the wails of the bereaved.

Conversion to Buddhism

Edict 13 on the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions reflect the great remorse
the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:

His Majesty felt remorse on account of the conquest of Kalinga

because, during the subjugation of a previously unconquered country,
slaughter, death, and taking away captive of the people necessarily
occur, whereas His Majesty feels profound sorrow and regret.

The edict goes on to address the even greater degree of sorrow and regret
resulting from Ashoka’s understanding that the friends and families of
deceased would suffer greatly too.
Legend says that one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to
roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses.
The lethal war with Kalinga transformed the vengeful Emperor Ashoka into a
stable and peaceful emperor, and he became a patron of Buddhism.
According to the prominent Indologist, A. L. Basham, Ashoka’s personal
religion became Buddhism, if not before, then certainly after the Kalinga War.
However, according to Basham, the Dharma officially propagated by Ashoka
was not Buddhism at all. Nevertheless, his patronage led to the expansion of
Buddhism in the Mauryan empire and other kingdoms during his rule, and
worldwide from about 250 BCE.

After the Kalinga War and Ashoka’s conversion, the Empire experienced
nearly half a century of peace and security. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era
of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and
of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya ‘s embrace of Jainism increased social
and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka’s embrace
of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social
and political peace and non-violence across all of India.

Buddhist Kingship

One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he
provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Throughout
Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka
replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the
Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this model of “Buddhist kingship,” the
king sought to legitimize his rule, not through descent from a divine source,
but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha.
Following Ashoka’s example, kings established monasteries, funded the
construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their
kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the
status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had by calling a conclave to
settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development
ultimately led to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries
between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still
be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand, and the
traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka
also said that his courtiers always governed the people in a moral manner.

As a Buddhist emperor, Ashoka believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all

human beings, as well as animals and plants, so he built a number of stupas,
Sangharama, viharas, chaitya, and residences for Buddhist monks all over
South Asia and Central Asia. According to the Ashokavadana, he ordered the
construction of 84,000 stupas to house the Buddhas relics. In the
Aryamanjusrimulakalpa, Ashoka takes offerings to each of these stupas,
traveling in a chariot adorned with precious metals. He gave donations to
viharas and mathas. He sent his only daughter, Sanghamitra, and son,
Mahindra, to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka (then known as Tamraparni).

Stupa: Great Stupa (3rd century BC), Sanchi, India. Ashoka ordered the construction of 84,000
stupas to house the Buddhas relics.

Debate About Ashoka’s Conversion and Rule

The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a
strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his
Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a
primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and
was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic
institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only
source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan
Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his
edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time:
Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism. His edicts addressed to the
population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists, which
is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes that
members of all the religions would accept.

However, the edicts alone strongly indicate that he was a Buddhist. In one
edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly
suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance.
Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka
declares himself to be an “upasaka,” and in another he demonstrates a close
familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites,
but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word
“dhamma” to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this
was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. Finally, he promoted ideals that
correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha’s graduated discourse.

Interestingly, the Ashokavadana, presents an alternate view of the familiar

Ashoka. In this source, his conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga War
or his descent from the Maurya dynasty. Instead, Ashoka’s reason for
adopting non-violence appears much more personal. The Ashokavadana shows
that the main source of Ashoka’s conversion, and the acts of welfare that
followed, are rooted instead in intense personal anguish, from a wellspring
inside himself rather than spurred by a specific event. It thereby illuminates
Ashoka as more humanly ambitious and passionate, with both greatness and
flaws. This Ashoka is very different from the “shadowy do-gooder” of later
Pali chronicles.

Decline of the Maurya Empire

The Sunga Dynasty usurped the Maurya Dynasty, and parts of the empire
were incorporated into the Indo-Greek Kingdom.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the factors that contributed to the decline of the Maurya Empire

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Ashoka the Great’s rule was followed by 50 years of weak kings who did
not retain strong central authority. This eventually led to the dissolution
of the Maurya Empire.
 General Pusyamitra Sunga staged a coup against the Maurya Dynasty
in 185 BCE. As a result, he ascended the throne and founded the Sunga
Dynasty.
 In 180 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian King Demetrius conquered the
northwestern Indian territories and founded the Indo-Greek Kingdom.
 Buddhism lost favor when the Sunga Dynasty gained power, but
remained dominant in the Ind0-Greek Kingdom.

Key Terms

 Buddhism: A religion encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs, and

spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha.
 Khyber Pass: A mountain pass connecting Afghanistan and Pakistan; it
has been an important trade route
between Central Asia and South Asia, and a strategic military location.
 Demetrius: The Greco-Bactrian king who established the Indo-Greek
kingdom when he conquered parts of northwestern India, around 180
BCE.
 Sunga: The dynasty founded by the general Pusyamitra Sunga after he
staged a coup against the Maurya dynasty in 185 BCE.

A 50-year succession of weak kings followed the reign of Ashoka the Great,
the Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who died in 232 BCE. As Ashoka’s
highly centralized government lost power, the Maurya Empire lost control
over its territories. The different cultures and economies began to break apart,
although the kings maintained Buddhism as the state religion.

Sunga Coup and Rule

Brihadratha, the last ruler of the Maurya Dynasty, was assassinated in 185
BCE. The commander-in-chief of his guard, Brahmin General Pusyamitra
Sunga, killed Brihadratha during a military parade and ascended the throne.
He established the Sunga Dynasty, which prospered from approximately 187
to 78 BCE. Pusyamitra was succeeded after 36 years by his son, Agnimitra,
beginning the dynasty of ten Sunga rulers overall. They conducted wars with
both foreign and indigenous powers, including the Kalinga, the Satavahana
Dynasty, and the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Sungas were succeeded by the
Kanva Dynasty around 73 BCE.

Sunga rulers helped establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of education

and the arts at a time when some of the most important developments in
Hindu thought were taking place. The Mathura art style took hold during this
time, and many small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and
architectural monuments from the Sunga period are still in existence.

Sunga Royal Family, c. 150 BCE: Art and learning prospered under Sunga patronage, as seen in
this terracotta tablet of the Sunga Royal family.

Sunga and Buddhism

The Sungas favored Hinduism over Buddhism. Buddhist sources, such as the
Ashokavadana, an Indian Sanskrit text describing the birth and reign of
Ashoka the Great, mention that Pusyamitra was hostile towards Buddhists
and allegedly persecuted members of the Buddhist faith. A large number of
Buddhist monasteries, called viharas, were allegedly converted to Hindu
temples in such places as Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, or Mathura. Some
historians argue, however, that Buddhist accounts of Sunga persecution are
largely exaggerated.

Sunga Empire, c. 185 BCE: The Sunga Dynasty was established following a coup by General
Pusyamitra Sunga, marking the end of the Maurya Empire.

Indo-Greek Kingdom

In the east, the fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a
wave of foreign invasion followed. The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius,
capitalized on the break-up and conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of
northwestern India around 180 BCE, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The
Indo-Greeks maintained territorial holdings for about a century in the Trans-
Indus Region, in what is now Pakistan and parts of central India.

Demetrius, who lived from 175 to 140 BCE, founded the city of Sirkap,
combining Greek and Indian influences without signs of segregation between
the
two cultures. The Greek expansion into Indian territory may have been
intended to protect Greek populations in India, as well as to protect the
Buddhist faith from the alleged religious persecutions of the Sungas.

Seated Buddha statue showing Greek influences: Buddhism was favored in the Indo-Greek
Kingdom. Many statues of Buddha from this period display Greek stylistic elements including
Greek clothing.

Demetrius was succeeded by Menander, who conquered the largest territory

and was one of the most successful Indo-Greek kings. His coins that have
been discovered are the most numerous and widespread of all the Indo-Greek
kings. According to Buddhist literature, Menander converted to Buddhism
and is sometimes described as the Milinda Panha. He helped Buddhism
flourish and established the new capital of Sagala.
Coin depicting Menander I: Described in both Greek and Indian accounts, Menander I became
the most important of the Indo-Greek rulers. He converted to Buddhism and expanded the
Indo-Greek Kingdom.

In Indian literature, the Indo-Greeks are described as “Yavanas” in Sanskrit,

or “Yonas” in Pali, which are both thought to be transliterations of “Ionians.”
The Buddhist scripture, Majjhima Nikaya, explains that in contrast with the
numerous Indian castes, there were only two classes of people in Indo-Greek
culture: the Aryas, translated as the masters; and Dasas, the servants.

Indo-Greek Fall

Throughout the first century BCE, the Indo-Greeks progressively lost ground
to the Indians in the East, and the Scythians, the Yuezhi, and the Parthians in
the West. About 20 Indo-Greek kings are known during this period, including
last known Indo-Greek ruler, Strato II, who ruled in the Punjab region until
around 55 BCE.
 The Gupta Empire

Rise of the Gupta Empire

From 320-550 CE, the Gupta Empire assimilated neighboring kingdoms,

through conquest or political alliances.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain the factors that contributed to the rise of the Gupta Empire

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Sri Gupta founded the Gupta Empire c. 240-280 CE, and was succeeded
by his son, Ghatotkacha, c. 280-319 CE, followed by Ghatotkacha’s son,
Chandragupta, c. 319-335 CE.
 After Chandragupta married princess Kumaradevi from the kingdom of
Magadha, he conquered or assimilated the nearby kingdoms and
assumed the imperial title of Maharajadhiraja, meaning “King of Kings.”
 Chandragupta’s son, Samudragupta, assumed the throne in 335 CE, and
conquered several neighboring kingdoms; eventually, the Gupta Empire
extended across the entire Indian subcontinent.
 Samudragupta was succeeded by his son, Chandragupta II, who
continued to expand the Gupta Empire through conquest and political
alliances.

Key Terms

 Maharajadhiraja: A Sanskrit title for “Prince of Princes” or “King of

Kings,” several degrees higher than the title Maharaja, which means
“Great King.”
 Ashwamedha: A Vedic ritual horse sacrifice; Samudragupta
commemorated his territorial conquests with one of these rituals.

The Gupta Empire, founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta, was an ancient Indian
realm that covered much of the Indian Subcontinent from approximately 320-
550 CE. Gupta rule, while solidified by territorial expansion through war,
began a period of peace and prosperity marked by advancements in science,
technology, engineering, art, dialectics, literature, logic, mathematics,
astronomy, religion, and philosophy.

Gupta Empire Origins

The Gupta Empire was believed to be a dynasty of the Vaishya caste, the third
of the four Hindu castes representing merchants and farmers. Founded by Sri
Gupta c. 240-280 CE, there are contradictory theories regarding the original
homeland of the Guptas. Historians believe Sri Gupta and his son may have
been Kushan vassals, or rulers who swore allegiance to the Kushan Empire.
Sri Gupta’s son and successor, Ghatotkacha, ruled from c. 280-319 CE, while
his son, Chandragupta, ascended the throne around 319 and ruled until 335
CE.

Chandragupta married princess Kumaradevi from the Kingdom of Magadha,

which was one of the Mahajanapadas (or great countries) of ancient India
during the 4th century CE. With a dowry and political alliance from the
marriage, Chandragupta conquered or assimilated the kingdoms of Magadha,
Prayaga, and Saketa. By 321 CE, he established a realm stretching along the
Ganges River to Prayag, the modern-day city of Allahabad, in the Indian state
of Uttar Pradesh. Hindus believe the god Brahma offered his first sacrifice
after creating the world at Prayag.

Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I: A coin from the period of Indian Emperor
Samudragupta, 335-380 CE, depicting his parents, King Chandragupta and Queen Kumaradevi.

Gupta Empire Expansion

Samudragupta succeeded his father, Chandragupta I, in 335 CE, and ruled for
about 45 years. He conquered the kingdoms of Ahichchhatra and Padmavati
early in his reign, then attacked neighboring tribes, including the Malwas,
Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas, Maduras, and Abhiras. By his death in 380 CE,
Samudragupta had incorporated over 20 kingdoms into his realm, and
extended the Gupta
upta Empire from the Himalayas to the Narmada River in
central India, and from the Brahmaputra River that cuts through four modern
Asian nations to the Yamuna—
Yamuna the longest tributary of the Ganges River in
northern India.

To celebrate his conquest, Samudrag

Samudragupta
upta performed the royal Vedic ritual
of Ashwamedha,, or horse sacrifice. Special coins were minted to commemorate
the Ashvamedha, and the king took the title of Maharajadhiraja (or “King of
Kings”) even higher than the traditional ruler’s title of Maharaja.
Maharaja

According to the Gupta records, Samudragupta nominated his son, Prince

Chandragupta II, born of Queen Dattadevi, as his successor. However, his
eldest son, Ramagupta, may have been his immediate successor until he was
dethroned by Chandragupta II in 380 CE.

Gupta Empire, 320-600 CE: The Gupta Empire expanded through conquest and political
alliances until 395 CE, when it extended across the entire Indian subcontinent.
Gupta Empire of Chandragupta II

After gaining power, Chandragupta II expanded the Gupta Empire through

conquest and political marriages until the end of his reign in 413 CE. By 395
CE, his control over India extended coast-to-coast. At the high point of his
rule, Chandragupta II established a second capital at Ujjain, the largest city in
the modern state of Madhya Pradesh in central India. Ujjain, on the eastern
bank of the Kshipra River, remained an important political, commercial, and
cultural hub through the early 19th century.

Vikramaditya is the name of an emperor of ancient Indian legend,

characterized as the ideal king known for generosity, courage, and as a patron
of scholars. A number of historians believe that some of these legends are
based on Chandragupta II, who is thought to have adopted the title of
Vikramaditya.

In the legends, Vikramaditya is said to have thwarted an invasion by the Saka,

a group of eastern Iranian nomadic tribes, also known as Scythians, and
gained the title of Sakari, or Enemy of the Saka. Chandragupta II conquered
the western Indian region of Malwa after defeating the Western Kshatrapas, a
branch of the Sakas, as well as expelling the Kushana Empire from the
northern Indian city state Mathura. These victories were likely transposed
onto the legendary character of Vikramaditya.

Chandragupta II issued gold coin types introduced by his father,

Samudragupta, but also introduced several new types of coins, differentiated
by the designs on the face of each coin line, such as the Archer or the Tiger-
Slayer. He was also the first Gupta king to issue silver coins.

One of the most curious structures in Delhi, India (an iron pillar dating back
to the 4th century CE) bears an inscription stating that it was erected as a
flagstaff in honor of the Hindu god Vishnu, and in memory of Chandragupta
II. The pillar, made of 98% wrought iron, is considered a highlight of ancient
Indian achievements in metallurgy; it has stood more than 1,600 years
without rusting or decomposing.
Iron Pillar of Delhi: The Iron Pillar of Delhi, India, erected by Chandragupta II to honor the
Hindu god Vishnu, in the 4th century CE.

Despite the expansion of the Gupta Empire through war, there were
numerous examples of cultural sophistication during the Gupta era, with
architecture, sculptures and paintings surviving as reminders of the creativity
of the time. Under Gupta rule, a number of notable scholars thrived, including
Kalidasa, considered the greatest poet and dramatist of the Sanskrit language;
Aryabhata, the first of the Indian mathematician-astronomers who worked on
the approximation for Pi; Vishnu Sharma, thought to be the author of
the Panchatantra fables, one of the most widely-translated, non-religious books
in history; and the Hindu philosopher Vatsyayana, author of the Kama Sutra.

The period of Gupta rule, especially the reign of Chandragupta II, is still
remembered as the Golden Age of India.

The Golden Age of India

The prosperity of the Gupta Empire produced a golden age of cultural and
scientific advancements.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the significance of the Golden Age of India

 KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Prosperity in the Gupta Empire initiated a period known as the Golden

Age of India, marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science,
technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics,
astronomy, religion, and philosophy.
 Chandragupta II promoted the synthesis of science, art, philosophy, and
religion, in part because his court contained the Navartna, or the Nine
Jewels, a group of nine scholars who produced advancements in many
academic fields.
 Chinese traveler Fa Xian visited India from 399-405 CE, during the reign
of Emperor Chandragupta II. He recorded all of his observations in a
journal that was later published.

Key Terms

 Golden Age of India: A period at the height of the Gupta Empire,

marked by extensive inventions and discoveries that contributed to
Hindu culture, in subjects such as science, technology, engineering, art,
dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and
philosophy.
 Chandragupta II: His reign, from 375-415 CE, promoted the synthesis of
science, art, philosophy, and religion during the Golden Age of India.
 Fa Xian: A Chinese traveler who recorded detailed observations about
his experience in the Gupta Empire in his journal. It was later published.
 Navartna: Also called the Nine Jewels; a group of nine scholars in the
court of Chandragupta II who contributed many advancements in their
academic fields.
 ayurvedic: A form of alternative medicine established in India.

The prosperity created under the leadership of the Gupta Empire, which
covered much of the Indian subcontinent from approximately 320-550 CE,
enabled the wide pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors. This period
became known as the Golden Age of India because it was marked by
extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art,
dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy.
These discoveries crystallized elements of what is generally considered Hindu
culture.
Science, Literature, and Art

Although Chandragupta I and his son, Samudragupta, were prominent

rulers, the reign of Chandragupta II included the greatest promotion of
science, art, philosophy, and religion by the government. Chandragupta’s
court was even more influential than those that came before or after because it
contained the Navaratnas, or the Nine Jewels, a group of nine scholars who
produced advancements in many academic fields.

These scholars included Aryabhata, who is believed to have envisioned the

concept of zero, as well as working on the approximation for the long-form
number Pi. Aryabhata is also believed to be the first of the Indian
mathematician-astronomers who postulated the theory that the Earth moves
round the Sun and is not flat, but instead is round and rotates on its own axis.
He also may have discovered that the moon and planets shine due to reflected
sunlight.

Varahamihira was an astronomer, astrologer, and mathematician, whose main

work is a treatise on mathematical astronomy. Sushruta, a famed Indian
physician of the Gupta period, wrote the Samhita, a Sanskrit text on all of the
major concepts of ayurvedic medicine, with innovative chapters on surgery.
Other scholars of the Golden Age helped create the first Indian numeral
systems with a base of ten. The game of chess also likely originated during
this period, where its early form, Chaturanga, contained game pieces for
infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots, each of which would evolve into the
modern pawn, knight, rook, and bishop, respectively.

Krishna and Radha playing Chaturanga: Scholars during the reign of Chandragupta II
contributed many scientific advancements in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and
medicine.
Kalidasa, considered the greatest poet and dramatist of the Sanskrit language,
also belonged primarily to this period. He wrote plays, such as Shakuntala,
which is said to have inspired the famed German writer and statesman,
Johann von Goethe, centuries later. Kalidasa also became renowned for his
study of the shringara, or romantic, element of literature. The Indian scholar
and Hindu philosopher Vatsyayana, authored the Kama Sutra, which became
a standard work on human sexual behavior, while Vishnu Sharma was
thought to be the author of the Panchatantra fables, one of the most widely-
translated, non-religious books in history.

The cultural creativity of the Golden Age of India produced magnificent

architecture, including palaces and temples, as well as sculptures and
paintings
of the highest quality. The walls of Buddhist shrines and monasteries were
decorated with colorful frescoes, a type of wall paintings. These showed
scenes from the life of the Buddha, the ascetic and philosopher, who lived in
the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent sometime between 6th and 4th
centuries, on whose teachings the Buddhist religion is based. Some shrines
were cut out of the cliffs, and although dark, they were also decorated with
sculptures and paintings.

The Dashavatara Temple: The Golden Age of India produced many temples, decorated with
various sculptures and paintings, such as the Dashavatara Temple, also known as the Vishnu
Temple, in central India.
Influence on East and Southeast Asia

The Gupta Dynasty promoted Hinduism, but supported Buddhist and Jain
cultures as well. Gupta Buddhist art influenced East and Southeast Asia as
trade between regions increased. The Gupta Empire became an important
cultural center and influenced nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri
Lanka, and Southeast Asia. Classical forms of Indian music and dance,
created under the Guptas, are still practiced all over Asia today.

Fa Xian was one of the first Chinese travelers to visit India during the reign of
Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II. He started his journey from China in 399
CE, and reached India in 405 CE. He recorded all of his observations in a
journal that was eventually published.

During his stay in India, until c. 411 CE, Fa Xian went on a pilgrimage to
Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi and
Rajgriha. His writings express pleasure in the mildness of the administrations
in these places.

Decline of the Gupta Empire

After many years of dominance, the Gupta Empire collapsed in 550 CE, due to
invasions and weak leadership of successive rulers.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the decline of the Gupta Empire

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The Gupta Empire flourished under

Chandragupta II, but began to falter under his son, Kumaragupta, and
grandson,
Skandagupta.
 The Huna People, also known as
Huns, invaded Gupta territory and caused significant damage to the
empire.
  The Gupta Empire ended in 550 CE, when it disintegrated into regional
kingdoms after a series of weak rulers and
invasions from the east, west, and north.

Key Terms

 Chandragupta II: The emperor of the Gupta Dynasty of ancient India

from c. 380-415 CE.
 Kumaragupta I: Son of Chandragupta II; the emperor of the Gupta
Dynasty from c. 415-455 CE.
 Skandagupta: Son of Kumaragupta I; the emperor of the Gupta Dynasty
from c. 455-467 CE.
 Huna: A Central Asian Xionite tribe that consisted of four hordes that
repeatedly invaded Gupta territory, and helped cause the downfall of the
Gupta Empire.

The Gupta Empire flourished, in military and territorial conquests as well as

cultural and scholastic advancements, during the reign of Emperor
Chandragupta II. Yet the succeeding rulers, beginning with Kumaragupta I
and then Skandagupta, oversaw the eventual end of the Gupta Empire
through military defeats, devalued money and withering leadership.

Kumaragupta

In 415 CE, Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son, Kumaragupta I,

who ruled successfully until 455 CE. The late years of his reign, however,
faced difficulties. The Pushyamitras, a tribe of central India, rose up in
rebellion against Kumaragupta, while Gupta territories were invaded by the
Western Huna people, also known as White Huns.

Kumaragupta defeated both groups and celebrated his victory by performing

the royal Vedic ritual of Ashwamedha, or horse sacrifice, which had
previously been performed by his grandfather, Emperor Samudragupta, to
celebrate his own great military victories.
Coin of Kumaragupta I: A silver coin from the reign of Gupta Emperor Kumaragupta I, c. 415-
455 CE.

As his grandfather and father did before him, Kumaragupta also issued news
coins to mark his reign. They were stamped with images of his namesake god,
Lord Kumara, regarded by Hindus as Regent of Earth.

Skandagupta

Upon Kumaragupta’s death in 455 CE, his son, Skandagupta, assumed the
throne and ruled until c. 467 CE. He is considered the last of the great Gupta
rulers prior to the collapse of the empire.

Skandagupta, who was celebrated as a great warrior for his victorious clashes
with the Huns during his father’s reign, defeated several rebellions and
external threats from the Huna people, notably an invasion in 455 CE.
Although victorious, the expenses of the wars against the Hunas drained the
empire’s resources. The value of the coinage issued under Skandagupta
becoming severely reduced.
Coin of Skandagupta: A coin emblazoned with the image of Gupta Dynasty Emperor
Skandagupta, who ruled c. 455-467 CE.

The Huna and Gupta’s Demise

The Huna were a Central Asian Xionite tribe that consisted of four hordes:
Northern Huna, also known as the Black Huns; Southern Huna, the Red
Huns; Eastern Huna, the Celestial Huns; and the White Huns, the Western
Huna. The White Huns, those who invaded the Gupta Empire during the
reign of Kumaragupta, were also known as the Hephthalites, and caused
great damage to the failing Gupta Empire. Skandagupta died in 467 CE, and
was followed onto the throne by his half-brother, Purugupta, who ruled from
467-473 CE.

Thereafter came a succession of weak kings, beginning with Kumaragupta II

from 473-476 CE, followed by Budhagupta, the son of Purugupta. The
Hephthalites broke through the Gupta military defenses in the northwest in
the 480s, during the reign of Budhagupta, and by 500 CE much of the empire
in northwest was overrun by the Huna.

The empire thereafter disintegrated into numerous regional kingdoms, ruled

by chieftains. A minor line of the Gupta Clan continued to rule Magadha, one
of the 16 Indian Mahajanapadas, or “Great Countries,” but the Gupta Empire
fell by 550 CE.

The Vedic Age (Rig Vedic & Later Vedic)

(c. 1500 – 500 BCE)

The Harappan civilisation was followed by another great civilisation and

culture known as the Vedic culture. The Vedic texts are the primary sources
for the reconstruction of the Vedic culture/Vedic age. Archaeological
materials have also supplemented the texts, though not
comprehensively. Vedic texts are believed to be composed by the Indo-
Aryans. Indo-Aryans refer to the speakers of a subgroup of the Indo-Iranian
branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Rig Veda composers
describe themselves as Arya, etymologically derived from “Ar” meaning to
cultivate, literally meaning kinsmen or companion; in Sanskrit, it means
favourably disposed newcomers and later it came to mean “men of good
family” or noble.

There are different theories associated with the Aryans, their origin and
possible migration/invasion in the Indian Subcontinent. These are as follows:

 Central Asian theory – This theory was propounded by Prof. Max Muller, a German
scholar of comparative languages. As per this theory, the Aryans originally lived in
Central Asia. With the comparative study of the “Avesta” (Iranian text) and the
“Vedas”, one finds a striking linguistic relationship between them of not just words
but of concepts also. The interchangeability between ‘h’ and ‘s’ and incredible
consistency in this change as seen in Hepta Hindu (Sapta Sindu), Ahura (Asura),
Haoma (Soma), Daha (Dasa), further substantiates the claim.
 European theory – Sir William Jones, Giles (Hungary), Shroeder (France), Morgan
(Western Siberia) are supporters of this theory. As per this theory, the Aryans
inhabited Europe and voyaged to various places and the Aryans who came to India
were an offshoot of the Europeans. The proponents of this theory established the
resemblance of Sanskrit with the European languages. For example, the Sanskrit
words Matri and Pitri are similar to the Latin Mater and Pater. Suryyas and
Maruttash of the Kassite (Mesopotamia) inscriptions are equivalent to the Vedic
Surya and Marut.
 Theory of North Pole/Arctic theory – According to Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the
Northern Arctic
region was the original home of the Aryans. He commented that the Rig Veda
comprises specific references to a place where harsh cold and long days and nights
of six months each are found.
 Tibet theory – Swami Dayanand Saraswati was the proponent of this theory.
According to this theory, Tibet is the original home of the Aryans with reference to
the Vedas and other Aryan texts.
 Indian theory – Dr. A.C Dass, Ganga Nath Jha, Sri L.D Kalla, Sri D.S Trivedi have
acknowledged this theory. According to this theory, the Aryans were the residents
of the Sapta Sindhu. This region stretched from the river Indus, reaching up to
Saraswati river. Kashmir and Punjab were also under this region. The sacrificial
rituals of the Vedic Aryans point to their Indian origin. The river hymns in the Rig
Veda mention the names of the rivers of this region. The flora and fauna mentioned
are mostly similar to the Himalayan region. Regarding the affinity of the Indian and
European languages, this theory states that in the language of the Aryans, there is a
plethora of Sanskrit words, but this is not the case with the latter. If Aryans had
come from outside, their ancient Literature (Vedas) should have been found there,
but no Vedic literature has been found outside India.
The most accepted view is that there was a series of Aryan immigration and
they came to the subcontinent as immigrants. The earliest Indo-Aryans lived
in the geographical area covered by Eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and the
fringes of Western Uttar Pradesh. Some rivers of Afghanistan, such as the
river Kubha (Kabul) and the river Indus (Sindhus) and its five tributaries are
mentioned in the Rig Veda. The five tributaries are the Jhelum (Vitasta), Beas
(Vipasa), Chenab (Askini), Ravi (Parushni), Satluj (Sutudri). The Sindhu,
identical with the Indus, is the river par excellence of the Aryans. Another
river mentioned is the Sarasvati, now lost in the sands of Rajasthan, the area
represented by it is covered by the Ghaggar river. The whole region in which
the Aryans first settled in India is called the land of seven rivers.

The Early Vedic or The Rigvedic Civilisation

( c. 1500 – 1000 BCE)

The only source of Vedic culture is the Vedic literature. It is divided into:

1. Early Vedic Literature/Rig Vedic Culture (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE) – It includes the Rig
Veda Samhita and other texts of the family. They are called family books since they
are believed to have been composed by the families of a few seer poets like Atri,
Vasishtha, Vishvamitra, Bharadvaja and Gritsamada.
2. Later Vedic Literature/Later Vedic Culture (c. 1000 – 500 BCE) – It includes books 1,
8, 9, & 10 of the Rig Veda Samhita, the Samhitas of the Sama Veda, the Yajur and the
Atharva Vedas and the Aranyakas, Brahmanas & Upanishads attached to the 4
Vedas.

Vedic Literature
The Vedic literature is the most significant source of information about the
Vedic civilisation. The word “Veda” means knowledge. The Vedic literature
has evolved in the course of many centuries and was handed down from
generation to generation by the word of mouth. Later, they were compiled
and written down, and the earliest surviving manuscript is from the 11th
century.

There are 4 Vedas and each Veda generally has 4 parts – Samhita, Brahmana,
Aranyaka, and Upanishads. The four Vedas are – Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur
Veda, and Atharva Veda.
Rig Veda

 It is the oldest Veda and depicts the life of early Vedic people in India. UNESCO has
included the Rig Veda in the list of literature signifying World Human Heritage.
 Its text consists of 1028 hymns (Sukta) which are divided into ten Mandalas or
books.
 Mandalas 2 – 7 form the oldest part of the Rig Veda Samhita and are called “family
books” as they are ascribed to particular families of seers/rishis.
 Mandala 8 – Here, the hymns are dedicated to various gods and have been
mostly composed by the Kanva clan.
 Mandala 9 – All the hymns are dedicated entirely to Soma.
 Mandala 1 – It is primarily dedicated to Indra and Agni. Varuna, Surya, Mitra,
Rudra, and Vishnu have also been mentioned.
 Mandala 10 – It contains Nadi Stuti Sukta praising the rivers. It also contains
Nasadiya Sukta and Purush Sukta. It contains hymns that are traditionally chanted
during marriage and death rituals.
 Only surviving recension of Rig Veda is the Shakala Shakha.
 The Upaveda of Rig Veda is the Ayurveda.

Sama Veda

 The Sama Veda or the “Veda of Chants” is the collection of verses drawn almost
wholly from the Rig Veda, that are provided with musical notations and are
intended as an aid to the performance of sacred songs.
 It contains the famous Dhrupada Raga, later sung by Tansen in medieval times.
 Recensions (Shakhas) of the Sama Veda are Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya
(Talavakara).
 Sama Veda’s Upaveda is the Gandharva Veda.

Yajur Veda (Worship or ritual knowledge)

 This Veda deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. It is further
divided into-
 Shukla Yajur Veda/ Vajasaneya / White Yajur Veda – it contains only the
mantras. It contains the Madhyandina and Kanva recensions.
 Krishna Yajur Veda / Black Yajur Veda – it includes mantras as well as
prose explanations/commentary. It contains Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya
and Kapishthala recensions.
The Upaveda of the Yajur Veda is the Dhanur Veda.

Atharva Veda

 It concerns itself with magic spells to ward off evil spirits or dangers.
  It is considered to be a non-Aryan work and is classified into 20 kandas or books,
with 711 hymns.
 It contains Shaunaka and Paippalada recensions.
 Shilpa Veda is the Upaveda of Atharva Veda.

Brahmanas

The Brahmanas consist of details about the meaning of Vedic hymns, their
applications and origin stories. Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to
it.

 Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahmanas were allotted to Rig Veda for detailing.

 Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas to Sama Veda for detailing.
 Taittiriya and Shatpatha Brahmanas to Yajur Veda for detailing.
 Gopath Brahmana to Atharva Veda for detailing.

Aranyakas

The Aranyakas are also called “forest books” as they were written chiefly by
hermits residing in the forests for their students. They lay emphasis not on
sacrifices but on meditation. They are in fact, opposed to sacrifices and many
of the early rituals. They are the concluding portion of the Brahmanas and
interpret rituals in a philosophical way.

Upanishads

The literal meaning of Upanishad is to “sit near someone”. There are 108
Upanishads, of which 13 are the most prominent. It introduces the concept
of ‘Atman’ and ‘Brahman’. It states that the core of one’s self is neither the
body nor the mind, but the Atman or the “soul”. It further points out that the
core of all creatures is the Atman itself and can be experienced through
meditation. According to the Upanishads, the Brahman is the underlying
substance of the universe. It is an unchanging ‘Absolute being’. The
Upanishads are mainly philosophical in nature and speak of the highest
knowledge.

 Satyamev Jayate in the National Emblem is taken from Mandukyopanishad.

 The Chandogya Upanishad clearly refers to the first 3 ashrams and discusses
the (mainly two) types of marriage:
  Anuloma marriage – the marriage of a man in his own varna or below his
varna. It is the most accepted and common form of marriage in society.
 Pratiloma marriage – the marriage of a woman in a varna lower than her
own. It is not sanctioned by the Vedas.

Vedanta

The Vedanta reveals the final aim of the Vedas and signifies the end of the
Vedas. It condemns sacrifices, ceremonies and denotes the last phase of the
Vedic period.

Vedanga

The literal meaning of the word Vedanga is “limbs of the Vedas”. Just like the
limbs of the body, they perform various supportive and augmenting functions
in the study, preservation and protection of the Vedas and the Vedic
traditions. They are considered to be of human origin and are written in the
form of Sutras (short condensed statements used to express different
ideas). There are 6 Vedangas as follows:

1. Shiksha (Phonetics)
2. Kalpa (Ritualistic science)
3. Jyotisha (Astronomy)
4. Vyakaran (grammar)
5. Nirukta (Etymology)
6. Chhanda (Metrics)

The Kalpa Sutra is further divided into:

1. Shrauta Sutra – prescribes rules for the performance of different types of sacrifices
and rituals.
2. Grihya Sutra – concerned with comparatively simpler domestic sacrifices. It
includes rituals pertaining to crucial life stages (Samskaras) such as Upanayana
(initiation), Vivaha (marriage), and Antyeshti (funerary practices).
3. Dharmasutra – pertaining to the rituals’ Dharma.

Puranas

The word Purana literally means ‘ancient’ or ‘old’.

  Traditionally, Puranas are considered to be composed by Ved Vyasa.
 The Puranas treat various topics concerning religious developments that occurred
around the 5th and 6th centuries.
 The Puranas reflect the growth of Hindu Dharma, the condition of society in ancient
times, social customs, religious ceremonies as well as yogic methods of discipline.
 Traditionally, a Purana discusses five subjects or “five signs” in the time span of 4
ages/yugas (Satya, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali):
 Sarga – the primary creation of the universe.
 Pratisarga – recreation, secondary creation after annihilation.
 Manvantaras – the reigns of the various Manus.
 Vamsha – the genealogy of gods and rishis.
 Vamshanucharita (Royal lineage) – the history of Solar
(Suryavanshis) and Lunar (Chandravanshis) dynasties.
All Puranas are strongly sectarian – some are devoted to Shiva, some to Vishnu and
some to a goddess. However, the Purana that is devoted to a particular god often pays
considerable attention to other gods as well.
It is commonly accepted that four yugas make up a Mahayuga, that 1000 Mahayugas
make a Kalpa, that every Kalpa is further divided into 14 Manvantaras which are presided
over by a specific Manu. Each yuga is periodically destroyed and again, the recreation of
the world occurs with the cyclic decline and revival of Dharma.
The Puranas are divided into 18 Mahapuranas (such as Vishnu, Brahma, Narada,
Padma, Garuda, Matsya, Kurma, Shiva, Agni, Bhagavata, etc.) and numerous Upapuranas
(secondary Puranas).
The Puranas are regarded as post-Vedic texts.

Dharmashastra

 The Dharmashastra are the Sanskrit texts about morality and religious duty. They
provide guiding rules and principles for the order and regularity of society and
righteous conduct.
 Dharmashastra refers to the fulfilment of Purusharthas (life goals) such
as Dharma (righteous conduct), Artha (material well being), Kama (desires, sensual
pleasures) and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of life and death).
 The Dharmashastra are subdivided into Dharmasutras (c. 600 – 300 BCE)
and Smritis (c. 200 – 900 BCE). They recognise three sources of Dharma – the Vedas
(Shruti – what is heard), Smriti (what is remembered) texts and Shistachara (good
manners and practices of cultured people).
 A person’s Dharma was dependent on many factors such as gender, marital status,
varna and ashram. Out of the four varnas, three varnas – Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and
Vaishyas were considered Dvija (twice-born, as they had the right to the sacred
thread ceremony considered akin to second birth), while the fourth varna – Shudras
were burdened with many civil disabilities.
  The four ashrams dividing the life of a male Dvija were:
 Brahmacharya (celibate student hood)
 Grihastha (household caretaker)
 Vanaprastha (partial renunciation)
 Sanyasa (complete renunciation)
The different ashram stages were not followed by all and it was not applicable to
women and Shudras.

The other important literature of ancient India is the Great Epics – the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Both were written in the form of long poems
and took place in ancient Hindu Kingdoms on the Indian subcontinent. They
describe the political, social and economical structure of ancient India.

Mahabharata Ramayana
1. Roughly composed between c. 400 BCE – 400 CE. 1. Roughly composed between c. 400 BCE – 300 CE.
2. It is composed by Ved Vyasa and consists of 18 2. Ramayana is composed by Valmiki and consists
Parvas (books) and has around 1 lakh verses (longest of seven Kandas (books) having 24,000 verses.
epic poem ever written).
3. The Mahabharata is essentially the story of the 3. The word Ramayana literally means the journey of
rivalry between two bands of brothers in the Rama. It is a story of good over evil.
Hastinapura Kingdom, which culminates in a great
battle.
4. Traditionally, the war is believed to have happened 4. It is considered that Rama lived in the Treta yuga
in the Dvapara Yuga. But, historians consider the (age), earlier than the Mahabharata. Since the settings
events and social character of the Mahabharata of the Ramayana shifted eastwards to the middle
corresponding to an earlier age of development than Ganga valley, and the language of the Ramayana is
the Ramayana, as the Mahabharata settings pertain to more polished and its concepts are more closely
the Indo-Gangetic divide and upper Ganga valley. related to later societies, historians consider it of a
later stage than the Mahabharata.
5. The Mahabharata is more realistic. 5. The Ramayana is more idealistic.

Varied Aspects of Rig Vedic Culture

Political Life of Rig Vedic Aryans

1. The early Rig Vedic society was a semi-nomadic tribal society with a pastoral
economy. The tribe was called Jana and the tribal chief was called Rajan, Gopati or
Gopa (protector of cows) and the chief queen was called Mahisi. The main
responsibility of the Rajan was to protect the Jana and cattle from the enemies along
with offering prayers to gods on behalf of Janas. The Janas often had fights with
Panis, who used to hide the cattle of Janas in the forest. In order to get their cattle
 back, the Vedic god, Indra was invoked and many battles such as Gavisthi,
Gaveshana, Goshu, Gavyat were fought.
2. It seems that in the Rig Vedic period the King’s post was hereditary (similar to
monarchial form). Although his post was hereditary, we also have some traces of
election by the tribal assembly called Samiti.
3. Administration:
1. The administration of the Rig Vedic society consisted of:
1. Purohit (priest) – In return for the ritualistic services, the priests
received dana (gifts) and Dakshina (sacrificial offerings).
2. Sanani – Chief of the army.
3. Vrajpati – Officer who controlled the territory.
4. Gramini – Leader of the village and fighting unit.
2. There is no evidence of any officer concerned with the collection of taxes.
Probably, the chief received voluntary offerings called “bali” from the people.
There is also no mention of any officer for administering justice.
4. Assemblies:
1. Several tribal assemblies are mentioned in the Rig Veda. These are:
1. Sabha – Smaller body meant for elites.
2. Samiti – Broad-based folk assembly, presided over by the Rajan.
3. Vidatha – Tribal assembly with diverse functions.
4. Gana – Assembly or troop.
2. Women also attended the Sabha and Vidatha in Rig Vedic times. The Sabha
and Samiti were important assemblies from a political point of view and the
king showed eagerness to win their support.
5. The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but in times of war, he
mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal
groups called Vrata, Sardha or Gana. The Rig Vedic charioteers used Varma (coats of
mail) and sipra/ sironastra (helmets) and went to combat equipped with asi
(swords), hanas (arrows) and ilhianus (bows).
6. Battles:
1. The Aryans have engaged in two types of battles –
1. With pre-Aryans called Dasa / Dasyus.
2. Amongst themselves – two such battles have been mentioned:
1. A battle occurred between a Bharata King Divodasa (winner)
and Dasa ruler Shambara.
2. The battle of ten Kings (dasarajna) – This was fought between
the Bharata chief Sudas,
grandson of Divodasa (winner) on one side, and ten other
tribes on the other side including the famous five tribes (Panch-
Jana), namely, the Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu and Druhyu on
the banks of the river Paurushni (Ravi). Later, the Bharatas
 joined hands with the Purus to form the Kuru tribe who further
allied with Panchalas and established their control over the
Upper Ganga valley.

Social Life of Rig Vedic Aryans

1. The kinship was the basis of social structure. The basic social unit was kula (family)
and Kulapa was the head of the family. The family was part of a larger grouping
called vis or clan. One or more clans made jana/ tribe. The jana was the largest social
unit. The family was a large joint unit and was patriarchal, headed by the father. As
it was patriarchal, the birth of a son was desired especially brave sons to fight the
wars. In the Rig Veda, no desire is expressed for daughters, though the desire for
children and cattle is a recurrent theme in the hymns. Women also had an important
position in the society, could attend assemblies (Vidatha) and even composed
hymns.
2. The institution of marriage was established and there are no examples of child
marriages, Sati or purdah in the Rig Veda. There are instances of re-marriage and
levirate (marrying the husband’s younger brother on the death of the husband). The
marriages were usually monogamous, though there are some references to
polygamy and polyandry.
3. The society was not divided on caste lines and occupation was not based on birth.
This is indicated by the following verse in the Rig Veda – ‘I am a poet, my father is a
physician and my mother grinds grain upon the stone. Earning livelihood through
different means, we live together’. People with different occupations were part of the
clan.
4. The Rig Veda shows some consciousness of the physical appearance of
people. Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that Aryans were fair and
the indigenous inhabitants were dark in complexion. The colour distinctions may
have partially given rise to social orders. The factor which contributed most to the
creation of social divisions was the conquest of the indigenous inhabitants by the
Aryans. The Dasa and Dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans were treated as
slaves and Sudras.
5. The only mention of the four varnas was found in the Purushasukta of the tenth
mandala (book) of the Rig Veda, which makes one conclude that the varna system
was probably introduced at the end of the Rig Vedic age and that there was social
mobility and the absence of strict social hierarchy. The society was still tribal
and largely egalitarian.

Rig Vedic Economy

1. There are so many references to the cow in the Rig Veda that the Rig Vedic Aryans
seem to have been pastoral people. Most of their wars were fought for the sake of
cows. The term for war in the Rig Veda is “gavisthi” or search for cows. A wealthy
man, who owned many cows was known as Gomat. The importance of cows in the
Rig Vedic age can be drawn from the fact that the donations to the priests were
made in terms of cows and women slaves and never in terms of the measurement of
land. The land did not form a well-established type of private property.
 2. Gold coins called “niksha” (unit of currency) were used as a medium of exchange in
large transactions. Mostly, trade was conducted on the barter system and the cow
was an important unit of value. The kingdom was maintained by the voluntary
offerings (bali) of subjects and bounty won in a battle, as there was no regular
revenue system.
3. The Rig Veda mentions artisans such as the carpenter, the chariot maker (enjoyed a
special status), the weaver, the potter, the leather workers, etc. This indicates that
they practised all these crafts. Chariot racing and dice gambling were popular
pastimes.
4. The term “ayas” used for copper and bronze shows that these were in use in the Rig
Vedic age. However, it seems that they didn’t use iron technology.
5. For transport – bullock carts, horses and horse-drawn chariots were used. There are
also references to the sea and boats.
6. The gift exchanges known as “prestations”, were done not on an individual level but
at a group level.

Rig Vedic Religion

The Rig Vedic Aryans worshipped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind,
rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces into many gods and
worshipped them. They generally worshipped in the open air through yajnas.
There was neither temple nor idol worship in the early Rig Vedic age. The
dominant mode of worshipping the gods was through the recitation of
prayers and offering of sacrifices. Both collective and individual prayers were
made. Aryans worshipped gods mainly for praja (children), pasu (cattle),
food, wealth, health, etc. (not for the spiritual uplift). A peculiar case
of Henotheism or Kathenotheism is found in Rig Vedic religion, wherein the
deity being invoked in a particular hymn is considered the supreme god.

Some of the deities worshipped by the Rig Vedic people were as follows:

1. Indra –
1. Greatest god of the Aryans.
2. Also called Purandhara (breaker of forts), Maghavan (bounteous), and
Vritrahan (Slayer of Vritra, chaos).
3. Rain god (responsible for causing rain).
4. 250 hymns are attributed to him.
2. Agni –
1. The god of fire (second most important god).
2. Intermediary between gods and people.
 3. The son of earth and heaven.
4. 200 hymns are attributed to him.
3. Varuna –
1. The god of personified water (third most important god).
2. Looked after rita or the cosmic order.
3. Ethically, the highest of all Rig Vedic gods.
4. Soma –
1. The king of gods, god of plants, special god of the Brahmanas.
2. Aryans knew Himalaya (Munjavat) as the source of the soma plant.
3. Considered the wise god who inspires the poets to compose hymns.
4. All the hymns of 11 mandalas are assigned to him.
5. Yama – Lord of death.
6. Rudra –
1. Amoral archer god whose arrows brought diseases.
2. Resembled Greek god Apollo and identified as Protosiva.
7. Surya – Son of Dyaus, who drives away darkness and spreads light.
8. Vayu – God of wind.
9. Prithvi – Earth goddess.
10. Aditi (female) – Goddess of eternity and mother of the gods, invoked to bestow
freedom from evil, harm and sickness.
11. Marutas – The sons of Rudra who personifies storms.
12. Ushas (female) – Goddess of dawn and her name is mentioned around 300 times in
the Rig Veda hymns.
13. Ashvins – The twin gods of war and fertility.
14. Sinivali – Bestows children.
15. Savitri – Solar deity to whom the famous Gayatri Mantra is attributed to, in the third
mandala of the Rig Veda.

There is also mention of some Demi-gods such as –

1. Gandharvas (Divine musicians)

2. Apsaras (Mistress of gods)
3. Vishwa Devas (Intermediate deities)
4. Aryaman (Guardian of matrimony)
Shunga Dynasty – Achievements of Pushyamitra Sunga
in Post-Mauryan Period
Shunga Dynasty was the Magadha dynasty founded by Pushyamitra Sunga in
185 BC. It controlled the Northwest (now Pakistan), Eastern India, and North-
central parts of India. The beginning of the Shunga Dynasty marked the fall of
the Mauryan Empire. The Sunga Dynasty revived Hinduism and patronized
the art and architecture of that time.

The Shunga dynasty lasted till 75 B.C. and was ended by the beginning of the
Kanva Dynasty. Below is a brief description of the Shunga Dynasty, its
founder, prominent Sunga kings, achievements of Pushyamitra Sunga,
successors of Pushyamitra Sunga, and effects of the Shunga Dynasty Rulers.

Shunga Dynasty
The Sunga dynasty was founded by Pushyamitra Sunga after the
decline of the Mauryan Empire. After the death of Ashoka, the
Mauryan rulers formed independent kingdoms out of the Mauryan
Empire.

During this period, foreign invasions occurred in the Northwest that

resulted in the independence of Kalinga. At the same time,
Satavahanas rose their power in the southern region, and Sunga
replaced the Mauryas in the Gangetic plains by forming the Shunga
Dynasty.

Founder of Sunga Dynasty – Pushyamitra Shunga

Pushyamitra Shunga was the Brahmin army chief of the last Mauryan
king, Brihadratha. He killed Brihadratha during a military parade and
established his rule over the kingdom in 185 or 186 B.C. His attack is
often considered the first revolt against the Mauryan Empire, the
reason being the increasing influence of Buddhism over the empire.

However, certain historians believe that the internal revolt against the
last Mauryan king, arose because of the Brahminical reaction.
Pushyamitra Sunga ruled the throne for 36 years and died in 151 BC.
Achievements of Pushyamitra Sunga
Pushyamitra Shunga was a powerful king who won many battles in
history. The significant achievements of Pushyamitra Sunga are as
follows-

 Pushyamitra Sunga formed his capital at Pataliputra.

 He fought against two Greek kings, Demetrius and Menander,
and successfully countered the attacks.
 He was successful in thwarting the attack from Kharavela,
Kalinga king.
 Pushyamitra Sunga conquered Vidarbha.

Cultural Achievements of Pushyamitra Sunga

Pushyamitra Sunga was a follower of Brahminism. Specific incidents

in history have portrayed him as the persecutor of Buddhists.
However, there has been no authoritative evidence, yet it is believed
that he destroyed stupas and killed the last Mauryan king because of
his interest in Buddhism.

He renovated Barhut and Sanchi Stupas and built stone sculpture

gateways at Sanchi. He patronized Patanjali (Sanskrit grammarian)
and performed Vedic sacrifices like Vajapeya, Rajasuya, and
Ashvamedha.

Successors of Pushyamitra Sunga

The reign of Pushyamitra Sunga lasted for 36 years, and he was
succeeded by his son, Agnimitra. He ruled the throne from 149 to 141
BC. During his reign, Vidarbha broke away from the Shunga dynasty.
He was a master in Malavikagnimitram (poem of Kalidasa). He was
succeeded by his son, Vasumitra. History doesn’t hold a clear account
of the kings after the Vasemitra reign. Perhaps Andhraka, Pulindaka,
Vajramitra and Ghosha are considered the layer Sunya kings.
Devabhuti was the last king of the Sunga dynasty. He was killed by
Vasudeva in 73 B.C., which marked the beginning of the Kanva
dynasty at Magadh till 28 B.C.

Effects of the Shunga Dynasty

Sunga kings were believers in Brahminism. Under Sunga’s rule,
Hinduism was revived. With the rise of Brahmanas during the Sunga
Dynasty, the caste system was also revived in the post-Mauryan
period.

 The integration of foreigners and mixed castes arose in Indian

society. During this time, Sanskrit became the primary language,
and even Buddhists composed some work in the Sanskrit
language.

 The kings were also in support of the fine arts. They patronized
the art and architecture of that time and increased the use of
symbols and human figures.

Shunga Dynasty Art and Architecture

The art and architecture of the Shunga dynasty has enthralled all with
the remarkable establishment. The Great Stupa No 1 accounts for one
of the major architecture during the post-mauryan period. Due to a
surge in Buddhism, the Stupas in the Sanchi were built.The art of the
Shunga dynasty was inspired by the Persians. The Shungas had an
Indian touch in the arts they presented. The art and architecture of a
dynasty engrave the culture followed by them in the leaves of history.
This period also accounts for the creation of the Yoga sutras of
Patanjali, Mahabhashya.
 Gautamiputra Satakarni (106 – 130 AD ) - Rulers of
Satavahana Dynasty
Gautamiputra Satakarni ruled the Satavahana Empire in India's present-day
Deccan region. He was referred to as the Satavahana Dynasty's most
important and powerful ruler. He reigned in the first or second centuries CE,
though the exact date is unknown. His reign is variously dated as 86-110 CE,
c. 103-127 CE, 106-130 CE, or, more recently, ca. 60-85 CE. Gautamiputra
Satakarni's coins, Satavahana inscriptions, and royal genealogies in the
various Puranas provide information about him. The best-known of these is
his mother Gautami Balashri's Nashik prashasti (eulogy) inscription, which
credits him with extensive military conquests. According to historical
evidence, Gautamiputra resurrected Satavahana power after it had declined
due to Saka invasions. In this article we will discuss Gautamiputra Satakarni
(106-130 AD) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Coinage of Gautamiputra Satakarni with Brahmi Legend

Gautamiputra Satakarni - History

 With the exception of the Brahmanda Purana, all Puranas containing the
genealogy of Satavahana kings mention Gautamiputra.
 Shivasvati was his predecessor, according to the Bhagavata, Matsya,
and Vishnu Puranas. However, Shivasvati is historically unknown: no
coins or inscriptions bearing his name have been discovered.
 Shivasvami is named as Gautamiputra's forefather in the Vayu Purana.
The name "Gautamiputra" is not mentioned at all in the Brahmanada
 Purana; instead, it refers to a king named "Yantramati," who ruled for
34 years and was preceded by Svatisena.
 Gautami Balashri was Gautamiputra Satakarni's mother, according to
Nasik prashasti, an inscription discovered in Cave No.3 of the
Pandavleni Caves in Nashik. The inscription dates from his son
Vasishthiputra Pulumavi's 19th regnal year. It documents the donation
of a village to Buddhist monks of the Bhadrayaniya sect.
 Satakarni is a title shared by several Satavahana kings. "Gautamiputra"
literally means "son of Gautami." Such matronymics can also be found
in the names of other Satavahana kings, such as Vasishthiputra
Pulumavi ("Pulumavi, son of Vasishthi"). These do not indicate a
matriarchy or a system of matrilineal descent.
 The real reason for matronymics appears to be that because rulers
married a variety of wives from various royal families, a prince was best
identified by reference to his mother.

Other Relevant Links

Rudradaman I (Reign 130 AD – 150 AD) Vima Kadphises((95 C.E-127C.E)
Simuka Satakarni I (70- 60 BC)
Hala Vashishti Putra Pulumavi (c. 130 – 154 CE)
Features
Gautamiputra Satakarni - Features
 Gautamiputra Satakani is regarded as the greatest Satavahana dynasty
king.
 It is thought that the Satavahanas were once deprived of their
dominions in the upper Deccan and western India. Gautamiputra
Satkarni restored the Satavahanas' fortunes.
 He claimed to be the only Brahmana who had defeated the Shakas and
killed many Kshatriya rulers.
 He is thought to have destroyed the Kshaharata lineage of his adversary
Nahapana. More than 800 Nahapana silver coins (found near Nasik)
bear the marks of being restruck by the Satavahana king. Nahapana was
a powerful Western Satraps king.
 His kingdom stretched from Krishna in the south to Malwa and
Saurashtra in the north, as well as from Berar in the east to the Konkan
in the west.
 In a Nasik inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri, he is described as
the destroyer of the Shakas, Pahlavas, and Yavanas (Greeks), uprooter
of the Kshaharatas, and restorer of the Satavahanas' glory. He is also
 known as Ekabrahmana (an unrivalled Brahmana) and Khatiya-dapa-
manamada (destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas).
 He was bestowed with the titles Rajaraja and Maharaja. He gave land to
Buddhist monks. The Karle inscription mentions the grant of Karajika
village in Maharashtra, near Pune.
 As mentioned in Rudradaman I's Junagadh inscription, he probably lost
some of the conquered Kshaharata territories to the Kardamaka line of
the Shaka Kshatrapas of western India in the later part of his reign.
 Gautamiputra(son of Gautami) was named after his mother, Gautami
Balasri . His son Vasisthiputra Pulumayi succeeded him.

Rise of Satavahana Power

Rise of Satavahana Power
 The Satavahana power rose to prominence in the South during the first
half of the second century A.D. This time, the man of destiny was a king
named Gautamiputra Satakarni.
 His achievements as a conqueror and as an able administrator elevated
the Satavahana Dynasty's prestige to new heights, and he came to be
regarded as its greatest monarch.
 Gautamiputra first expanded his army and made it a formidable
fighting force. Following that, he led expeditions against the foreign
Saka rulers, driving them out of Maharashtra.
 After liberating that region, he fought against the Yavanas and Palhavas
and conquered their western territories.
 Gautamiputra Satakarni, like Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga, recorded
his victories over others in his inscriptions.
 According to his inscriptions, Gautamiputra Satakarni's empire
included Asmaka in the Godavari basin, Suratha or modern Kathiawad,
Aparanta or northern Konkan, Anupa's land on the Narmada, Vidarbha
or modern Berar, Akara or Eastern Malwa, and Avanti or Western
Malwa.
 It is thus estimated that Gautamiputra's territory stretched from
Kathiawad in the north to the Krishna River in the south, and from
Konkan in the west to Berar in the east.
 Though Gautamiputra established his power over a vast territory, it
proved difficult for him to consolidate his rule over the lands to the
north of the Vindhyas. Foreign invasions made it impossible to hold the
conquered areas beyond the Vindhya Mountains for long.
 A foreign race known as the Scythians conquered Malwa during
Gautamiputra's lifetime.
  Other conquered regions on the northern side of the Vindhya ranges
also became independent of Satavahana power.

Patron of Brahmanism
Gautamiputra Satakarni - Patron of Brahmanism
 Gautamiputra Satakarni was a supporter of Brahmanism. True to
Brahmanical orthodoxy, he prohibited intercaste marriage among the
established 'Four Varnas.'
 On the other hand, he was a kind king who cared about his subjects'
well-being. He took several steps to help his country's peasant
population and improve agricultural conditions.
 He was also a humanitarian ruler who helped the poor and the needy.
 During his liberal monarchy, the subjects lived in peace and prosperity.

Military Conquests
Gautamiputra Satakarni - Military Conquests
 According to historical evidence, the Western Kshatrapas (known as
Shakas by the Satavahanas) expanded their empire at the expense of the
Satavahanas in the years preceding Gautamiputra Satakarni's reign.
 According to his mother's Nashik inscription, Gautamiputra resurrected
the Satavahana power.
 According to the inscription, he defeated the Shakas (Western
Kshatrapas), the Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians), and the Yavanas (Indo-
Greeks).
 It also claims that he triumphed in several fights against a group of
enemies.

Administration
Gautamiputra Satakarni - Administration
 The location of Gautamiputra's capital is uncertain. In the Nashik
inscription of his 18th regnal year he is described as "Lord of
Benakataka".
 Gautamiputra Satakarni's inscriptions indicate that his empire was
divided into entities called aharas. Each āharā was governed by an
amatya or amaca.
 Three types of settlements are mentioned in the inscriptions: Nagara
(city), Nigama (town) and Gama (village).
  Nashik prashasti's inscription calls him ekabrahmana.However, this
term has also been interpreted differently as "the sole protector of
Brahmins" or "a proud defender of Brahmanism".
 However, the king also patronized Buddhist monks.
 According to one of his inscriptions in Nashik, the monks were exempt
from taxes and had immunity from any interference from royal officials.
 Nashik prashasti also states that the joys and sorrows of the king were
the same as those of his citizens. He claims he didn't like destroying life,
not even that of enemies who insulted him.
 The edict compares him to legendary heroes like Rama, Keshava,
Arjuna, Bhimasena, Nabhaga, Nahusha, Janamejaya, Sagara, Yayati and
Ambarisha.

Gautamiputra Satakarni and Nahapana

 Gautamiputra Satakarni was the most powerful Satavahana king. He
defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana and reissued Nahapana's
coins bearing his own royal insignia.
 The caves excavated by Gautamiputra Satakarni and the western king
Kshatrapa Nahapana are located in Nashik.
 The Nashik prashasti inscription states that Gautamiputra uprooted
the Kshaharata (or Khagarata) family, to which Nahapana belonged.
 Nashik's inscription dated to the 18th year of Gautamiputra's reign
states that he confirmed a land concession to Buddhist monks who lived
on Triraśmi Peak.This land was formerly owned by Nahapana's son-in-
law, Rishabhadatta (aka Ushavadata), who had given it to the monks.
 A Nahapana coin hoard, discovered at Jogalthambi in the Nashik
district, contains coins re-minted by Gautamiputra. These coins have a
curved chaitya (Buddhist shrine) and the "Ujjain symbol" (a cross with
four circles at the end).
 Most historians now agree that Gautamiputra and Nahapana were
contemporaries and that Gautamiputra defeated Nahapana.
 The victory of Gautamiputra and the end of the kingdom of Nahapana
at the beginning of the Saka era, 78 AD, in the year of the accession of
Castana, and considers the entire kingdom of Gautamiputra around 60-
85 AD.
 Coin of Nahapana restruck by Gautamiputra Satakarni

A coin from Nashik

Conclusion
In his inscriptions, Gautamiputra was described as the destroyer of the Sakas,
Pahlavas, and Yavanas. He was also referred to as "Lord of the Western
Vindhyas." He referred to himself as the 'Raja-Raja,' or the King of Kings, and
as the 'Maharaja.' This King died in 104 A.D. after a long reign.
 Shaka kshatrapas kushana dynast
The period around 200 BCE did not witness an empire as large as Mauryas
but is regarded as an important period in terms of the intimate and
widespread contacts between Central Asia and India. In Eastern India,
Central India and the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of
native rulers such as the Sungas, the Kanvas and the Satavahanas. In north-
western India, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties
from Central Asia.

Indo-Greeks/Bactrian Greeks
A series of invasions took place from about 200 BCE. The first to cross the
Hindukush were the Greeks, who ruled Bactria, lying south of the Oxus river
in the area covered by north Afghanistan. One of the important causes of
invasion was the weakness of the Seleucid empire, which had been
established in Bactria and the adjoining areas of Iran called Parthia. Due to the
growing pressure from the Scythian tribes, the later Greek rulers were unable
to hold their power in this area. The construction of the Chinese wall
prevented the Scythians from entering China. So, their attention turned
towards Greeks and Parthians. Pushed by the Scythian tribes, the Bactrian
Greeks were forced to invade India. The successors of Ashoka were too weak
to thwart the attack.

 In the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, the Indo-Greeks/Bactrian Greeks were the
first to invade India.
 The Indo-Greeks occupied a large part of north-western India, much larger than that
conquered by Alexander.
 It is believed that they pushed forward to as far as Ayodhya and Pataliputra.
 However, the Greeks failed to establish a united rule in India. Two Greek dynasties
ruled north-western India on parallel lines at the same time.
 The Indo-Bactrian rule is important in the history of India because of the large
number of coins issued by the Greek kings.
 The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins which can be definitely
attributed to the kings.
 It is rather interesting to note that out of the forty-two Indo-Greek kings, as many as
34 are known only through their coins.
Demetrius (King of Bactria)

 Invaded India around 190 BCE and probably also came into conflict with
Pushyamitra Sunga, founder of the Sunga dynasty.
 Conquered a large part of north-western India and also extended Bactrian rule to the
south of the Hindukush.

Menander/Milinda/Minedra (165 BCE- 145 BCE)

 The most celebrated Indo-Greek ruler who stabilized Indo-Greek power and also
extended his empire’s frontiers in India.
 Also included southern Afghanistan and Gandhara, the region west of the Indus
river.
 Had his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot, Punjab, Pakistan).
 It is believed that he invaded Ganga-Yamuna doab but had failed to retain it for
long.
 He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, (also known as Nagarjuna).
Menander has been identified with the king Milinda mentioned in the
famous Buddhist text Milindapanho (Question of Milinda), which contains
philosophical questions that Milinda asked Nagasena. The text claims that
impressed by the answers, the king accepted Buddhism as his religion.
 He is also identified with king Minedra mentioned in a fragmented Kharosthi
inscription found on a casket at Bajaur (presently in Pakistan) which refers to the
enshrining of relics of the Buddha, probably in a stupa, during his reign.

Hermaius

 He was the last ruler of this dynasty and was defeated by the Parthians around the
last quarter of the 2nd century BCE, which led to the end of Greek rule in Bactria
and the area to the south of the Hindukush.
 However, the Indo-Greek rule continued in north-western India for some more time.
 This north-western Gandhara region was also lost to Parthians and Shakas in due
course of time.
 Later, in the late 1st century BCE or the early 1st century CE, the remaining part of
the territory, i.e, the area to the east of the Jhelum also ceded to the Kshatrapa ruler
Rajuvula.

Impact of the Indo-Greek Rule

 The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins (gold, silver, copper and
nickel). The coins of the Shakas, Parthians and the Kshatrapas followed the basic
features of the Indo-Greek coinage, including the bilingual and bi-script legends.
These coins provide important information about the religious sects and cults of that
era (especially Shaiva and Bhagavata sects).
  The Indo-Greeks introduced Gandhara art in the north-west frontier of India, which
was the outcome of the intermingling and influence of both Indian and central Asian
contacts.
 The Indo-Greeks also introduced the practice of military governorship and the
Governors were called strategos/satraps.
 The Hellenistic Greeks are well known for their monumental buildings and finely
crafted objects. Excavation of the cities reveals a great talent in urban planning.

Shakas/Scythians
Shakas is the Indian term for the people called the Scythians, who originally
belonged to Central Asia. The Greeks were followed by the Shakas, who
controlled a much larger part of India than the Greeks. There were five
branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and
Afghanistan.

 One branch of the Shakas settled in Afghanistan. Prominent rulers of this branch
were Vonones and Spalirises.
 The second branch settled in Punjab with Taxila as their capital. Maues was a
prominent ruler.
 The third branch settled in Mathura, where they ruled for about two
centuries. Azilises was a prominent ruler.
 The fourth branch established its hold over western India, where they continued to
rule till the 4th century CE.
 They ruled for the maximum period owing to a flourishing economy based
on the sea-borne trade in Gujarat and also issued a large number of silver
coins.
 One of the famous Shaka rulers was Rudradaman 1 (CE 130-150).
 He ruled over Sindh, Kutch and Gujarat and also recovered from the
Satavahanas, Kokan, the Narmada valley, Malwa and Kathiawar.
 He is famous in history because of the repairs he undertook to
improve the Sudarsana lake in the semi-arid zone of Kathiawar.
 He was a great lover of Sanskrit and issued the first-ever long
inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
 All the earlier longer inscriptions were composed in Prakrit.
The fifth branch of the Shakas established its power in the upper Deccan.

The Shakas did not meet effective resistance from the rulers and the masses of
India. The king of Ujjain (around 58 BCE), effectively fought and succeeded in
throwing the Shakas out. He called himself Vikramaditya and an era
called Vikram-Samvat is reckoned from the event of his victory over the
Shakas in 58 BCE. From this time onwards, Vikramaditya became a coveted
title and whoever achieved anything great adopted this title, as the Roman
emperors adopted the title Caesar in order to emphasize their great power.

Parthians
In the mid 1st century CE, the Shakas’ domination in northwest India was
followed by that of the Parthians.

 In many ancient Sanskrit texts, they are mentioned together as the Shaka-Pahlava.
 In fact, they ruled on parallel lines for some time.
 Originally the Parthians lived in Iran, from where they moved to India and in
comparison with the Greeks and the Shakas they occupied a small portion of north-
western India in the 1st century.
 The most famous Parthian king was Gondophernes (mentioned in an inscription
dated 45 CE found at Takht-i-Bahi, recovered from Mardan near Peshawar) in whose
reign Saint Thomas came to India to propagate Christianity.
 In due course of time, the Parthians, like the Shakas, became assimilated into Indian
society and became an integral part of it. The Kushanas ultimately ousted the
successors of Gondophernes from north-west India.

Kushanas
The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas who were also called Yue-Chis
(moon tribe) or Tocharians. The Kushanas were one of the five clans into
which the Yue-Chis tribe was divided. They were nomadic tribal people who
were originally from the steppes of North Central Asia, in the neighbourhood
of China. They first occupied Bactria or north Afghanistan where they
displaced the Shakas, and gradually moved to the Kabul valley and seized
Gandhara by crossing the Hindu Kush, replacing the rule of the Greeks and
the Parthians in these areas. Finally, they set up their authority over the lower
Indus basin and the greater part of the Gangetic basin. Their empire extended
from the Oxus to the Ganga, from Khorasan in Central Asia to Varanasi in
Uttar Pradesh. A good part of Central Asia, a portion of Iran, a portion of
Afghanistan, the whole of Pakistan and almost the whole of northern India
were brought under one rule by the Kushanas.

The Kushana dynasty was founded by a house of chiefs called Kadphises.

Kujula Kadphises 1 (15 CE – 64 CE)

 He laid the foundation of a unified Kushana empire by amalgamating the five clans
of the Yue-Chi tribe.
 He minted the coins in copper and is believed to have imitated the Roman ‘aurei’
type coins to facilitate trade.
 His coins have been found south of the Hindukush.
 His coins give an idea about his association with Buddhism.
 He adopted the epithet ‘Dharmathida’ and ‘Sachadharmathida’.

Vima Kadphises 2 (64 CE – 78 CE)

 He was the son of Kadphises 1.

 He conquered Gandhara from the Parthians and extended the kingdom to the east of
the Indus till Mathura region.
 He issued a large number of gold coins.
 He was a firm devotee of Lord Shiva and proclaimed himself as ‘Mahishvara’ on his
coins.

Kanishka (78 CE – 105 CE)

 The most famous Kushan ruler was Kanishka.

 During his reign, the kingdom expanded from Central Asia to Afghanistan and from
northwestern India to further east into the Ganga valley and also southwards into
the Malwa region. The empire also included Varanasi, Kaushambi and Shravasti in
Uttar Pradesh and Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh. The centre of this huge empire was
Bactria, as is evident in the use of the Bactrian language in Kanishka’s coins and
inscriptions.
 The valuable information about Kanishka is provided by the famous Rabatak
inscription (Afghanistan).
 Adopted the title of ‘Devputra’ and on some coins has been shown wearing a
peaked helmet.
 His empire had two capitals – the first one was at Purushapura (Peshawar) where
Kanishka erected a monastery and a huge stupa to house the Buddha’s relics. The
second one was at Mathura in India.
 Kanishka is famous for two reasons:

1. First, he started an era in 78 CE which is now known as the Shaka era and is used by
the government of India for its calendar.
2. Secondly, Kanishka extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism. He also
convened the fourth Buddhist council to discuss matters relating to Buddhist
theology and doctrine. It was held at Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar
(Kashmir) under the presidency of Vasumitra. It was in this council that Buddhism
was split into two schools – the Hinayana and the Mahayana.
  Kanishka patronized Buddhist scholars of that era like Vasumitra (authored
Mahavibhasa), Ashvagosha (wrote the hagiographic Buddhacharita), Charaka (The
father of Ayurveda), Nagarjuna (a great advocate of the Mahayana doctrine and
propounded the Madhyamaka which focuses on emptiness or Sunyata).
 Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign. However, his coins
exhibit the images of not only Buddha but also of Greek and Hindu Gods. It
reflects Kanishka’s tolerance towards other religions.
 Kanishka also patronised the Gandhara and the Mathura schools of sculpture. At
Mathura, a headless statue of Kanishka depicting him as a warrior has been found.

Vasudeva (the last Kushana emperor)

 The successors of Kanishka were Vasishka, Huvishka, Kanishka Ⅱ (who adopted

the title of ‘Kaiser’) and Vasudeva – the last important Kushana ruler. The Kushana
empire was very much reduced in his rule. Around the mid 2nd century he took the
title ‘Shaono Shao Vasudevo Koshano’, which reflects that by this time the Kushanas
were totally Indianised.

Kushana power gradually declined from the early third century CE.
The Kushana empire in Afghanistan and in the area west of the Indus was
supplanted by the Sassanian power (of Iran) in the mid-third century CE. But
Kushan principalities continued to exist in India for about a century. Some
remnants of the Kushanas lingered on in the Kabul valley, Kapisa, Bactria,
Khorezm and Sogdian (identical with Bukhara and Samarkand) in the third-
fourth century CE.

Impact of Central Asian Contacts

The Central Asian influence was felt in almost all spheres and aspects of social
life. The Shaka-Kushana phase introduced new elements to trade and
agriculture, art and literature, pottery, science and technology, etc.

Pottery and Architecture

 The typical pottery of this age (Shaka-Kushana) was red ware, both in plain and
polished form with medium to fine fabric.
 The distinctive pots being sprinklers and spouted channels.
 The age was marked by the construction of brick walls. The use of burnt bricks for
flooring and tiles for both roofing and flooring was evident.
Trade and Agriculture

 The Shaka-Kushana phase saw the establishment of direct contact between India and
Central Asia which helped to develop trade between the two.
 India imported a good deal of gold from the Altai mountains of Central Asia. Gold
also may have been received in India through trade with the Roman empire.
 The silk route which started from China and crossed through the empire in Central
Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and Western Asia was controlled by the Kushanas.
 This route was a source of great income to the Kushanas and they built a large
prosperous empire because of the tolls levied from the traders.
 Although the Indo-Greeks introduced gold coins in India, the Kushans were the first
rulers in India to issue gold coins on a large scale.
 The Kushans also promoted agriculture. The archaeological traces of irrigation
facilities have been discovered in parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan and Western
Central Asia.

Military equipment

 The Shakas and the Kushanas introduced better cavalry and popularised the use of
riding horses on a large scale.
 The use of reins, saddles and toe-stirrup made of rope was common in this phase.
 They also introduced tunic, turban, trousers, heavy long coats and long boots which
facilitated victories in war.

Polity

 The Shakas-Kushanas propagated the idea of the divine origin of kinship.

 The Kushan kings were called sons of god.
 The Kushanas introduced the “satrap system” of government wherein the empire
was divided into numerous satrapies and each satrapy was placed under the rule of
a Satrap.
 The Indo-Greeks introduced the practice of military governorship wherein they
appointed their governors called strategos. Military governors were necessary to
maintain the power of foreign rulers over the conquered people.

Indian Society

 The Shakas and the Kushanas added new elements to Indian culture and enriched it
immensely.
 They settled in India for good and completely identified themselves with its culture.
 Since they did not have their own script, language or religion, they adopted these
elements of culture from India.
 They became completely Indianised in course of time.
  As most of them came as conquerors they were absorbed in Indian society as a
warrior class, Kshatriyas.
 The lawgiver Manu stated that the Shakas and the Parthians were the Kshatriyas
who had fallen from their status and were thus considered as second-class
Kshatriyas.
 In no other period of ancient history were foreigners assimilated into Indian society
on such a large scale as they were in the post-Maurya period.

Religion

 Some of the foreign rulers converted to Vaishnavism (worshipped Vishnu – the god
of protection and preservation).
 The Greek ambassador Hellodorus set up a pillar in honour of Vishnu near Vidisha
in Madhya Pradesh.
 A few others adopted Buddhism, as in the case of the Greek ruler Menander who
became a Buddhist.
 The Kushana rulers worshipped both Shiva and the Buddha as is evident from the
images of these two gods on the Kushana coins.
 The origin of Mahayana Buddhism: The Central Asian contacts also influenced the
Indian religions especially Buddhism.
 Buddhism in its original form was too puritanical and abstract for foreigners.
 They did not appreciate the philosophical doctrines of Buddhism,
emphasized by the existing Buddhist schools.
 So, there developed a new form of Buddhism called the Mahayana or the
Great Wheel, in which the image of the Buddha began to be worshipped.
 This sect opened its doors for all sections of people.
 Those who did not follow this sect (newly found) came to be known as the
followers of the Hinayana sect or the Small Wheel.
 Kanishka was a great patron of the Mahayana form of Buddhism who not
only organised the fourth Buddhist council at Srinagar but also set up many
stupas to perpetuate the memory of the Buddha.

Art and Literature

The construction of stupas and development of regional schools of

sculpture are the two main features concerning art and architecture of this
period.

 Stupas – A stupa is a large hemispherical dome having a central chamber in which

relics of the Buddha or some Buddhist monk are kept in a small casket. The base is
surrounded by a path for clockwise circumambulation (pradakshina), enclosed by
wooden railings which were later made in stone. The three main stupas of this
 period are at Bharhut (dates to the middle of the second century, its railings are
made of red stone), Sanchi (three big stupas were constructed at Sanchi, the biggest
one was originally made by Ashoka, which was enlarged to twice its size in the
second century), and Amravati and Nagarjunkonda (Andhra Pradesh).
 Schools of Sculpture – The Central Asian rulers became enthusiastic patrons of
Indian art and culture and showed great zeal in establishing new schools of art. The
Kushana empire brought together masons and other artisans trained in different
schools and countries. Indian craftsmen came into contact with the Greeks and the
Romans, especially in the north-western frontier of India in Gandhara. The three
main schools of sculptural art which developed in this period were – Gandhara
school of Art, Mathura school of Art and Amravati school of Art.
Gandhara School of Art Mathura School of Art Amravati School of Art

It is also known as the Graeco-
Buddhist school of art. It was
based on Graeco Roman norms
wherein the theme of sculptures is
predominantly Buddhist but their
style is Greek.
It was a purely indigenous school of This school of art was
art. It evolved from the representation also indigenous in nature.
of Yakshas (male deities). The
presentation of female beauty as a
vehicle of art was a novel experiment
of the Mathura school.

Found primarily in north-west Found primarily in Mathura, Sonkh Found in Andhra Pradesh
India. and Kankalitila (part of north India). between the valleys of the rivers
Krishna and Godavari.

It is believed to have flourished It is said to have flourished It is believed to have flourished

between 100 CE and 700 CE.
The Kushanas were the main
patrons of this form of art.
Mainly Buddhist images are
found. There is a great influence
of Buddhism and Hellenistic
realism. The famous Bamyan
Buddha of Afghanistan belongs to
this school of art.
between 100 BCE and 600 CE.
between 150 BCE and 350
CE.
The Kushanas were the main patrons The Satavahanas were the main
of this form of art. patrons and were later
propagated by their successors -
Ikshvaku rulers.
It is influenced by all the three The thematic representations
religions – Buddhism, Jainism and include the stories from the life of
Brahmanism. It consists of the stone the Buddha, mostly from Jatakas.
images of Buddha, Mahavira and also
of Brahmanical deities. The sculptures
of Brahmanical deities like Kartikeya,
Vishnu, Kubera along with the
headless erect statue of Kanishka were
carved during the Kushana
period. The Mathura school of art also
produced sculptures of Jaina deities
besides the ayagapatas or stone slabs

Chief characteristic features
of Gandhara school of art –
 Sculpture is shown
in spiritual state.
 Realistic images.
 Less ornaments.
Lean body.
 to figures drawn from nature.
 Expressive images.
 Great detailing and rich
carving.
Features of Buddha sculpture –
 Spiritual Buddha.
 Sad Buddha.
 Bearded Buddha.
 Buddha in yogi postures.
 Buddha is depicted with a
garment draped in Graeco-
Roman style, with wavy
hairs, large forehead and
long ears.
 Halo not decorated.
Different Mudras portrayed-
 Abhaya Mudra (don’t fear).
 Bhumisparsha Mudra
(touching the earth).
 Dhyana Mudra
(meditation).
 Dharmachakra Mudra
(preaching pose).
Predominantly, blue-grey
stone used for making idols of
Buddha and Bodhisattva.
to place objects of worship and
Sarvatobhadrika image of four Jain
Jinas. The sculptures of yakshas and
yakshis, naga and naganis, and other
sensual females are also part of this
school of art.
Chief characteristic features of The chief characteristic feature of
Mathura school of art- the Amravati school is narrative
art, depicting an incident in a
 Sculpture in delighted mood. natural way. For instance, one
 Images are lacking in spiritual medallion depicts a whole story
look. of ‘taming of an elephant by the
Buddha’. There is a prominence
 Having strong muscular
of human figures in comparison
structure and energetic.
 Attention is not paid to
detailing.
 Less expressive images.
Features of Buddha sculpture – Sculptures of this school are
mainly found on the railings,
 Delighted Buddha. plinths and other parts of stupas.
 Lacking spiritual look.
 With no beard or moustache.
 Shaven head and face.
 Seated in Padmasana.
 Graceful posture of Buddha.
 The halo around the Buddha
was heavily decorated with
geometrical motifs.
 Buddha is surrounded by two
monk s- Padmapani (holding
lotus) and Vajrapani (holding
vajra).
 The standing Buddha of
Sravasti and Kaushambi.
Local red stone with black spots used Used white marble-like stone to
to make the images. carve out the figures.
.

Literature and Learning

 The Central Asian rulers patronized and cultivated the Sanskrit language.
 The earliest specimen of the Kavya style is found in the inscription of Rudradaman
in Kathiawar.
 Some of the great creative writers such as Asvaghosha enjoyed the patronage of the
Kushanas.
 Asvaghosha wrote the Buddhacharita, which is a biography of the Buddha.
 He also composed Saundarananda, which is an example of Sanskrit Kavya.
The progress of Mahayana Buddhism led to the composition of
numerous avadanas and these texts were written in Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit and the main
objective of these texts was to preach the teachings of Mahayana Buddhism.
 Some of the important books of this genre were the Mahavastu and
the Divyavadana.
The Greeks also contributed to the development of the Indian theatre, by
introducing the use of the curtain, which was called Yavanika.
The Kamasutra (earliest erotic work on sex and lovemaking) was composed during
this time by Vatsyayana and is considered the best example of secular literature of this
period.

Science and Technology

 Indian astrology and astronomy profited from the contacts with the Greeks.
 The term ‘horasastra’ used for astrology in Sanskrit was derived from the Greek
term ‘horoscope’.
 For cure of ailments, the ancient Indian physicians relied mainly on plants which
are ‘oshadi’ in Sanskrit and as a result medicine was named ‘aushadhi’.
 The Greeks contributed much to the development of medicine, botany and
chemistry.
 It seems that the process of making leather objects (boots) began during this period.
 The copper, gold coins were an imitation of Roman coins.
 Working in glassmaking during this period was especially influenced by foreign
practices and in no other period in India did glass making make such progress as it
did during this time.
 Achievements of Kanishka
The Kushanas
Origin of the Kushanas. --

The Kushanas were a branch of the nomadic tribe called Yue-Chis of north-western China.
In the middle of the second century B.C.. they were driven away from their homes by
another tribe Hiuang Ner. Driven out of China, the Kushanas wandered into Central Asia
and then advanced into India through the North-western border. On their way, they
subdued the Sakas, the Parthians and the Bactrians. In the course of time they became
civilised and gave up their nomadic life.

Kushana rulers -

There were three main Kushana rulers:

(i) Kadphises 1

(ii) Kadphises 2

(iii) Kanishka

Kajulu Kadphises or Kadphisex I (15-65 A.D.)-

He established the Kushana empire which at that time included Bactria, a part of Parthia
and Kabul Valley. Kadphises took the title of 'Great King of Kings".

Kadphises II or Wemne Kadphises (65 to 75 A.D.)

He ascended the throne after the death of his father. He annexed Gandhara and Punjab and
extended his dominion upto Mathura. He is said to have embraced Hinduism. He issued
gold coins which bear the figure of Shiva. This suggests that he was a devotee of Shiva.

Kanishka (78 A.D. to 120 A.D.)

Duration of Kanishka's reign,there is a sharp controversy regarding the duration of the rule
of Kanishka throne in 58 B.C. and founded the Vikram Era.

In the views of Fergusson, Rapson and Raychaudhry, Kanishka was the founder of the
Saka Era in 78 AD

Marshall and Smith think that Kanishka's rule began about the middle of the 2nd century
A.D. and ended before the close of the 2nd century A.D.
Dr. R.C. Majumdar is of the view that Kanishka founded an era in 248 A.D..

Dr. R.C. Bhandarkar places Kanishka's accession in 278 A.D.

Achievements of Kanishka
Kanishka is generally compared with Chandragupta Maurya for his military power and
Ashoka for his patronage to Buddhism.

Kanishka was a great victor, a capable administrator, tolerant in religion, promoter

of Buddhism, builder of stupas and a lover of art and literature.

Wars and Conquests of Kanishka

(i) Conquest of Kashmir- Kanishka's first conquest was Kashmir. He had a great love for
Kashmir. It is said that he willed to be buried here. He erected a large number of
monuments and founded a town known as Kanshipura which is now represented by a
village called Kanispor.

(ii)Conquest of Magadha- Magadha was the second important Kingdom conquered. After
the capture of Patilputra, the capial of Magadha, Asvagosha, the great Buddhist
philosopher fell into the hands of Kanishka.

(iii) *Wars with Sakas.- Kanishka waged war against the Saka satraps of Punjab and Ujjain.

(iv) Other conquests- Kanishka conquered Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan.

(v) War with China- There are different versions regarding his war with Pan-Chao, the
General of Chinese King Ho-ti. Probably, his army was defeated by the Chinese General
and Kanishka's 70,000 strong cavalry met with disaster. Some years later he himself led
another expedition to avenge the previous defeat of his army. This time he was successful
but was killed by his own soldiers during this expedition. His soldiers had become tired of
the constant fighting and therefore revolted and killed him. According to a legend the king
once fell ill. His soldiers covered him with a quilt and a man sat on top of him and the king
died on the spot.

Extent of Kanishka's empire-

Kanishka's empire included territories in and outisde India. His Indian territories included
North-western frontier Province, Sindh, Punjab, Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh and probably some
areas in Bihar and Bengal. Outside India, his possessions included Afghanistan, Bactria,
Parthia, Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkand.
Administration-

Kanishka divided his empire in several provinces. These provinces were ruled by governors
or Kshatraps appointed by Kanishka himself. Among the most important provinces were:
Afghanistan, Khotan. Yarkand. Kashgar (all outside India). Sindh. Punjab, Kashmir and
Mathura. Kanishka's capital was Peshawar. Kanishka was a great admin- istrator. Peace
and order prevailed in the vast empire of Kanishka.

Kanishka a promoter of Buddhism-

In the words of Dr. Ray Choudhry, "Kanishka's fame rests not so much on his conquests as
on his patronage of the religion of Sakyamuni." In the promotion of Buddhism, he is
compared with Ashoka. Kanishka was a foreigner by birth, an Indian by choice but a
Buddhist by faith. Like Ashoka, he took several steps for the promotion of Buddhism. His
love for Buddhism is greatly reflected in art. literature, sculpture, buildings and coins.
Coins are an important source of information about the religion of Kanishka. These coins
also indicate to some extent how in due course of his life, he became a Buddhist. The coins
issued during the reign of Kanishka are of three kinds. One type of coins bear the images of
the Greek gods which suggests that in the beginning he believed in the religion of Greek
gods. The second type of coins have pictures of the Iranian god of fire which indicates that
he took to Iranian religion. The third type of coins exhibit the image of Buddha which
shows that he turned to Buddhism. It is widely believed that after his victory over Magadha
he became a Buddhist. Most probably, Ashvagosha, a Buddhist scholar, won his heart and
Kanishka became a follower of Buddhism..

Kanishka took the following steps for the promotion of Buddhism:

1. Buddhism a state religion-

Kanishka made Buddhism a state religion.

2. Patronage to Buddhist scholars-

Kanishka was very respectful to the Buddhist scholars. Ashvagosha was chief among them:
Several other scholars were patronised by him.
Nagarujna and Vasumitra were other great scholars of his court.

3. Building Buddhist monasteries-

Kanishka repaired many old mon- asteries and built several new ones. A lot of money was
given to the Buddhist monks for their maintenance. He also built a number of stupas in the
memory of Buddha. The monasteries and viharas became great centres of Buddhist
learning.
4.Fourth Buddhist Council-

Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist Council which was attended by about 500 monks
and scholars. The Council was held under the presidentship of Vasumitra and Vice
Presidentship of Ashvagosha. There is no agreement on the place at which the Council was
held, two places -- Kundenvanta near Srinagar in Kashmir and Jullundur in the Punjab. The
primary objective of the conference was to settle various controversies and disputes that
had arisen in the principles and practices of Buddhism. The entire Buddhist literature was
reviewed. Voluminous commentaries on the three Pitakas were prepared. A book known as
Mahavibhasa was prepared which contained detailed exposition of Buddhist philosophy.
The decisions of the Council were written on sheets of copper which were placed in stone
chests and deposited in a stupa built specifically for this purpose. Tara Nath, a Tibetan
historian states that the Buddhist Council settled the dispute among 18 schools of
Buddhism.

5. Mahayana Sect of Buddhism-

During the reign of Kanishka, some reforms were introduced in the philosophy and
practices of Buddhism and which led to the emergence of a new sect called Mahayana. In
the words of V. A. Smith, "As a royal supporter and patron of Mahayanism, he (Kanishka)
occupies an equally great place as Ashoka had occupied with regard to Hinayanism (the
old Buddhism)."

6. Art as a vehicle of spreading Buddhism-

The Gandhara School of Art grew during this period. The artists and sculptors of this
period picked their themes from the life of Buddha and thus became instrumental in
spreading Buddhism. The images and paintings of Buddha and Boddhistavas were so
beautiful that people started admiring and adoring Buddhism.

7.Coins- Kanishka issued several coins exhibiting the images of Buddha.

8.Buddhist monks and scholars sent to foreign countries-

Like Ahsoka, Kanishka also sent Buddhist monks and scholars to spread Buddhism in
countries like Tibet, China, Japan, and Central Asia.

Kanishka as a promoter of literary figures-

Besides Ashvagosha, Nagarjuna and Vasumitra there were other great figures in his court.
Charaka, the great physicians flourished in his reign. Mathura a politician of great
inteligence, was one of his ministers. Agesilous a Greek engineer. also adorned his court.

Kanishka as a great builder-

Kanishka built a number of monasteries, stupas and towns. He built a town Sirsukh near
Taxila, and another Kanishpura -- in Kashmir.
Prosperous trade and commerce-

During Kanishka's reign, trade- foreign as well inland flourished. India had trade relations
with the Chinese empire, the Parthinan empire and the Roman empire. India exported
cotton, maslin, medicinal herbs, pearls and ivory and imported stones of luxury. gold, silver
and wine. The trade was carried on both by land and sea-routes. The exports brought
enormous riches to the country

Patron of art and sculpture-

The city of Mathura was made beautiful with a large number of sculptures. An important
relic of this period is a headless statue of Kanishka. Kanishka adorned Purushapura
(modern Peshawar) his capital with many noble edifices, public buildings and Buddhist
monasteries. He erected a great relic tower at his capital-the superstructure of carved wood
in 13 storeys to a height of at least 400 ft. It was surmounted by a mighty iron pinnacle.
Totally indigenous art flourished during his reign at Amravati. The ornamental sculpture
depicted in the Amravati medallion bears testimony to the excellence of purely Indian style
influenced by any foreign art.

Gandhara School of Art-

A new school of art, namely the Gandhara School of Art emerged during Kanishka's reign.
It was a mixture of Indian and Greek Art.

Mathura School of Art-

Mathura School of Art made a great progress during the period of Kanishka.

Religious tolerance-

Kanishka, although a strong promoter of Buddhism, showed due consideration to other

religious.
 GUPTA PERIOD

 In 528CE, a consortium of North Indian kings defeated the Hunas,

after which they were pushed back to Kashmir, Punjab and western
India. Mandsaur Pillar inscription by a Hindu king, Yashodharman,
mentions this Battle of Sondani. In this conquest, the Guptas played
only a minor role.
 After this, numerous dynasties emerged, including the Maukharis of
Kanyakubja(Kannauj), the Guptas of Magadha, the Gaudas of
Bengal, the Maitrakas of Valabhi (Saurashtra), the Pushyabhutis of
Thaneswar, etc. Many of them were originally feudatories of the
Guptas. However, they declared independence as the Gupta’s
political influence waned.

Complete Details About Post Gupta Period Upsc Notes

 Although North India was divided into numerous kingdoms, in

South India, Chalukyas were emerging as a new power in the mid-
sixth century. The Pallava-Chalukya contest is discussed in the
following Article. This Article shall focus only on the Rise and fall of
the Harshvardhan Empire(606 – 647AD).

Pushyabhuti Dynasty
 Gradually one of the post-Gupta dynasties, the Pushybhutis, ruling at
Thanesar in Haryana, extended their authority over other
feudatories.
 Banabhatta, the court poet of Harshavardhana, informs us that the
founder king of this dynasty at Thaneshwar was Pushyabhuti. After
that, a series of able kings consolidated their hold in the Thaneshwar
region.
 Prabhakarvardhan was the first Pushyabhuti king to adopt the royal
title of Maharajadhiraja.
 After his death, his elder son and brother of Harsha, Rajyavardhana,
ascended to the throne of Thanesar.
 His sister, Rajyashri, married King Grahavarman of
Kanauj (Maukhari dynasty).
 Sasanka, the king of Bengal who ruled from Gauda Region, killed
Grahavarman and imprisoned Rajyashri. This caused Rajyavardhana
to fight against Sasanka, but Sasanka ended up killing him too.
 In 606AD, the Pushyamitra Nobles backed the 16-year-old
Harshavardhana to ascend the throne of Thanesar.
Rise of Harsha

 We know about the early history of Harsha’s reign

from Harshacharita of Banabhatta and accounts of Chinese
pilgrim Hiuen Tsang.
 He marched against Sasanka with the joint forces of Thanesar and
Kannauj and drove him out of Kanauj, becoming its ruler. He
made Kanauj the seat of his power.
  It is interesting to note that he took the title of Rajaputra instead of
Maharaja.
 He humbled the later Guptas, the allies of Sasanka in this conflict,
and reduced them to the position of subordinate Feudal lords. Thus,
he could bring all of the Northern plains under one rule, declaring
himself Sakalottarpathanath (lord of all of the North).
 The extent of his Empire:
o Parts of the present-day states of UP, south Bihar, and Odisha
appear to have been under Harsha’s control. He inherited
Thanesar, eastern Rajasthan and parts of eastern
Punjab. Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Kamarupa, was Harsha’s
subordinate ally, and he also had influence over the kings of
Jalandhar and possibly Kashmir.
o In Eastern India, he faced opposition from Sasanka of Gauda, a
Shaivite, who cut off the Bodhi tree at Gaya. On the other hand,
Harshvardhana patronised Buddhism in Eastern India.
o In the south, the Narmada served as the boundary between
him and Pulkeshin II. Pulkeshin stopped
his southward advance on the Narmada River and ruled over a
great part of Maharashtra, with his capital at Badami in the
Bijapur district of Karnataka. From the account of Xuan Zang
or Hiuen Tsang, it appears that Harsha took the initiative, but
his campaign against Pulkeshin was without much success.

Kannauj – a new seat of power

 Kanauj (Kanyakubja) replaced Pataliputra as the most important
place in the region.
 With the decline in trade, money became scarce, and officers were
paid through land grants; Pataliputra lost its relevance, and power
shifted to military camps (Skandhavaras).
 Strategic Importance of Kannauj: It was surrounded by a long
stretch of land and was on higher ground than the surrounding
areas. This elevated area was easily fortifiable, and the surrounding
pains were easily taxable.
 Controlling Kannauj and declaring
themselves Sakalottarpathanatha became a matter of pride for kings
in the later centuries, as seen in the 8th century tripartite struggle for
Kannauj.
Administration
 Harsha’s empire was governed on the line of the Guptas.
 Feudal Setup:
o However, his had become more feudal and decentralised,
making the empire more vulnerable.
o The priests continued to receive land grants, and the feudal
practice of rewarding and paying officers with land grants
seems to have begun under Harsha.
 The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang tells us that the revenue of
Harsha’s kingdom was divided into four parts. One part was
earmarked for King himself, scholars received another, public
servants and officials received a third, and religious purposes
received a fourth.
 In his empire, it seems law and order were not well
maintained; Hiuen Tsang, a state guest, was robbed of his
belongings. However, he reports that severe punishment was
inflicted for the crime.

Account of Hiuen Tsang

 He left China in 629 CE and travelled all the way to India; he
returned to china in 645 CE. He had come to study in Nalanda and to
collect Buddhist texts from India.
 Under his influence, Harsha became a great patron of Buddhism and
made generous donations in its favour. He has given a grand
description of the Buddhist assembly at Kanauj (Kanyakubj) during
Harsha’s reign.
 He also mentions that the Hinayana and the Brahmanas resented
Harsha’s patronage of the Mahayana. However, he also gives an
account of the Prayaga Assembly, where Harsha worshipped
Buddha, Shiva and the Sun and distributed charity to the followers of
all faiths.
 He calls Shudras agriculturalists, which is significant since earlier
texts represent them as serving the three higher varnas.
 The Chinese pilgrim observed untouchables such
as scavengers, executioners etc. They lived outside the village and
 took garlic and onion. The untouchables made tapping sounds
so as
they entered the town to warn residents to stay away from them.

Religion and Lierature

 During the time of the Hiuen Tsang’s stay in India, Eighteen
Buddhist sects existed.
 The most famous centre was Nalanda,, which had a great Buddhist
university. Itt is said to have as many as 10000 students,
students all monks.
They were taught the Buddhist philosophy of Mahayana school.
 Harsha followed a tolerant religious policy. From Shaivism, he
converted to Buddhism and convened a grand assembly at Kanauj.
 Harsha is known not only for his patronage and learning but also for
authoring three dramas – the Priyadarshika,, the Ratnavali and
the Nagananda.. However, this claim is disputed by several medieval
scholars.
 Banabhatta,, the court poet, wrote the biography of Harsha
in Harshacharitam.
Harshacharitam He also wrote Kadambari,, a romantic novel in
Sanskrit; it was completed by his son Bhushanbhatta since
Banabhatta had died before its completion.

Evaluation of Harsha’s Reign

 Harsha’s reign marks the rise of new political centres such
as Kannauj and Gwalior. It also marks the growth of fort
architecture in India.

A Sculpture From
Harshavardhan’S Time
 He died in 647 AD without any heir to the throne after ruling for 41
years. His empire disintegrated soon after his death.

 Harsha is called the last Hindu emperor of India; however, this

cannot be true.
o He was neither a staunch Hindu nor did he rule all over India.
o His sphere of influence was limited to northern India.
o Furthermore, there were many great Hindu empires after
Harsha having greater sphere of influence. For example the
Cholas in the 10th century and Marathas in the 18th century
had greater territories than Harshavardhan’s.
 Gupta Empire- Facts about Gupta Dynasty
In Ancient India, the Gupta Dynasty ruled the mid-to-late 3rd century
(approximately) to 543 AD. Founded by Sri Gupta, the dynasty rose to fame
with rulers like Chandragupta-I, Samudragupta, etc.

Origin of Gupta Empire

The decline of the Mauryan empire resulted in the rise of two major political
powers – the Kushanas and the Satavahanas in the north and south
respectively. Both these empires brought political unity and economic growth
in their respective areas. The Kushan reign in north India came to an end
around c.230 CE and then a good part of central India came under the domain
of the Murundas (possible kinsmen of the Kushanas).
The Murundas ruled for only 25 – 30 years. Around the last decade of the 3rd
century CE (about 275 CE), the dynasty of the Guptas came to power. The
Gupta empire established its control over a good part of the former
dominions of both the Kushanas and the Satavahanas. The Guptas (possibly
Vaishyas) kept northern India politically united for more than a century (335
CE- 455 CE).

 The Guptas are believed to have been feudatories of the Kushanas.

 The original kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar with their
centre of power at Prayag (U.P).
 The Guptas set up their rule over the fertile plains of the Madhyadesha, also known
as Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Saketa (U.P Ayodhya), Prayag (U.P)
and Magadha (mostly Bihar).
 The Guptas made good use of the iron ore reserves in central India and south
Bihar and also took advantage of their proximity to the areas in north India which
carried on silk trade with the Byzantine empire (eastern Roman empire).
 The Gupta period in ancient India is referred to as the “Golden Age” because of
the numerous achievements in the field of arts, literature, science and technology. It
also brought about the political unification of the subcontinent.

Gupta Empire – Kings

Gupta Empire – Chandragupta I (320 – 335 CE)

 Was the son of Ghatotkacha.
 Chandragupta Ⅰ is considered to be the founder of the Gupta Era which started with
his accession in 319 – 320 CE.
 He strengthened his position by a matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis
(Nepal). He married Kumaradevi, a princess of the Lichchhavi clan and this added
to the power and prestige of the Gupta family (Vaishyas).
 He extended his kingdom through conquests. His territory extended from the
Ganges River to Prayaga by 321 AD.
 He issued coins in the joint names of his queen and himself.
 He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (great king of kings).
 He was successful in building a small principality into a great kingdom.
 His empire consisted of Uttar Pradesh, Bengal and parts of modern Bihar, with
Pataliputra as its capital.
 He is considered the first great king of the Gupta Empire.

Gupta Empire – Samudragupta (c. 335/336 – 375 CE)

  The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta Ⅰ’s son and
successor Samudragupta.
 The Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayaga – Prashasti) gives a detailed account of his
achievements. He followed the policy of war and conquest. This long inscription
was composed by his court poet, Harisena, in chaste Sanskrit. The inscription is
engraved on the same pillar that carries the inscription of peace-loving Ashoka.
 Much of the Indian subcontinent was directly or indirectly under his control – from
kingdoms in Nepal and Punjab in the north to the Pallava kingdom at Kanchipuram
in the southeast. The last vestiges of the Kushana rule, like the Shakas, the
Murundas and even the independent territory of Simhala (Sri Lanka) acknowledged
his suzerainty. The places and the territories conquered by Samudragupta can be
divided into five groups:
 Group Ⅰ – Includes rulers of Ganga-Yamuna doab, who were defeated. He
uprooted nine Naga rulers and annexed their territories.
 Group Ⅱ – Includes rulers of the eastern Himalayan states and some frontier
states such as the princes of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, etc. who surrendered to
his might. It also includes parts of Punjab.
 Group Ⅲ – Includes the forest kingdom situated in the Vindhya
region (central India) known as atavika rajyas and forced their rulers into
servitude. The conquest of this region helped him to move towards the
south.
 Group Ⅳ – Includes twelve rulers of eastern Deccan and south India who
were defeated and his power reached as far as Kanchi (Tamil Nadu), where
the Pallavas were forced to recognise his suzerainty. It is important to
mention that Virasena was the commander of Samudragupta during his
southern campaign. In the south, he adopted the policy of political
conciliation and reinstated the defeated kings on their thrones. These states
acknowledged his suzerainty and paid him tributes and presents.
 Group Ⅴ – Includes the Shakas of western India and Kushana rulers of north-
west India and Afghanistan. Samudragupta swept them out of power.
Though he had spread his influence over a vast area, and even received tributes
from many kings of south-east Asia, Samudragupta exercised direct administrative control
mainly over the Indo-Gangetic basin. According to Chinese sources, Meghavarman, the
ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a missionary to Samudragupta for permission to build a Buddhist
temple at Bodh Gaya.
After conquering the territories, Samudragupta celebrated by performing
the asvamedha (horse sacrifice). He issued coins with the legend “restorer of the
asvamedha”. It is because of his military achievements that Samudragupta was hailed as
the ‘Indian Napoleon’.
He was equally great in his personal accomplishments. The Allahabad Pillar
Inscription speaks of his magnanimity to his foes, his polished intellect, his poetic skills,
and his proficiency in music. He is known by the title Kaviraja (king among poets) because
of his ability in composing verses. His image depicting him with veena (lyre) is found in the
coins issued by him. He is also credited with promoting Sanskrit literature and learning,
characteristic of his dynasty.
 He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other religions. He
showed a keen interest in Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist
scholar Vasubandhu.
Legends on his coins include epithets such as Apratirathah (invincible), Vyaghra-
Parakramah (brave as a tiger), Parakramah (brave).

Gupta Empire – Chandragupta II (c. 376 – 413/415 CE)

 Samudragupta was succeeded by his son – Chandragupta Ⅱ. But according to some
scholars, the immediate successor was Ramagupta, the elder brother of
Chandragupta Ⅱ. But there is little historical proof for this.
 During Chandragupta Ⅱ’s reign, the Gupta dynasty reached its peak by expanding
territories through conquests as well as by marriage alliances. He
married Kuberananga, a Naga princess and had a daughter, Prabhavati with her. He
married Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince, Rudrasena Ⅱ (Deccan). After the death of
her husband, Prabhavati ruled the territory as regent to her minor sons with the help
of her father. Thus Chandragupta Ⅱ indirectly controlled the Vakataka kingdom.
 Chandragupta Ⅱ’s control over the Vakataka kingdom in central India proved quite
advantageous for him. It helped him to conquer Gujarat and western Malwa, which
was under the rule of Shakas for about four centuries by that time. The Guptas
reached the western sea coast which was famous for trade and commerce. This
contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its main city Ujjain, which was also
Chandragupta Ⅱ’s second capital.
 An Iron Pillar inscription at Mehrauli in Delhi indicates that his empire included
even north-western India and Bengal. He adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’ (powerful
as the sun) and Simhavikrama.
 He issued gold coins (Dinara), silver coins and copper coins. On his coins, he is
mentioned as Chandra.
 During his reign, a Chinese traveller, Fa-Hien visited India and wrote a detailed
account about the life of its people.
 The Udaigiri cave inscriptions refer to his digvijaya, that is, his conquest of the
whole world.
 His court at Ujjain was adorned by nine famous scholars known as
the Navratnas (nine gems).
 Kalidasa – He wrote Abhijnashakuntalam, one of the best hundred literary
works in the world and also the earliest Indian work to be translated to
European languages.
 Amarasimha – His work Amarakosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots,
homonyms and synonyms. It has three parts containing around ten thousand
words and is also known as Trikanda.
 Varahamihira – He wrote three important books-
 He composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems.
  His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in the Sanskrit language. It
deals with a variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography,
architecture, weather, animals, marriage and omens.
 His Brihat Jataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
 Dhanvantri – He is considered to be the father of Ayurveda.
 Ghatakarapara – An expert in sculpture and architecture.
 Shanku – An architect who wrote the Shilpa Shastra.
 Kahapanaka – An astrologer who wrote Jyotishya Shastra.
 Vararuchi – Author of Prakrit Prakasha, the first grammar of the Prakrit
language.
 Vetala Bhatta – Author of Mantrashastra and was a magician.

Kumaragupta Ⅰ (c. 415 – 455 CE)

 Kumaragupta Ⅰ was the son and successor of Chandragupta Ⅱ.
 Adopted the titles of ‘Shakraditya’ and ‘Mahendraditya’.
 Performed ‘asvamedha’ sacrifices.
 Most importantly, he laid the foundation of Nalanda University which emerged as
an institution of international reputation.
 At the end of his reign, peace did not prevail on the north-west frontier due to the
invasion of the Huns of Central Asia. After occupying Bactria, the Huns crossed the
Hindukush mountains, occupied Gandhara and entered India. Their first attack,
during Kumaragupta Ⅰ’s reign, was made unsuccessful by prince Skandagupta.
 The inscriptions of Kumaragupta Ⅰ’s reign are – Karandanda, Mandsor, Bilsad
inscription (oldest record of his reign) and Damodar Copper Plate inscription.

Skandagupta (c. 455 – 467 CE)

 Adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’.
 Junagarh/Girnar inscription of his reign reveals that his governor Parnadatta
repaired the Sudarshan lake.
 After Skandagupta’s death, many of his successors like Purugupta, Kumaragupta Ⅱ,
Buddhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta Ⅲ and Vishnugupta could not save
the Gupta empire from the Huns. Ultimately, the Gupta power totally disappeared
due to a variety of reasons.

Decline of Gupta Empire

The various reasons that led to the fall of the Gupta empire are discussed
below:
Hun Invasion

The Gupta prince Skandagupta fought bravely and successfully against the
early Huns’ invasion. However, his successors proved to be weak and could
not check the Huns’ invasion. The Huns showed excellent horsemanship and
were expert archers which helped them to attain success, not only in Iran but
also in India. In the latter half of the 5th century, the Hun chief
Toramana conquered large parts of western India, up to Eran near Bhopal in
central India. By 485 CE, Huns had occupied Punjab, Rajasthan, Kashmir,
eastern Malwa and a large part of central India. Toramana (in 515 CE) was
succeeded by his son Mihirkula, who was a tyrant ruler as is mentioned in
the Rajatarangini by Kalhana and Hieun-Tsang refers to him as a persecutor
of Buddhists. Mihirkula was defeated and the Huna power was overthrown
by Yashodharman of Malwa, Narasimha Gupta Baladitya of the Gupta empire
and the Maukharis. However, this win over Huns could not revive the Gupta
empire.

Rise of Feudatories

The rise of feudatories was another factor that led to the fall of the Gupta
empire. Yashodharman of Malwa (belonged to the Aulikara feudatory family)
after defeating Mihirkula successfully challenged the authority of the Guptas
and set up, in 532 CE, pillars of victory commemorating his conquest of
almost the whole of northern India. Although Yashodharman’s rule was
short-lived, it certainly gave a huge blow to the Gupta empire. The other
feudatories too rose in rebellion against the Guptas and ultimately became
independent in Bihar, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Valabhi, Gujarat, Malwa and
so on. It is important to mention that after the reign of Skandagupta (467 CE)
hardly any coin or inscription has been found in western Malwa and
Saurashtra.

Economic decline

By the end of the 5th century, the Guptas had lost western India and this must
have deprived the Guptas of the rich revenues from trade and commerce and
hence crippled them economically. The economic decline of the Guptas is
indicated by the gold coins of later Gupta rulers, which have less percentage
of gold metal. The practice of land grants for religious and other purposes also
reduced the revenues which resulted in economic instability.

Conclusion

The fall of the Gupta empire led to the emergence of numerous ruling
dynasties in different parts of northern India e.g, Pushyabhutis of Thanesar,
Maukharies of Kannauj and the Maitrakas of Valabhi. In peninsular India, the
Chalukyas and the Pallavas emerged as the strong powers in Deccan and
northern Tamil Nadu respectively.
 Origin of Rajputs
Rajput Dynasty started in the 7th century and lasted till the Turko-Muslim conquests in
the 12th century. It flourished in central and north India during the medieval period.
The Rajput Dynasty has been a significant part of Indian history. It has experienced
famous and powerful kings throughout, which has shaped the country’s history.

The Rajput empire was a feudal organisation that spread Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Jainism. Also, they had a huge respect for literature, art and architecture. Below you
will learn about the Rajput Dynasty, the history and origin of Rajputs, the states formed,
and the type of society under their rule.

Rajput Dynasty
The Rajput Dynasty was founded by the founder of the city of Ajmer, Simharaj, at the
start of the medieval period. The medieval period is divided into two stages: The early
medieval period (8th to 12th century) and the Later Medieval period (12th-18th
century).

The end of the rule of Harsha and Pulakesin II marks the beginning of the Rajput
Dynasty in the early medieval period. They dominated the country for over 500 years
and contributed to Indian history.

History and Origin of Rajputs

Origin of Rajputs is a questionable discussion. However, some historians have put
certain theories for the origin of Rajputs in India. These include the Kshatriya Origin
theory, Foreign Origin theory, Tribal Origin theory, Agni Kula theory, and mixed
Origin theory. It is believed that the rule of Rajputs belonged to the early medieval
period, i.e., from 647 A.D. to 1200 A.D. By the 12th century, the decline of their kingdom
began after the death of Harsha.

The origin of Rajputs dates back to the time when India breakup into the northwestern
and northern Indian subcontinent under the Hephthalites’ impact from the mid-5th
century CE. Following the event, the Gupta empire broke up in the 6th century. The
empire was attacked by the invaders. Some of the invaders integrated with the existing
society. However, the Tribals and the nobles were divided into Kshatriyas and Hindus,
while their followers were considered the fourth order, including Ahirs, Gujars, and
Jats.

Along with this, some invader priests became Brahmans, and the rest attained Rajput
status. The Rajput ancestry is divided into different groups Suryavanshi,
Chandravanshi, and Agnikula. However, they gained political importance in the early
7th century.
Emergence of Rajputs
The emergence of Rajputs in India could be dated back to the seventh century. The
rule of the Rajput was dominant mostly in northern India. The smaller Rajput kingdoms
also acted as a hindrance to the Muslim rulers. Some of the Rajput kings were
successfully able to defend against the attacks of some Muslim rulers such as Mahmud
of Ghazni.

Emergence of Rajput States in Northern India

The emergence of Rajput states in Northern India falls back to the 7th-8th centuries. The
origin of Rajputs can be traced back to the other regions of the country as well. It is said
that the role of Rajputs was quite important in northern India after the seventh century.
The Rajput rulers began establishing their clans and started ruling small areas and
localities in Northern India.

The Chahamanas, the Chalukyas, the Pratiharas of Kannauj, the Gahadavalas, Sisodias,
etc were some of the examples of the emergence of Rajput States in Northern India.

Emergence of Rajputs in Early Medieval India

The emergence of Rajputs in Early Medieval India happened somewhere between the
8th and the 12th century. Although the origin of the Rajputs is a debatable topic, several
theories have been doing rounds regarding the same. The Rajputs were a major part of
Early Medieval India and spread their influence throughout the country.

It is said that the Rajput kingdom majorly emerged by coming together of the various
social groups during Medieval India that identified themselves as Kshatriyas and
claimed to be Rajputs. Until the 12th century, Rajputs ruled India significantly.

State Formation under Rajputs

There were a total of 36 states under the Rajput dynasty in India. The major States
among these clans are as follows:

 The Palas of Bengal

 The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer
 The Rathors of Kanauj
 The Guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar
 The Chandelles of Bundelkhand
 The Paramaras of Malwa
 The Senas of Bengal
 The Solankis of Gujarat

Pala Dynasty of Rajput Era

The Pala dynasty started in 765 AD and lasted till the 11th century. It was subdivided
into the following-

 Gopala: Gopala is the founder of the Pala dynasty. Gopala started his rule in 765
AD over Northern and Eastern India. He had the vision to expand his kingdom,
and during his rule, he expanded his dynasty over Magadha. After his death, his
successor, Dharmapala, became the Rajput ruler.
 Dharmapala: Dharmapala was the son of Gopala, who expanded his rule over
kanauj, Bihar, and Bengal. He became the master of Northern India after
defeating the Pratiharas. He followed Buddhism and restored the Nalanda
University, founding several monasteries and the Vikramasila University.
 Devapala: Devapala succeeded Dharmapala after his death. He ruled Northern
India from 815-855 A.D. and captured Orissa and Assam. He was responsible for
keeping the Pala territories intact.
 Mahipala: Mahipala ruled the Rajput dynasty from 998 to 1038 A.D. Under his
rule, the Palas gained power. However, after his death, the Pala dynasty
declined.
 Govinda Pala: The final and 18th Pala ruler was Madanapala. He was succeeded
by Govindapala. According to historians, the successors of Govindapala were
weak, thus pointing to the Pala dynasty’s decline.

Rajput Dynasty: Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer

The Chauhans were the feudatories of Gujara-Pratiharas. Ajmer was declared

independent by the Chauhans in 1101 A.D. However, they captured Ujjain and Delhi
from Paramaras at the start of the 12th century. After their capture, they shifted their
capital to Delhi. Among all the Rajput rulers, the most important ruler of the Chauhans
was Prithviraj Chauhan. But after his death, the dynasty of the Chauhans became weak.

Rathors of Kanauj in Rajput Empire

From 1090 to 1194 A.D., the Rathors established themselves as the rulers of Kanauj. The
last greater ruler of this dynasty was Jaichand. He was killed by Muhammad of Ghori
in 1194 A.D. during the battle of Chandwar.

Chandellas of Bundelkhand

The Chandela Dynasty was founded by Nannuk. Nannuk was a ruler of a small
kingdom in India. Chandellas established themselves as the ruler of Bundelkhand in the
9th century and ruled central India between the 9th and 13th centuries for more than
500 years. During their rule, Bundelkhand was popular by the name of Jejakabhukti.

Initially, Khajuraho was their capital state, but later, Mahoba became their capital state.
The Chandellas of the Rajput dynasty became popular for building marvellous temples
at Khajuraho. One of the famous temples among them was the Kandariya Mahadeva
Temple. It was built in 1050. The dynasty has experienced many kings, but Maharaja
Rao Vidhyadhara’s rule made this dynasty popular in Indian History. He was a warrior
who repulsed Mahmud of Ghazni’s attack.

The rule of Chandellas ended after the defeat of the last ruler, Paramardi, by Qutb-ud-
din Aibak at the start of the 13th century. His defeat weakened the Rajput dynasty. As a
result, various new dynasties emerged from different regions, including Bagels in the
Bandhavgarh region and Bundela in Orchha.

Rajput Rulers: Guhllas or Sisodiyas of Mewar

Guhila Dynasty was founded by Guhil. The Guhila Clan was initiated in Kashmir. Later
in the 6th century, it was migrated to Gujarat. In the 7th century, it was again migrated
to Mewar. Mewar is a region in south-central Rajasthan in western India. Guhilot, or
Sisodiyas dynasty, was founded by Bappa Rawal in Mewar, and its capital was Chittor.
His territory was invaded by Ala-ud-din Khilji in 1303 A.D. Rawal Ratan Singh,
Maharana Pratap, and Rana Sangha fought with the Mughal ruler but were defeated
terribly.

Paramaras of Malwa in the Rajput Dynasty

Apart from Chauhans, the Paramaras were the Pratihar’s feudatories. In the 10th
century, the Paramaras declared their independence. During this time, their capital was
Dhara which was later moved to Mandap-Durg. In 1305, Ala ud din Khilji conquered
Malwa and was defeated.

One of the famous rulers of the Paramara dynasty was Raja Bhoja. He ruled from 1010
to 1055 A.D. He was an admirer of beauty and constructed a beautiful lake near Bhopal.
Also, he is known for his contribution towards literature, as for the study of Sanskrit
Literature, he established a college at Dhara.

Society under Rajputs

Rajputs, since the beginning, have been considered warriors who believed in protecting
the women under their rule and the weaker section of society. The details of the society
under the Rajput dynasty are as follows:

 Religion – The Rajputs were strong devotees of god and followed Hinduism.
Along with Hinduism, they also followed Jainism and Buddhism. During
Rajputana’s rule, the Bhakti Cult started in India.
 Major Literary Work – The literature during the Rajput rule includes books,
poems, astronomy etc. The significant literary work during this period includes
Kalhana’s Rajatarangin, Jayadeva’s Gita Govindam, Somadeva’s
Kathasaritasagar, Siddhanta Shiromani, Siddhanta Shiromani (referring to
Prithviraj Chauhan’s military exploits), Balaramayana, Kavyamimamsa, and
Karpuramanjari.
  Government – The organizational setup of the Rajput empire was Feudal,
wherein each kingdom was separated into jagirs. Jagirdars were responsible for
holding those jagirs.
 Art and Architecture – During the Rajput rule, art and architecture depicted
their culture in the form of miniature and mural paintings. They build famous
temples, including the Dilwara Temple at Mount Abu, the Sun Temple at
Konark, Bhubaneshwar’s Lingaraja Temple and Khajuraho’s temples.

Administration of Rajputs
The administration of Rajputs was based on the system of caste. The people belonging
to the upper class had access to the administrative department and were handed down
the related responsibilities. These nobles were of the same caste as the ruler. A
particular state was bifurcated into separate divisions under the administration of the
Rajputs.

 The separate units of a state were each controlled by a Mukhiya.

 The administration of Rajputs consisted of a strong system where the ruler could
be removed if he doesn’t act as required.
 After some time, the rules saw a change and the king was the supreme ruler who
possessed all the powers and could not be replaced.
 There were several ranks and designations in the administration of Rajputs such
as Maha-akshapatalika and Mahasandhivigrahika Dutaka, etc.
 South Indian Kingdoms- Pallavas, Chalukyas &
Rashtrakutas, Cholas
1 PALLAVAS
After the decline of the Sangam Age in the Tamil country, the Kalabhra
rule lasted for about 250 years. Thereafter, the Pallavas established their
kingdom in Tondaimandalam with its capital at Kanchipuram. Their rule
continued till Tondaimandalam was captured and annexed by the
Imperial Cholas in the beginning of the tenth century A.D.

Society under the Pallavas

1. The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.
2. The caste system became rigid.
3. The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society. They were given
land-grants by the kings and nobles. They were also given the
responsibility of looking after the temples.
4. The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and
Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.
The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the
growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known as the Bakthi
Movement.

a. They composed their hymns in the Tamil language.

b. These hymns revealed the importance of devotion or
Bakthi.
c. The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved
the way for the spread of these two religions.

Administration of the Pallavas

1. The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. The Pallava
state was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was administered by
officers appointed by the king.

2. The king was at the centre of administration in which he was assisted

by able ministers. He was the fountain of justice. He maintained a
 well-trained army. He provided land-grants to the temples known
as Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as Brahmadeya.

3. It was also the responsibility of the central government to provide

irrigation facilities to the lands. A number of irrigation tanks were dug
by the Pallava kings. The irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and
Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.

4. Detailed information on the tax system could also be traced from the
Pallava inscriptions. Land tax was the primary source of the
government revenue. The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were
exempted from tax. Traders and artisans such as carpenters,
goldsmiths, washer-men, oil-pressers and weavers paid taxes to the
government.

5. The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village

assemblies called sabhas and their committees. They maintained
records of all village lands, looked after local affairs and managed
temples

Pallava Art and Architecture

1. It was a great age of temple building.
2. The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from the rock.
3. In fact, the Dravidian style of temple architecture began with the
Pallava rule.
4. It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic
rathas and culminated in structural temples.The development of
temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages.

a. Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples. This style of

Pallava temples are seen at places like Mandagappattu,
Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam,
Siyamangalam and Tirukalukkunram.

b. The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the

monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at Mamallapuram.
Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful
architectural monuments. The five rathas, popularly called as the
 Panchapanadava rathas, signifies five different styles of temple
architecture. The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its
walls. The most popular of these mandapas are
Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and
Varaha Madapam.

c. In the next stage, Rajasimha introduced the structural temples.

These temples were built by using the soft sand rocks. The
Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at
Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of the early structural
temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is the
greatest architectural masterpiece of the Pallava art

d. The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structural

temples built by the later Pallavas. The Vaikundaperumal temple,
Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara temples at
Kanchipuram belong to this stage of architecture.

1. The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture.

Apart from the sculptures found in the temples, the ‘Open Art
Gallery’ at Mamallapuram remains an important monument bearing
the sculptural beauty of this period. The Descent of the Ganges or the
Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco painting in stone. The minute
details as well as the theme of these sculptures such as the figures of
lice-picking monkey, elephants of huge size and the figure of the
‘ascetic cat’ standing erect remain the proof for the talent of the
sculptor.
2 Chalukyas And Rashtrakutas

a. Besides the Pallavas, the Western Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas

in the Deccan constitute important political forces.
b. Both these kingdoms had their rivals in the far south, namely the
Pallavas and later the Cholas.
c. Their period has also been important in the history of India for
their cultural contributions.
Chalukyas (543 – 755 A.D.)
1. The Western Chalukyas ruled over an extensive area in
the Deccan for about two centuries after
which the Rashtrakutas became powerful.
2. The family of Western Chalukyas had its offshoots like the Eastern
Chalukyas of Vengi and the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
3. Pulakesin I was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty. He established
a small kingdom with Vatapi or Badami as its capital.
4. The most important ruler of this dynasty was Pulakesin II. The
Aihole inscription issued by him gives the details of his reign.

Rashtrakutas (755 – 975 A.D.)

1. The Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and Kannada language was
their mother tongue.
2. Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated
the Gurjaras and captured Malwa from them. Then he annexed the
Chalukya kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman II. Thus, the
Rashtrakutas became a paramount power in the Deccan.

3 IMPERIAL CHOLAS
NOTE: The Kaveri delta constitutes a distinct geographical zone in the
far south. It became the seat of the Chola power. The Kaveri basin with
its rich tradition, language and culture has flourished from the ancient
times.
After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas became feudatories in
Uraiyur. They became prominent in the ninth century and established an
empire comprising the major portion of South India. Their capital
was Tanjore. They also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Malay
Peninsula. Therefore, they are called as the Imperial Cholas. Thousands
of inscriptions found in the temples provide detailed information
regarding the administration, society, economy and culture of the Chola
period.
The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya. He captured
Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 815 A.D. and built a temple for Durga. His
son Aditya put an end to the Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita
and annexed Tondaimandalam.
Parantaka I was one of the important early Chola rulers. He defeated the
Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon. But he suffered a defeat at the hands of
the Rashtrakutas in the famous battle of Takkolam. Parantaka I was a
great builder of temples. He also provided the vimana of the
famous Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof. The two
famous Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the
village administration under the Cholas belong to his reign. After a gap
of thirty years, the Cholas regained their supremacy under Rajaraja I.

Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)

It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I that the Chola power
reached its highest point of glory. His military conquests were:
1. The defeat of the Chera ruler Bhaskararavivarman in the naval battle
of Kandalursalai and the destruction of the Chera navy.

2. The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and establishment of

Chola authority in the Pandya country.

3. The conquest of Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi located in

the Mysore region.

4. The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra
I. As the Sri Lankan king Mahinda V fled away from his country, the
Cholas annexed the northern Sri Lanka. The capital was shifted from
Anuradhapura to Polanaruva where a Shiva temple was built.
5. The Chola victory over the growing power of the Western Chalukyas
of Kalyani. Satyasraya was defeated and Rajaraja I captured the
Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places. Hence the Chola power
extended up to the river Tungabadhra.

6. The restoration of Vengi throne to its rulers Saktivarman and

Vimaladitya by defeating the Telugu Chodas. Rajaraja gave his
daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya.

7. Rajaraja’s last military achievement was a naval expedition against

the Maldive Islands which were conquered. By these conquests, the
extent of the Chola empire under Rajaraja I included the Pandya,
Chera and the Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu and the
Gangavadi, Nolambapadi and the Telugu Choda territories in the
Deccan and the northern part of Ceylon and the Maldive Islands
beyond India.

Rajaraja assumed a number of titles like Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda

and Sivapadasekara. He was a devout follower of Saivism. He
completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara
temple or Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D. He also helped
in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.

Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)

Rajendra had demonstrated his military ability by participating in his
father’s campaigns. He continued his father’s policy of aggressive
conquests and expansion. His important wars were:

1. Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka attempted to recover from the

Cholas the northern part of Ceylon. Rajendra defeated him and
seized the southern Sri Lanka. Thus the whole of Sri Lanka was
made part of the Chola Empire.

2. He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya

countries.
3. He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and the river
Tungabadhra was recognised as the boundary between the Cholas
and Chalukyas.

4. His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to north

India. The Chola army crossed the Ganges by defeating a number of
rulers on its way. Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of Bengal. To
commemorate this successful north-Indian campaign Rajendra
founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed
the famous Rajesvaram temple in that city. He also excavated a large
irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of the city.

5. Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval expedition to

Kadaram or Sri Vijaya. It is difficult to pin point the real object of the
expedition. Whatever its objects were, the naval expedition was a
complete success. A number of places were occupied by Chola forces.
But it was only temporary and no permanent annexation of these
places was contemplated. He assumed the title Kadaramkondan.

6. Rajendra I had put down all rebellions and kept his empire in tact
At the death of Rajendra I the extent of the Chola Empire was at its peak.
The river Tungabadhra was the northern boundary. The Pandya, Kerala
and Mysore regions and also Sri Lanka formed part of the empire. He
gave his daughter Ammangadevi to the Vengi Chalukya prince and
further continued the matrimonial alliance initiated by his father.
Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the most famous being
Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram Kondan and Pandita Cholan.
Like his father he was also a devout Saiva and built a temple for that
god at the new capital Gangaikondacholapuram. He made liberal
endowments to this temple and to the Lord Nataraja temple at
Chidambaram. He was also tolerant towards the Vaishnava and
Buddhist sects
Chola Administration

Central Government
1. The Cholas had an excellent system of administration. The emperor
or king was at the top of the administration.

2. The extent and resources of the Chola Empire increased the power
and prestige of monarchy.

3. The big capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the

large royal courts and extensive grants to the temples reveal the
authority of the king. They undertook royal tours to increase the
efficiency of the administration.

4. There was elaborate administrative machinery comprising various

officials called perundanam and sirudanam.

Provincial Administration

1. The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each mandalam
into valanadus and nadus. In each nadu there were a number of
autonomous villages. The royal princes or officers were in charge of
mandalams. The valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu under
nattar.

2. The town was known as nagaram and it was under the

administration of a council called nagarattar.

Socio-economic Life
1. Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola
period. Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges.

a. The inscriptions of the later period of the Chola rule mention about
two major divisions among the castes – Valangai and Idangai
castes.
 b. However, there was cooperation among various castes and sub-
castes in social and religious life. The position of women did not
improve.

2. The practice of ‘sati’ was prevalent among the royal families.

3. The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged

during this period.

4. Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during the

Chola period.

5. A number of temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings

and queens. The temples remained centres of economic activity
during this period.

6. The mathas had great influence during this period.

7. Both agriculture and industry flourished.

a. Reclamation of forest lands and the construction and maintenance

of irrigation tanks led to agricultural prosperity.

b. The weaving industry, particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi

flourished.

c. The metal works developed owing to great demand of images for

temples and utensils.

d. Commerce and trade were brisk with trunk roads or peruvazhis

and merchant guilds.

e. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in plenty at various

denominations.
8. Commercial contacts between the Chola Empire and China, Sumatra,
Java and Arabia were extensively prevalent. Arabian horses were
imported in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry.

Art and Architecture

1. The Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its perfection
under the Cholas.
2. They built enormous temples.

a. The chief feature of the Chola temple is the vimana.

b. The early Chola temples were found at Narthamalai and

Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district and at Srinivasanallur in
Tiruchirappalli district.

c. The Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a masterpiece of

South Indian art and architecture. It consists of the vimana,
ardhamandapa, mahamandapa and a large pavilion in the front
known as the Nandimandapa.
d. Another notable contribution made by the Cholas to
temple architecture is the Siva temple at
Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I.

e. The Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram in Tanjore District and

the Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam are examples of later
Chola temples.

3. The Cholas also made rich contributions to the art of sculpture. The
walls of the Chola temples such as the Tanjore and
Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain numerous icons of large
size with fine execution. The bronzes of the Chola period are world-
famous. The bronze statues of Nataraja or dancing Siva are master
pieces. The Chola paintings were found on the walls of Narthamalai
and Tanjore temples.
 Mohammad bin qasim and mehmud ghaznavi and
Mohammad ghori
The starting of Arabs and Turks invasion in India began with the Arabs invaded India from
the northwest regon in 712 CE under Mohammed Bin Qasim. Arabs already had good trade
relations with India and thus were aware of the rich resources and enormous wealth India
Possessed. This was the main reason for the Arabs’ interest in expansion in India along with
territorial expansion and Islamic Faith

Central Asia and Northern India witnessed many changes from 1000-1000 CE. Mahmud
Ghaznavi was the first Turkish ruler to invade India in parts which were dominated by
Rajputs. He did not want to rule India but expand his kingdom in Iran, Afghanistan and
Khorasan. His major aim to invade India was rather the wealth which India possessed.
Every time he invaded and returned with a vast amount of wealth collected from Indian
Temples and rulers.

Of the various invasions made by Arabs and Turks two of the most notable are

o The invasion of Sindh led by Arab Mohammed bin Qasim in 712 CE can be
considered a landmark in history as it gave dominance to Muslim rule in the Indian
Subcontinent.
o Turkish Invasion by Muhammed Ghuri which led to the Battle of Tarain in 1191 and
1192 and led to the setting up of the first Muslim rule in India

Arab Invasion in India

Arab Invasion started in 710 CE with the conquest of Sindh by Mohammed Bin Qasim and
the growth of the Islamic religion in India which was starting period of Arabs and Turks
Invasion in India.

Mohammed Bin Qasim

Mohammed Bin Qasim who was a general of Umayyad khalifa was borne in Taif Saudi
Arabia. After the death of the last Hindu emperor Harshvardhana, there was political
instability in India. Qasim took this opportunity as India was a prosperous State.

Sindh was ruled by Dahir, Son of Cach who also had usurped power from previous
Buddhist rulers.

The battle fought by Mohammed Bin Qasim

o Fall of Debal- Dehar is a famous seaport. It was captured and a large amount of
booty and women went into the hands of Arabs
o Fall of Nirun- Nirun was under the charge of Dahir’s Son Jai Sindh. With the
approach of Qasim, Jai Sindh fled and Nirun was Captured without any fight
 o Fall of Sehwan – Cousin of Dahir, Bajhra was in charge of Sehwan. Bajhra could not
face the attacks of Arab and fled.
o Fall of Sisam and Victory over Jats- It was ruled by Kaka a Jat king. He gave shelter
to Bajhra after he fled from Sehwan. Qasim defeated jats and Bajhra and their
followers were killed.
o Battle of Rewar- Fought between Mohammed bin Qasim and Dahir Ruler of Sindh.
Dahir died in the battle and Qasim got the rule of Multan and Sindh. Soon capitals of
other provinces such as Brahmanabad, and Alor were also captured.

Army Capacity

Qasim had a boisterous militia consisting

o 250000 troops with 600 Camels

o 6000 Syrian Horses
o 3000 Bactrian Donkeys
o An artillery force containing 2000 men, advanced guards, and five catapults

End of Qasim

Qasim died due to a family feud. In 714 CE Hajaj Governor of Iraq died and Mohammed
Bin Qasim was recalled and executed.

Administrative Policies of Arab invaders

Arab administrative policies show they were lenient and adaptable. Local practices were
allowed unhindered even after a particular area was conquered.

o Caliph Umar who is considered one of the main architects of the Arab
administration prohibited interference of Arabs in local administration. It was
primarily in the hands of local chiefs majority of which were non-Muslims.
o Their leniency and liberty in administration can be shown by Brahmanabad
Settlement which was made by Qasim after his victory over Dahar. Under it, Hindus
were treated as “people of the book” or “zimmis” (the protected ones).
o Zimmis agreed to pay taxes to Caliph, Caliph in turn protected them and allowed
them to follow their Faith and worship their god.
o Arab rulers and administrators were forbidden from usurping local’s property
which was declared vide a proclamation.
o Qasim had a tolerant policy towards Brahmins and native traditions.
o Jizya was a kind of tax imposed on Non-muslims.
o Sindh and Multan were divided into several Iqtas or districts and were ruled by
Arab military officers.

Effects of Arab Invasion

o The fall of Sindh made way for Islam in the Indian Subcontinent.
o Art of administration, music, astronomy, painting and architecture was taken from
the Indian subcontinent to Europe through Arabs.
 o It also helped Turks in achieving success in India.
o Arabs took expert guidance from Indian Craftsmen which helped them build several
mosques.
o Charak Samhita, a medical journal, was translated into Arabic during this period.
o With the commencement of new religion in India people of the oppressed lower
class embraced Islam. It was of great point of view from both cultural and political
aspects.
o Arabs had tolerance and did not interfere with the social systems. As inferred from
Chachnama Qasim did not interfere with the caste system and upheld the Indian
social tradition.
o Two weapons that came with the Arabs were Naptha or Greek fire and Manjaniq or
mangonel/trebuchet. Indian forces were not as good as those of the Invaders and
thus faces defeats.

Turkish Invasions in India

Mahmud Ghaznavi invaded India almost 17 times between 1000-1025 AD. The influence of
Arabs was restricted to a small part of the Indian Subcontinent whereas the Turks were able
to get a foothold inside the Subcontinent and establish a full-fledged state centuries later.

The Turkish Invasion took place in two phases where during the first phase they mainly
aimed at plundering and looting the wealth to enrich the Ghaznavid dynasty and not to
spread of Islam or any establish any kingdom in India.

Period of Invasion

Turkish rule started in 1000 AD and continued till Khalji Dynasty. Alauddin Khalji was the
last known Turkish ruler in India. This was the preparatory phase for the establishment of
the Delhi Sultanate.

Subuktagin (977 to 998)

Subuktagin was the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty. He was the father of Mahmud
Ghazni. Battle of Peshawar 1001 between the Ghaznavid army of sultan Mahmoud Bin
Subuktagin and the Hindu Shahi army of Jaypala. A humiliation treaty was signed between
Jaypala and Subuktagin due to the loss of Jaypala. This was the first major battle of the
Ghaznavid expansion in the Indian subcontinent. Subuktagin conquered a large territory in
Central Persia.

Mahmud of Ghazni’s (971 to 1030) invasion

Ghaznavi was the first ruler to attack the Rajput kingdom in India. He had a vision of
establishing supremacy over Muslim rulers. He had hundreds of Hindu soldiers in his
army including his commander named Tilak.
About Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni (Nov. 2, 971–April 30, 1030). He was the first ruler to be given the title
of Sultan. His father was Abu Mansur Sabuktegin and had two younger brothers; the
second one, Ismail, was born to Sabuktegin’s principal wife. On his deathbed, Subuktgein
handed over the powers to his younger son Ismail.

Mahmud challenged his younger brother, seized his throne and put him to house arrest.
The new Sultan then ruled till his death in 1030.

Battles and Outcomes during Arabs and Turks Invasion

Let us look at some important Battles Fought by Ghazni

Year Battle Leader Opponent Winner

1001 Battle of Peshawar Mahmud of Ghazni Jayapala Ghaznavids
1005-6 Siege Of Multan Mahmud of Ghazni Fateh Daud Ghaznavids
1008 Battle of Balkh Mahmud of Ghazni Ahmad Arslan Qara Khan Ghaznavids
1009 Battle of Chach Mahmud of Ghazni Anandpala Ghaznavids
1027 Battle of the Indus River Mahmud of Ghazni Jats Ghaznavids
Army Capacity

The army used to be recruited by far away states in adolescence. They used to form the
minds of adolescents and grow their bodies, so that they could fight.

Mahmud, in his invasion took more than 50000 slaves.

End of Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni died on 30th April 1030 at the age of 58 due to Malaria and
Tuberculosis.

Muhammad of Ghori’s (1149 – 1206) invasion

Let us understand Muhammed Ghori’s invasion in Detail

Period of Invasion

1149-1206 AD

About Muhammad Ghori

Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori was the first Turkish ruler who had the intention of
establishing his kingdom in India. He first occupied Multan in Punjab. While trying to
occupy Gujarat he was given tough competition by Bhima of the Chalukya dynasty and
was thus unable to occupy it, rather he barely managed to survive.
During the same time, Prithviraj Chauhan of the Chauhan dynasty was also trying to
expand their kingdom. Prithviraj facing defeat by Bhim of the Chalukya dynasty in Gujarat
wanted to expand to Punjab where the fates of both rulers met.

Battles and outcomes

Let us look at some important battles fought by Muhammad Ghori

Year Battle Opponent Outcome

1191 First Battle of Tarain Prithviraj Chauhan Ghori lost
1192 Second Battle of Tarain Prithiviraj Chauhan Ghori won
1194 Battle of Chandwar Jaychandra of Kannauj Ghori Won

Army Capacity

It was estimated that the army consisted of 15000 cavalry, 10000 infantry and thousands of
rearguards.

End of Ghori

Ghori was assassinated on 15th March 1205. The name of his assassin remains unknown

Administration Policies of Turkish Invaders

The Turks governed the vast Indian subcontinent for around 800 years. Members of the
Turkish dynasty were good rulers and had the abilities of good administrators.

o The most important distinction between Turks and earlier rulers was the policy of
centralization and decentralization of administration.
o The empire was divided into several provinces which were governed by Governors
and councils of ministers. They also had a standing army which was controlled by a
specific committee.
o The accounts of the Judicial system and tribunals are meagre and a clear picture
could not be formed of the Judicial system during the Turks.
o Balban tries to unite the empire instead of just extending his boundaries. They
realised consolidation is the only way to rule a vast territory like the Indian
subcontinent. Feroz Shah established many royal karkhanas or factories in which
thousands of slaves were employed. During his rule 300 new towns were also built.

Effects of Turkish Invaders

o It led to the establishment of Muslim rule over India. Many temples of Gods and
Goddesses were destroyed.
o India’s trade with Central and west Asian countries increased thus leading to the
increasing wealth of the nation.
o Several new preachers emerged who were called Sufi.
 o The artisans from Italy and Iraq brought new methods of construction which were
adopted by Indian artisans.
o The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built during the lifetime of
Muhammad. in Kodungallur, in the district of Thrissur, Kerala.
o Turkish rulers adopted and welcomed Hindus and other unbelievers who wanted to
embrace Islam. Indian people who wished to convert to Islam had to simply enter
the sultan’s palace and make the two testimonies and the sultan would bestow upon
them and give them a golden necklace. Turkish rulers pursued this procedure to
encourage Hindus to accept Islam.
o Firoz Shah, one of the greatest sultans of Delhi, exempted everyone who converted
to Islam from tax (jizya)
o According to a new study, the origins of some Indian languages can be traced back
to “Anatolia” (largely in Turkey). These languages include Marathi, Hindi, Gujarati,
Bengali, Kashmiri, Oriya, Marwari, Bhojpuri and Urdu.
o The architecture in the Indian subcontinent flourished under Turkish domination.
Forts were simple but sturdy, arches above the doorways and windows were seen
instead of the beams which were used by Indians before the arrival of the Muslims.
They also used tall and well-made towers or minarets in their buildings, and pillars
were used for their support.
o The sultans also founded towns such as Agra, Fatehabad, Hissar Firoza (UP), and
Jaunpur.

The Turks governed the Indian subcontinent which was a large area. Consolidation was
one of the best administrative policies that helped them. They adopted an administrative
system which helped them to control such a vast area as the Indian subcontinent. The Turks
in India also contributed to the promotion of Indian civilisation and Islamic civilisation as a
whole.

Conclusion
The period from 700 to 1000 saw a lot of changes in the Indian dynamics with the defeat of
great Indian rulers like Prithviraj Chatham Indian subcontinent saw the rise of Muslim rule.
Rulers like Muhammad of Ghaznavi were not much strict in their policies whereas
Muhammad plundered Indian temples and destroyed the images of gods and guesses.
These invaders led to the establishment of further dynasties like the Slave, and Khalji and
ultimately to the rise of Mughal rule in India
 South Indian kingdoms
Pallavas & chalukyas
1. Introduction

The period from C.300 CE to 750 CE marks the second historical

phase in the regions south of the Vindhyas. In the first phase we
notice the ascendency of the Satavahanas over the Deccan and that of
the Sangam Age Kingdoms in Southern Tamilnadu. In these areas and
also in Vidarbha from 3rd Century to 6th Century CE there arose
about two dozen states which are known to us from their land
charters.

In Northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha (Berar) the Satavahanas

were succeeded by the Vakatakas. Their political history is of more
importance to the North India than the South India. But culturally the
Vakataka kingdom became a channel for transmitting Brahmanical
ideas and social institutions to the South.

The Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of

Badami who played an important role in the history of the Deccan
and South India for about two centuries until 753 CE when they were
overthrown by their feudatories, the Rashtrakutas.

The eastern part of the Satavahana Kingdom, the Deltas of the

Krishna and the Godavari had been conquered by the Ikshvaku
dynasty in the 3rd Century CE. They left behind many monuments at
Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikota.

The Ikshvakus were supplanted by the Pallavas. The authority of

the early Pallavas extended over Southern Andhra and Northern
Tamilnadu and set up their capital at Kanchi. The Kadambas of
Banavasi, the Gangas of Mysore, the Salankayanas of Vengi, the
Vishnukundis of Indrapura, the Kalabhras of Tamilnadu were the
important contemporary rulers of the early Pallavas.
 Eventually by the middle of 6th Century CE the Pallavas of Kanchi,
the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pandyas of Madurai emerged to be
the three major states. The main interest in the political history of
South India from 6th to 8th Century CE centers round the long
struggle between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Badami
for supremacy to control the fertile tracts. The Pandyas who were in
control of Madurai joined this conflict as a poor third power.

Political conflict was, however, no obstacle to cultural growth. A

vast and many sided Hindu revival checked the spread of Jainism and
Buddhism, created a great volume of soul -stirring devotional
literature and advanced philosophic speculation. Numerous instances
of the performance of Vedic sacrifices by the kings were found. Under
the stimulus of this religious impulse, remarkable advances were
registered in Architecture; Sculpture, Painting and Music.

2. Topic I : Pallavas

The Pallavas were one of the greatest dynasties of South India. They
played significant role in the political, social and cultural history of
South India.

2.1 Origin of the Pallavas :

There are many views regarding the origin of the Pallavas. B.L. Rice
and others identified the Pallavas with Pahlavas or Parthians. But
there is no evidence for the migration of the Parthians into the South.
Many others have sought to connect them with Jaffna, identified with
the island of Manipallavam mentioned in the Manimekalai.
According to them the Pallavas were descended on one side from the
Cholas and on the other from the Naga rulers of the Jaffna.
K.P.Jayaswal argues that the Pallavas belonged to the Clan of the
Vakatakas as both of them belong to same gotra.
 S.K. Aiyangar states that the Pallavas were a family of feudatories of
the Satavahanas. This theory has been accepted by many of the
historians. He argued that the Pallavas migrated to Tamil Country
from the southern parts of Satavahana empire. The Pallavas used
Prakrit and Sanskrit, in their inscriptions, patronized Brahmanism and
their inscriptions have been found both in Tamil and Andhra region.
In the ancient Tamil literature they are mentioned as non-Tamils. It is
thus evident that the Pallavas were originally the rulers of the Andhra
region. After the end of the Satavahana rule, the Pallavas asserted not
only independence but also moved to Tondamandalam and settled
there. From this region they extended their sway over the entire
Dravida country with Kanchi as their capital.

2.2 Early Pallavas :

Pallavas rose to the power during the later part of the Ikshvaku rule
in Andhra. Pallava king, Simhavarma defeated the Ikshvaku king
Rudrapurushadatta in 300 CE and established Pallava rule in Coastal
Andhra ,which was known at that time as ‘ Karmarashtra ’and started
as a political power in south India. It is believed that Simhavarma (
280- 335 CE ) was the founder of this dynasty and Sivaskandavarman
who ruled probably about the beginning of the fourth century CE
seems to have been the greatest of the early Pallavas. His dominions
extended from the Krishna to the South Pennar and upto the Bellary
district. He had performed several Vedic sacrifices. Vishnugopa was
the next important Pallava ruler. During his reign Samudragupta
invaded South India and defeated him. The ‘Allahabad Pillar
Inscription’ mentions that during the annexation of Samudragupta
during 345-350 CE Vishnugopa was the Pallava ruler of Kanchipuram.
The Pallava kingdom was attacked by the Chola king Karikala Chola
during the time of Trilochna Pallava (350 – 360 CE). This resulted in
establishing Karikala’s authority over some parts of the Andhra
region. Nandivarman I was the last of the early Pallava kings. During
his time the Pallava kingdom experienced the invasion of the
Kalabhras.
 2.3 Imperial Pallavas :

2.3.1 Simhavishnu (575 – 590 CE) :

Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this line. Simhavishnu defeated

the Kalabhras and laid foundation for the establishment of the “Age of
the Imperial Pallavas”. He also defeated the rulers of Chola, Pandya
and Chera kingdoms. He was the master of the entire region between
the Krishna and the Kaveri. He was a worshiper of Vishnu and had
the title Avanishimha (lion of the earth). According to a literary
tradition, great poet Bharavi visited his court.

2.3.2 Mahendravarman I (590 – 630 CE) :

Simhavishnu was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman I. He was

a versatile genius. He was not only a soldier and statesman, but also a
religious reformer, an architect, a poet and a musician. Mattavilasa,
Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta, Gundabhara and Lalitankura were the
titles assumed by him. The long drawn Pallava-Chalukya conflict
began during this period. Mahendravarman I was defeated by
Pulakesin II at a place called Pullalur near Kanchi. Pulakesin II almost
reached the Pallava capital, but Mahendravarman purchased peace by
ceding their Northern provinces to the Pulakesin II.

Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism but converted to

Saivism under the influence of Tirunavukkarasu or Appar. He studied
music under Rudracharya and composed exercises for the practice of
students on a variety of Vina known as Parivadini. He has authored
the Sanskrit work ‘Mastavilasa Prahasanam’. He was a great builder
of cave temples. The rock cut caves at Mandagapattu, Dalavanur and
Tiruchirapalli were excavated during his time. The Jain paintings
found in the rock cut caves at Sittannavasal located in the present
Pudukkottai region are attributed to him. His title Chitrakarapuli
reveals his talents in music.
 2.3.3 Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE):

Narasimhavarman I was the greatest of the Pallavas who raised the

power and prestige of the dynasty to an amazing height. He had the
title Mahamalla or Mamalla which means ‘great wrestler’. The
Pallava-Chalukya conflict that was started by his father was
successfully continued by him. He wanted to take avenge the defeat of
his father at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II. He defeated
Pulakesin II, in three battles including that at Manimangalam near
Kanchi in 642 CE. Pulakesin II lost his life and hence
Narasimhavarman assumed the title Vatapikonda (the conqueror of
Vatapi).

Another notable achievement of Narasimhanvarman I was his novel

expedition to Srilanka, to reinstate the Sinhalese princes Manavarman.

During his reign Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchi and
noted that Buddhism and Jainism flourished in the city besides
Hindusim. He also noted that it was the birth place of the celebrated
Dharmapala, who became the abbot of the great Vihara of Nalanda.
According to his account the people of Kanchi esteemed great
learning and Ghatika of Kanchi served as a prominent centre of
learning. Besides he was a great builder having constructed
Mamallappuram and created the Monolithic Rathas (Rock-cut Rathas)
during his reign.

2.3.4 Mahendravarman II (668 – 670 CE) :

Mahendravarman II ruled for a very short period of two years, since

he was killed by Chalukya king Vikramaditya I. He also captured
Kanchi, the capital of Pallavas and ruled over it for a short period.

2.3.5 Paramesvaravarman I (670 – 695 CE) :

The Pallava, Chalukya conflict continued during the reign of

Paramesvaravarman I. After many reverses Paramesvaravarman I
finally won a decisive victory over the Chalukyas and their ally, the
Gangas. Paramesvaravarman I was called Ugradanda and ‘destroyer
of the city of Ranarasika’ in an inscription of his son, Ranarasika was a
title of Vikramditya I. Paramesavaravarman I was a devotee of Siva
and built Siva temple at Kuram near Kanchi.

2.3.6. Narasimhavarman II (695 – 722 CE) :

Paramesvaravarman I was succeeded by his son Narasimhavarman

II. He had the title ‘Rajasimha’. He enjoyed a peaceful reign and
credited with the construction of large and beautiful temples like the
Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at
Kanchi. He had the titles like Shankara Bhakta and Agamapriya. He
was also a great patron of Art and letters. The famous Sanskrit scholar
Dandin is said to have adorned his court. He sent embassies to China
and the maritime trade flourished during his reign.

2.3.7 Paramesvaravarman II (728-731 CE) :

Narasimhavarman II was succeeded by his son Paramesvaravarman

II. The Pallava kingdom again had to face defeat and humiliation
during his reign. The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II attacked
Kanchipuram and the Pallava king had to buy peace at a heavy price.
However, he was killed in a war with the Ganga king, an ally of the
Chalukyas.

2.3.8 Nandivarman II (731 – 795 CE) :

Paramesvaravarman II died without any heir to the throne. After the

death of Paramesvaravarman II the Simhavishnu line of Pallava kings
came to an end. A mild war of succession was started in between the
various branches of Pallavas. But the Samantas and the learned people
of the Ghatika of Kanchi selected Nandivarman Pallavamalla,
who belonged to a collateral branch of the Pallavas, as the king. There
was a renewal of conflict between the Pallavas and Chalukyas.
Vikramaditya II invaded the Pallava kingdom, defeated Nandivarman
and captured Kanchi. The Chaluykan king, the Vikramaditya II, after
scoring victory over the Pallava king, entered Kanchi – the city of
Temples. He was wonderstruck by seeing the architectural grandeur
of the Kailsanatha temple, the gem of the Dravidian style of
Architecture.

Nandivarman was a worshipper of Vishnu and a great patron of

learning. During his reign, several old temples were renovated and
new ones like the Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi were
constructed. The celebrated Vaishnava saint Tirumangai Alvar was
his contemporary.

2.4 End of the Pallava Rule:

Vikramaditya II ’ s attack and the temporary occupation of Kanchi

may be regarded as the beginning of the end of the Pallava supremacy
over South India. The Pandyas, the western Gangas and the
Rashtrakutas attacked the Pallava kingdom. Dantidurga, the founder
of the Rashtrakuta Kingdom, defeated Nandivarman, but the latter
offered his daughter Reva in marriage to former and saved
temporarily the collapse of the Pallava Kingdom.

The Pallava rule lasted till the end of the 9th Century CE.
Dantivarman (795 – 846 CE), Nandivarman III (846 – 869 CE),
Nripatunga (869 – 899 CE) were the other rulers.

Aparajitavarman (903 CE), was the last Pallava king. The Chola king
Aditya I defeated the Aparjitavarman and seized the Kanchi region.
With this, the Pallava domination over South India came to an end.

2.5 Contribution of Pallavas to Indian Culture

2.5.1 Administration:

The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. Monarchy

was the order of the day. The title ‘Dharma-Maharaja’ assumed by the
kings show that they exercised their rule righteously. The king was
the head of the state, the fountain of honour, judge, and leader of the
armed forces.
 The Pallava state was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was
administered by officers appointed by the king.

The village is the basic unit of administration. Different types of

villages like villages with inter caste population, Brahmadeya and
Devadana existed during this period. The village administration was
run by various local autonomous assemblies. Sabha, Urar etc., were
the most popular assembles of this period. Every village had got a
court of justice, viz. Dharamasasana. Every village was provided with
professional servants like potters, weavers, carpenters, smiths etc. It
appears that the village acted like self sufficient miniature republics in
the Pallava period. Entrusting the administration of a smaller
territorial to an assembly or a local autonomous institution appears to
be a very important feature of the Pallava polity.

Land revenue was the major source of income. The Pallavas also
levied taxes on professions, marriages, manufacture of salt, sugar and
textiles, draught cattle etc., It is evident from the testimony of Hiuen
Tsang that the people were very hard working and the soil was very
fertile, the labourers who did agricultural work were paid in kind.

2.5.2 Religion :

The heterodox religions viz. Buddhism and Jainism were still very
active in the Pallava kingdom. It is evident from the testimony of
Hieun Tsang that there were hundred Buddhist monasteries and
10,000 Buddhist monks and nuns belonging to the Manayana schools
of Buddhism at Kanchi. Jainism enjoyed popularity in the beginning.

Most of the Pallava kings were the followers of both Vaishnavism

and Saivism. The Pallava kings assumed not only the title “Dharma-
Maharaja’ but also performed the Vedic sacrifices like Agnisthoma,
Vajapeya and Asvamedha sacrifices, which were in conformity with
the Vedic sacrifices. Thus Buddhism and Jainism lost the royal
patronage and mass support.
 This paved the way for the rise of Vedic religion. Besides the
performance of Vedic sacrifices, the worship of gods Brahma, Vishnu
and Siva became popular. From the 7th century onwards the
Nayanars and Alvars contributed to the growth of Saivism and
Vaishnavism. This is known Bhakti movement. The cult of Bhakti
began to dominate the religious life of the South Indians, and the
Alvars and Nayanars played a great part in propagating it.

The Vedic tradition was further reinforced by a movement started

by Sankaracharya. This movement was aimed at cleaning the Vedic
philosophy of its obscurities and its inconsistencies thereby making it
both comprehensible and acceptable to the people at large.
Sankaracharya achieved fame by advocating Advaita philosophy.

2.5.3 Education and Literature:

The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. The University of

Kanchi became the nucleus of learning and intellectualism. It attracted
students from different parts of India and abroad. The founder of the
Kadamaba dynasty, Mayurasarman, studied Vedas at Kanchi.
Dharmapala, who later became the Rector of Nalanda University,
belonged to Kanchi. The Ghatikas and Mathas were the other
Brahmanical educational institutions attached to the Temples.
Sanskrit, the language of privileged, became the recognized medium
in the Brahamanical institutions of the period.

Several works in Sanskrit were produced during this period.

The Kiratarjuniyam of Bharavi, Dasakumaracharita of Dandi and the
Mattavilasaprahasana of Mahendravarman I were the best Sanskrit
works of the period.

The Tamil literature had also developed under the patronage of the
Pallavas. Tiruvelluvar, the author of ‘kural’ lived during this period.
Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated
Mahabharata into Tamil. The ‘Thevaram’ composed by the Nayanars
and ‘Nalayaradivyaprabhandam’ composed by the Alvars represent
the religious literature of the period. The Tamil devotional saints
exploited music and dance to realize the ‘ concept of compassionate
God’ . The religious hymns were sung with the accompaniment of
music and dance. This became a regular feature in the temple
festivals.

2.5.4 Art and Architecture:

The religious revival of the period gave an impetus to the

architectural activity. The contribution of the Pallavas to the Indian
Art and Architecture is immense. In fact the history of Dravidian style
of Indian Architecture in the south began with the Pallavas. It was a
gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to the monolithic
Rathas and culminated in structural temples.

The Five Rathas popularly called as the ‘Pancha Pandava Rathas

(Rock-cut Rathas)’ at Mamallapuram signifies five different styles of
Architecture. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and Shore temple at
Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of early structural temples
of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple is the greatest Architectural
master piece of Pallava Art.

The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture.

The Mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The sculpture
depicting the ‘Descent of Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna’ at
Mamallapuram is a master piece of classical art. Music, Dance and
Painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas. The
Paintings at the caves of Sittannavasal belonged to the Pallava period.

2.5.5 Spread of Indian Culture:

The crowning achievement of the Pallavas was that they became

torch-bearers of Hindu culture in South-East Asia. This later on paved
the way for the creation of Greater India.
 3. Topic II : Chalukyas of Badami :

3. 1 Introduction:

Chalukyas of Badami were the successors of the Vakatakas in

western Deccan. They established their capital at Vatapi, modern
Badami in the Bijapur district, which forms a part of Karnataka. They
ruled over an extensive area in the Deccan for about two centuries
from 543 to 753 CE and united whole of south India. Later they
branched off into several independent ruling houses, but the main
branch continued to rule at Vatapi. Their period has also been
important in the history of India for their cultural contribution.

3.2 Origin :

The origin of the name, Chalukyas is not yet clear and is a subject of
controversy. The inscriptions do not throw light on it. The literary
works are full of legends about their origin. According to Bilhana, the
author of Vikramankacharita, the original home of the Chalukyas was
Ayodhya. The late Chalukyan inscriptions also lay claim to Ayodhya
as their ancestral home. But all this seems to have been done to claim
legitimacy and respectability. Some others thought that the Chalukyas
were a local Kanarese people who improvised into the ruling Varna
under Brahmanical influence. This opinion seems to be more
probable, though there is no evidence for this also.

3.3 Political History :

 Pulakesin I (543 – 566 CE) was the real founder of the Chalukyan
kingdom. He was the son of Ranaraga and grandson of Jayasimha.
The name Pulakesi probably means ‘The Great Lion’. He built a strong
fortress at Vapati (Modern Badami) in Bijapur district of Karnataka
and declared independence by performing a horse sacrifice. He
assumed the titles Satyasraya (the asylum of truth) and Ranavikrama
(the valorous in war).
 Kirtivarman I (566 – 597 CE) the son of Pulakesin I enlarged the
ancestral kingdom by waging wars against the Kadambas of Banavasi,
 the Nalas of Bastar and Mauryas of Konkan. As a result of his
conquests a large part of Maharashtra came under his rule. The
conquest of Konkan brought the important port of Goa, then known
as Revatidvipa, into the growing empire.
 Mangalesa (597 – 609 CE) : At the death of Kirtivarman, his son
Pulakesin II was too young to rule, so his uncle Mangalesa,
Kirtivarman’s brother held sway as regent. Mangalesa continued the
policy of expansion and invaded the territory of Kalachuri king
Buddharaja whose dominion extended over Gujarat, Kandesh, and
Malwa. He suppressed a rebellion on the part of the governor of
Revatidvipa and re-established Chalukyan power in the Konkan.
When Pulakesi came of age ,Mangalesa did not hand over the
kingdom to his nephew but wanted to grab it permanently
.Thereupon, Pulakesin II gathered the army, defeated and killed his
uncle Mangalesa in the battle and proclaimed himself king in 609 CE.

3.3.1 Pulakesin II (609 – 642 CE) :

 Pulakesin II was the greatest king of the Chalukya of Badami. His

accession to the throne in the year 609 CE, marks the beginning of an
important epoch in the history of Deccan. The Chalukyas who
remained until then as a local power, confined to Karnataka and
Southern Maharashtra, spread over the whole of the Deccan and
became paramount sovereigns of the entire peninsula to the South of
the Vindhyas.
 His Aihole inscription, composed by Ravikiriti, narrates his victorious
campaigns and of his great qualities. These included victories against
the Kadambas of Banavasi, Alupas and Gangas of Mysore. Dhurvinita
the Ganga ruler accepted his overlord ship and even gave his
daughter in marriage to Pulakesin II, and she became the mother of
Vikramaditya I. The Mauryas of Northern Konkan for once more
reduced to submission by successful attack on their capital Sripuri (on
the Island of Elephanta).
 The Latas, Malwas and Gurjaras also offered their submission to him
because of their fear of Harshavardhana of Kanauj. After this
Pulakesin II defeated the rulers of Kosala, vishnukundins, Kalinga,
 Pistapura and the Banas of Rayalaseema. As the Chalukyan empire
became too vast to be governed from Badami , Pulakesi made his
brother Vishnuvardhana Viceroy in 624 and allowed him to rule the
Vengi empire independently.
 His greatest achievement was his victory over Harsha on the banks of
river Narmada in 630 CE. Thus the river Narmada became a border
line between the two empires. This fact has been recorded in the
Aihole Prasasti and also in the writings of Hieun Tsang. The present
day Maharashtra, West coast, East coast of Andhra and Gujarat were
included in his empire.
 Pulakesin’s first expedition against the Pallava kingdom, which was
then ruled by Mahendra Varman I was a complete success and he
annexed the northern part of the Pallava kingdom. He again invaded
the Pallavas, but the Pallavas now under Narasimhavarman I,
defeated and killed Pulakesin II and captured Badami.
 Pulakesin II sent a complimentary embassy to the Persian king
Khusrau II in 625-626 CE. The reception given to the Persian mission
is, in fact, depicted in one of the famous Ajanta cave paintings. The
Chinese, Hiuen Tsang paid a visit to the Chalukya kingdom and was
highly impressed by the power and efficiency of the administration of
Pulakesin II. Hiuen Tsang’s description is quite useful in knowing the
social and economic conditions of the Chalukyas of Badami.

3.3.2 Vikramaditya I (644 – 681 CE) :

There was a temporary decline in the fortunes of the Chalukyas after

Pulakesin II. However, Vikramaditya I was able to re-establish the
glory by driving out the Pallava forces after 12 years. In 668 CE he
advanced against Kanchi and defeated the Pallava Mahendravarman
II, who later died. Thus, Vikramaditya I avenged his father’s defeat
and death at the hands of the Pallavas. He is also said to humble the
power of the Cholas, Pandyas and the Keralas. Pallava king
Parameshvaravarman defeated Vikramaditya I in 674 CE at
Peruvalanallur.
 3.3.3 Vinayaditya (681-693 CE) :

Vinayaditya succeeded his father Vikramaditya I in 681 CE. He won

many wars including his war against king Yashovarma of Kanauj. He
was succeeded by his son Vijayaditya (693-733 CE). He was also a
good warrior like his father and defeated his arch rival, the Pallava
king, Parameswravarma. Vijayaditya was succeeded by his son
Vikramaditya II (733- 744 CE). He waged several wars including the
Arabs in Gujarat and he defeated the Pallava king Nandivarman II,
Cholas, Pandyas and Kalabras and erected a victory pillar on the
shores of south sea.

3.3.4 Kirtivarman II (744 – 753 CE) :

Kirtivarman II was the last representative of this dynasty. The

Pallava – Chalukya conflict literally reduced the economic stability of
the kingdom. This in turn gave a blow to the political unity of the
kingdom. The subordinates started asserting their power and hence
the central authority was reduced. The Rashtrakutas, the most
powerful feudatories, took the advantage and dethroned the
Chalukyas from power. Kirtivarman was defeated by Dantidurga, the
founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Thus the Chalukyan empire
passed on into the Rashtrakutas.

3.4 Contribution to Indian Culture:

3.4.1 Administration:

The central government under the Chalukyas of Badami exercised a

Paternalistic control over the village administration, which was unlike
the administrative practice of South India. Thus the main difference
between the Chalukyan administration and that of South Indian rulers
like Pallavas and Cholas was that the South Indian rulers allowed a
great amount of autonomy to the village administration. Village
autonomy was absent under the Chalukyas.
 The rule of the Chalukyas of Badami was confined to north-western
part of the Deccan plateau. This may be styled as ‘Plateau kingdom’.
In the plateau kingdoms the water level is at the lowest and also not
possible for the excavation of canals and tanks. The state income from
land seems to have been very limited, since most of the land was
rocky and not fertile. The earnings from the trading activities also
were not considerable, since trade and commerce in India during this
period was a general decline. Hence the Chalukyas resorted to
frequent invasions and plunder of the neighbouring territories. The
mutually destructive Chalukya-Pallava conflict can be properly
understood only in this background.

The Chalukyas of Badami are said to have been a great maritime

power. Pulakesin II had 100 ships in his army. The army of the
Chalukyas consisted of a small standing army, but mainly of feudal
levies. Army officers seem to have been used in civil administration
whenever an emergency arose.

3.4.2 Religion :

The contribution of the Chalukyas of Badami in the field of religion,

art and architecture is of immense value. The period was an era of the
revival of Hindu culture and spirituality. The Vaishnavism,
Saivism, Shakta cults and Jainism had received generous
encouragement both from the kings, queens and the subjects.
Importance was too given to Vedic rights and rituals. Pulakesin I, the
founder of the dynasty, performed Asvamedha sacrifice. Quite a few
Brahmanical treatises were also composed during this period. It was
the popularity of Brahmanism and Puranic religion that gave
momentum to the building of temples in honour of Vishnu, Shiva and
other gods.

Temples were built in large numbers at Badami, Mahakuta ,

Pattadakal, Aihole, Alampur and at other places and rock-cut caves
were excavated at Badami, Aihole and at other places during this
regime. Vikramaditya brought some sculptors from Kanchipuram for
constructing temples in his empire.. The temples at Badami include
the Melagitti Shivalaya and a group of four rock-cut halls. Aihole is a
town of temples and contains around 70 structures.

Though they were the staunch followers of Hinduism, they showed

admirable spirit of tolerance towards the other religions. Hiuen Tsang
mentioned the decline of the Buddhism in western Deccan. But
Jainism was steadily on the path of progress. Ravikirti, the court poet
of Pulakesin II, who composed the Aihole inscription, was Jain.
Similarly Vijayaditya and Vikramaditya gave liberal donations to
Jains.

3.4.3 Art and Architecture:

The Chalukyas were the great patrons of Art and Architecture. The
early Chalukyas of Badami were responsible for the introduction of a
new style of Architecture known “the Chalukyan Style” or the
“Vesara” style in the annals of Deccan architecture. Monuments built
under this style represent a harmonious combination of Nagara (north
Indian) and Dravida (south India) style of architecture.

The Chalukyan monuments represent two phases. Cave temples

represent the first phase. Their cave temples are found in Ajanta,
Ellora and Nasik. They are monolithic and excavated in sloppy hills.
They are in Brahmanical dedication and Buddhist in style and
technique.

The structural temples built by the Chalukyan kings and their

subordinates represent the second phase. The Chalukyan temples in
the beginning had flat or slightly inclined roof tops. In the later phases
tower like structure (Vimana) has appeared. Pillared Mantapa was
added to the four walled Garbhagriha .This is an important
development not to be found in Gupta temple architecture. The Durga
temple at Aihole is in horse-shoe shaped platform which was an
imitation of Buddhist Chaitya. The Virupaksha temple is built on the
model of the Kailasanatha temple Kanchi. The sculptors brought from
Kanchi were employed in its construction.
 The sculptures representing various aspects of Siva and Vishnu in
the Chalukyan temples exhibit highest degree of perfection in the art
of carving. Here also one can discern the interaction of Nagara and
Dravida art traditions.

The Chaluykan kings not only took interest in building temples but
also took sufficient interest in extending patronage for the promotion
of art of paining. This is very well supported by some of the paintings
found in Cave number 1 at Ajanta. The two panels of paintings, one
painted on the ceiling and the other on the wall, represent the Persian
emperor Khusrau and his queen Shirin and Pulakesin II receiving the
return embassy from Persia.

Thus, the Chalukyas of Badami played an important role in the

political history of Deccan for nearly two centuries. Their cultural
contributions particularly in the fields of polity, religion, art,
architecture, painting etc. were sumptuous and substantial.
 Gandhara and Mathura School of Art
Between the 1st and 3rd centuries B.C, the Mathura School thrived on the
banks of the Yamuna River. Despite the fact that both schools of art appear to
have emerged under the Kushanas' rule, they are located in distinct places on
the Northwest Frontier and in Mathura. This article will explain to you the
concepts related to Gandhara and Mathura School of Art - Major
Differences which will be helpful in Indian Art and Culture preparation for
the UPSC Civil service exam.

Gandhara School of Art

 Gandhara art flourished in India during the reign of the Kushan
Empire.
 Kanishka, the greatest of the Kushanas, was a well-known patron of the
arts and building. During his reign, the Gandhara School of painting
flourished.
 Greek techniques had a big effect on Gandhara School.
 The Greek invaders brought the traditions of Greek and Roman
sculptors with them, which affected the region's native traditions.
 As a result, the Gandhara School became known as the Greco-Indian
School of Art.

Gandhara school of art

 Other Relevant Links

Mathura school of art Gandhara school of art

Sarnath school of art Amravati school of art

Buddhist Monuments of South India Bharhut stupa

Early temples Stupas

Chaityas Viharas

Mathura School of Art

 Indianism had a huge influence on the Mathura School of Art. The
sculptures lacked spirituality.
 Sculptures and statues were typically made out of spotted red
sandstone. The Buddha and the Bodhisattva are shown in the beginning
as joyful, plump creatures with little spirituality.
 The Mathura School of Arts was known for its Buddha representations,
as well as statues of many gods and goddesses, including Jain
Tirthankaras.
 The narrative and imagery of all three religions of the time – Buddhism,
Hinduism, and Jainism – were impacted by the Mathura School's
sculptures.
 The images were based on Yaksha images discovered during
the Mauryan period.

Mathura school of art

 Major Differences between Gandhara and Mathura
School of Art
Differences Gandhara school Mathura school

The Mathura School flourished on the banks of the

Time of Between 50 B.C. and 500 A.D., the Gandhara
river Yamuna in the period between 1st and 3rd
development School flourished in two periods.
centuries B.C.

Patronage Kushan dynasty Kushan dynasty

Mathura, Sonkh, and Kankalitila were the sites of

Area of Developed in the modern-day Kandahar region of
development. Jain sculptures were famous in
development the northwest Frontier.
Kankalitala.

 It was created by indigenous peoples without

 It is also known as Indo- Greek art because
the influence of outside cultures.
of the heavy influence of Greek or
 The narrative and imagery of all three
Hellenistic sculpture.
religions of the time, Buddhism, Hinduism,
Influence  The Greek invaders brought the traditions
and Jainism were impacted by the Mathura
of Greek and Roman sculptors with them,
School's sculptures.
which affected the region's native
 The images were based on Yaksha images
traditions.
discovered during the Mauryan period.

Religious Buddhist imagery influenced by the Greco-Roman The three major religions of the time, Hinduism,
influence pantheon is the most common. Jainism, and Buddhism, all had an impact.

Early Gandhara School buildings used bluish-grey Mathura School's sculptures used spotted red
Materials used
sandstone, whereas later used mud and stucco. sandstone.

 With flowing hair, the Buddha is depicted

in a spiritual mood.  Buddha is depicted with a happy expression
 He has fewer jewelry on and is reclining in on his face.
the yogi stance.  Wearing a tight dress on the body symbolizes
 As in meditation, the eyes are partially muscularity.
Features of
closed.  The head and face have been shaved.
Buddha  The Buddha's omniscience is symbolized  Buddha is seated in padmasana with many
by a protuberance on his head. mudras and a serene expression on his face.
 The halo is not generally decorated in  On the head, a similar protuberance can be
Gandhara Style, and the pictures are much seen.
more expressive.

 The existence of pictures of the Mother The woman was at the center of the painting, and
Goddess is another telling aspect, as
there are few works of Indian art that can match the
Other features worship of this goddess remains an
important religious expression for ordinary gorgeous feminine figures created by the Mathura
people. artists in terms of beauty, delicacy, and appeal.
 Buddhism, like other popular religious
 cults, became intertwined with fertility
cults.

Conclusion
Some believe that the earliest iconographers were Hellenistic artists of
Gandhara, while others trace it to Mathura's sculptures. Sculptures created by
the former are typically regarded as belonging to the Gandhara school, while
those created by the latter are regarded as belonging to the Mathura school.
Because the sculptural and iconographic elements of their works differ in
crucial details, it is likely that images were created roughly simultaneously by
both schools.