Radar $ystems 2-11 Radar Equation

part of Nignal energy into noise energy during

rectification
integration efficiency for postdetection integration is given by, process. The
(SN), ...(2.4.4)
n(yN),
" For same integrated SNR, post-detection integration
requires more
than predetection, assuming SNR per pulse is same in both cases. pulses
When
large number of pulses are integrated (small SNR per pulse), the difference
between predetection and post detection is significant.
The radar equation with n pulse integrated is given by,
1/4
P GA
Rmax ..(2.4.5)
|(4n)' KTo BE,(S/N),.
where,

is signal-to-noise ratio of each pulse.

2.5 Radar Cross-Section (RCS) of Targets

The amount of power reflected by the target depends on many factors
including the size, shape, material (metal, plastic, wood or water) and edges
(sharp or rounded) of the target, as well as the frequency of the incident
radar signal and the angle between the radar system and the target.
The radar cross-section o is the property of a scattering object which
represents the magnitude of the echo signal returned to the radar by the
target.
The radar cross-section depernds on the characteristic dimensions of the object
compared to the radar wavelength. When the wavelength is large compared
to the object's dimensions, scattering is said to be in Rayleigh region. The
radar cross-section in the Rayleigh region is proportional to the fourth power
of the frequency.
When the wavelength is small compared to the object's dimensions is called
the optical region.
In between the Rayleigh region and optical regions is the resonance regions,
where the radar wavelength is comparable to the objects dimensions
(approximately 1 to 10 wavelengths).
Radar Systems 2-12

Definition Radar Eo
A target's radar crosS-section is defined as the ratio of
1sotropically scattered power to the incident power density. its
Scattered or reflected power /Unit
ettet
solid
Incident power/Unit area ange
The radar cross-section in area units (angles are
dimensionless). The
usually given in square metres. The decibel equivalent
dB m of
square metarreeas
Lim |E,
R’

where,
E, is incident electric power (a plane
E, is reflected or scattered
wave).
electric field (a spherical wave as R’ ).
Ris range ot target.
2.5.1 RCS of Simple Targets
RCS is a strong function of
STsm Also RCS is strong azimuth ofand elevation in spherical co-ordinat
Sle targets are calculatedfunction
by
frequency and polarization. RCS
raue Some simple targets are using electromagnetic theory (boundar
n ondr etc. sphere, flat plate, corner reflector,
luneburg
2511 Sohere
Apeietiy
ssateredconducting sphere acts as isotropic radiator i.e.
Even by,
unifomly into all 4r steradians. The radar incident radiation
cross-section (RCS)
2
ta S(-1 (2n +1) (an +b,) ..2,5:

P = 2a ia is
spherical radius.
In (P)
For perfectly conducting sphere.
(p)
 2-13
Radar Equation
Radar Systems

p in (p)] For perfectly conducting sphere

b,

where,
i, is spherical Bessel function of the first kind.
h is spherical Hankel function of second kind.
n is summation counter.
circumference (2Ta) measured in
Radar cross-section as a furnction of its
wavelengths is shown in Fig. 2.5.1.

Rayleigh
region

2+

1+
Optical
region
Tta

0.5

0.2+
Mie or Resonance region

0.5 1 2
0.05 0.1 0.2

Circumference
wavelength ()
Fig. 2.5.1
 Radar Systems 2-14

The RCS of sphere is characterized into three regions. Radar Equat

1. Rayleigh region
2. Optical region
3. Resonance region
2ra
1. Rayleigh Region C<<1 or

The RCS is much less Tta 2 and becomes progressively smaller for
wavelengths (lower frequencies), this is why lower
better than higher ones.
frequencies penetratelongraj
a6
RCS = 144

1
RCS
14
RCS
2Tra
2. Optical Region >> or
ra>a
The region where is large is optical region. The RCS approaches the
physical area of the sphere as the frequency is increased.
RCS = Ta 2
3. Resonance (mie) Region 2ta1 or av
In this region o oscillates about the optical cross-section (ra?) with
maximum and minimum values that close together with increasing
means that RCS fluctuates above and below Tta
wavelength. depending on the exa

2.5.1.2 Cone-Sphere
It is a cone whose base is
capped with a sphere. A plot of norme
nose-on radar cross-section as afunction of 2Ta
is shown in Fig. 2.5.2.
RadarSystems 2- 15
Radar Equation

a Radius of sphere
2= wavelength
Cone angle 30

0.1+

Tta

0.014

0.001 L 7
4 5 6

2ra

Fig. 2.5.2

low and is considered to be of

The cross-section of cone sphere is a very
a radar views the cone
ballistic missile. A large cross-sectiorn occurs when
perpendicular to its surface.

2.6 Transmitter Power

Average transmitter power
power is defined over the duration of total transmission
Average transmnitter width t
period. The transmitted waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of
and has pulse repetition period Tp.
Tp = f, is pulse repetition frequency

Average power is given by,

P,T
Pav Tp
 2-16
Radar Systems
in ratio of pulse width (PW) to pulse
Radar
The duty cycle of
(IRT).
radar

PW
repetitim
Duty cycle PRT
is given as
Interms of average power it

Duty cycle Tp
radar is dependenton
The dutycycle of
1)
Type of waveform
2) Pulse compression
Pulse width
3)
4) Radar range
Type of transmitter
5) from 0.01 to 0.5. The duty cycle of o
radar is ranging
Duty ccle of pulse
radar is unity.
interms of average power can be expressed as
The radar range equation V4
Pay GAeOn Ei(n)
Rmax

where,
(W)
Pay = Average transmitted power
G = Antenna gain
A, = Antenna aperture.
= Radar cross-section of target (m)
Integration efficiency
Ei(n)K = Boltzmann's
=

constant (1.38 × 10-2 J/deg)

F, = Receiver noise figure

B = Receiver bandwidth (Hz)
7 = Pulse width (sec)
RadarSystems 2-17
Radar Equation

= SNR required as if direction were based on only single

pulse

f, = Pulse repetition frequency (Hz)

2.7 PRF and Range Ambiguities
PRF is mainly determined by maximum unambiguous range. The PRF
corresponding to maximum unambiguous range is given by,
2 Runambiguous
f, =
where,
cis velocity of propagation.
Echo signals that are received later than pulse repetition period are known as
These echoes
second time around echoes or multiple time around echoes.
mask unambiguous target echoes
may cause error and confusion. Also it can
at shorter ranges. Pulse doppler radars have usually problem of range
multiple time around echoes
ambiguities because of prf. The problem of These echoes cannot be
Runambiouous
occurs when the range is greater than 2
determined fromn constant prf.
targets located at three different positions A, Band Cas shown
Consider the
in Fig.2.7.1.
range interval Runambiguous
Ais located within unambiguous 2.Kunambiguous
Runambiguous but less than
Bis located at a distance >
distance > 2. Rnambiguous but less than 3.Runambiguous
Cis located at a around echo and target C is
target B is a second time
Fig. 2.7.1 (a) shows 2.7.1 (b) shows radar display when these
Fig.
multiple time around echo. are superimposed. The ambiguous
echoes B
intervals Out of these
three pulse repetition unambiguous range echo of A.determine that
similar to
and C looks very range of A is correct but it is hard to
three echoes only the
apparent ranges.
other two are not the
recognized by changing the prf of the
ambiguous range echoes are echo (<Runambiguous) remains at
The
changing the prf, the unambiguous appear at different apparent
radar. On The ambiguous range echoesechoes.
its true range.
(c) shows these three
2.7.1
rangesfor prf. Fig.
 2-18
Radar Systems
Radar Equ
A B' Radar S
A

Runamb
t= 2/f, 2.8 Sys
t=1 /,
{0

Time (or range)

(a) Three targets A, B and C where A Is Cwithin the unambioguoue 1. M
is a multiple-time.r
range R..B is a second-time-around echo, and
B A

2. A
Range

(b)Appearance of the three echoes on an A-scope

C A

3. Si

Range
(c) Appearance of the three echoes on the A-scope with a changing prf

Fig. 2.7.1 Multiple-time-around radar echoes that give rise to ambiguities in rano
Let if prf f,j has unambiguous range
Runambiguous1 and the range correspot:
to it is R, then the true rarnge is given by, 4. I
Rtrue = R1 5. C
Or
Rrue = R+Runambiguous1 6. O
or 7. E
Rtrue RË +2Runambiguous1 8. P
Ihe true range can be any of the above
(Rtrue) prf is eguations. To find the correCt ra 9. R
changed to fr with unamnbiguous range
apparent measured range is given by Runambiguous? 2.8.1 M
Rtrue = R2
Rtrue Ry +Runambiguous2
Rtrue R2 +2Runambiguous2
RadarSystems 2-19 Radar Equation

The correct range is same for two prfs. Thus two or more prfs can be used
to correct range ambiguity with increased accuracy and avoiding false values.
2.8System Losses
denoted by
The losses within the radar system is called system losses. It is
Some major source
L. Losses within the system itself are from many sources.
below.
of losses are mentioned
losses
1. Microwave plumbing
Transmission line loss
a.

b. Duplexer loss
2. Antenna losses
a. Beam-shape loss
b. Scarning loss
C. Radome
d. Phased array losses
processing losses
3. SignalNonmatched filter
a.
receiver
b Constant false - Alarm rate
C.
Automatic integrator
Threshold level
d.
e. Limiting loss
Straddling loss
8. Sampling loss
doppler-processing radar
4. Losses in
5. Collapsing loss
6. Operator loss
7. Equipment degradation
8. Propagation effects
9. Radar system losses
Losses transmitter or receiver.
2.8.1 Microwave Plumbing antenna to
transmission line connecting receiver,
Losses in the transmitter to dupiexer, duplexer to isolator,
from such as
Also there are losses in various microwave components
duplexer to antenna and take small amounts of power in
rotary joints. They
directional couplers and
Radar Systems 2- 20

the transmission lines and cither convert them to heat or

Radar Equa
other purposes. divert them
Some components reflect small amount of power in opposite
transmission line systems exhibits losses due to absorption
These losses are lumped together as the plumbing loss. anddirecrteioflnect
Typical plumbing losses in S-band radar operating at 3GHz are as tet
No. Component Loss
1. Aluminium waveguide 1.0 dB
100 feet, RG113/Utype
2. Duplexer and other devices 2.0 dB

3 Rotary joint 0.8 dB

4. Connectors and bends 0.3 dB
5. RF devices 0.4 dB
Total plumbicon loss 4.5 dB

2.8.2 Antenna Losses

Antenna losses include radiation loss, beam
radome and phased array losses. shape loss, scanning
1. Beam shape loss
In radar equation
antenna gain is assumed as
but in practice as a search constant at its maximum va
antenna
peak gain to all echo pulses. scans across a target, it does not
When the oftr
maximum antenna gainG occurs whensystem the
integrates several echo p
direction target. Fig. 2.8.1
of peak of antenna beam is -
The beam shape loss is illustrates beam shape loss.
Beam shape loss computed by, n

555K2
1+2>. k=]
l(ng-1)'
 RadarSystems
2 -21
Radar Equatlon
Where,
.A is total number of pulses
integrated.
tion is number of pulses
received within one-way half power
s, O is half power beamwidth.
beamwidth ().
Antenna main beam

Peak antenna gain

G(0)

Target

Location of
n echo pulses
Fig. 2.8.1 Antenna beam shape loss
Ss,
2. Scanning loss
When radar antenna scans rapidly compared to round trip time of echo
signal, the gain of antenna may not be same for transmission and while
receiving of echoes. This variation of antenna gain results in scanning loss.
ts
The scanning loss is most significant in long range scanning radars, such as
space surveillance and ballistic missile defense radars.
e
3. Radome

The loss introduced by radome is decided by its type and operating

frequency. A commonly used ground based metal space frame radome offers
a loss of 1.2 dB for two way transmission.
with dielectric space
Air supported radomes have lower loss and radomes
frame has higher loss.
4. Phased array losses
because
Additional transmission losses are observed in phased array radars
receiver and transmitter to
of distribution network used for connecting
multiple elements of array.
 2-22
Radar Systems

These losses reduces antenna power gain. Sometimes phased Radar Equan,
array Ra
accounted in system losses.
2.8.3 Signal Processing Losses
\os es
extraction
For defecting targets in clutters and in
informat
echo signals very precise and lossless signal processing is ion from rat
losses accounted during signal processing are mentioned. necessary. Sol

No. Process/Components Loss

1 Non matched filter 0.5 to 1.0 dB
2. Constant False-Alarm Rate > 2.0 dB
(CFAR)
3 Automatic integrator 1.5 to 2.0 dB
4. Limiting loss 1 dB
5. Straddling loss 1.0 to 2.0 dB
6
Sampling loss 2.0 dB
7.
Threshold level loss Upto 1dB
2.8.4 Collapsing Loss
2.8.5
When additional noise samples are
added noise causes integrated with signal + noise pulses, t
degradation
The collapsing loss is
called collapsing loss.
given by Le
Le(mn) LiLi(mn+n))
=

..2:
where,
LiLi((n)m+n)is is integration loss for m+n pulses.
m is noiseintegration loss for n pulses.
n is pulses. Poin
signal to - noise
pulses.
 Radar Equation
RadarSystems 2- 23

signal plus noise pulses along with

Example 2.8.1 : A square lawdetector integrates 10 integration
signal + noise pulses (40) is 3.5 dB and
30 noise pulses. If integration loss for collapsing loss of the radar antenna.
Ioss due to noise pulses (10) is 1.7 dB. Calculate
Solution : Givern

Signal plus noise pulses (m) = 10

Noise pulses (n) = 30
3.5 dB
Integration loss Li(m+ n)
Integration loss Li/n) = 1.7 dB
Collapsing loss is given by,
= Li(m+n)
Le(m+n) Li(n)
3.5
Le(m+n) 1.7

= l8 dB
Le(m+n)
2.8.5 Propagation Effects
Major
propagation effects of radar wave has significant impact on losses.
The performance are under mentioned.
effects of propagation on radar
1. Reflections from earth's surface
2. Refraction
3. Propagation in atmospheric ducts
4. Attenuation in clear atmosphere.
effects are not computed under system loss but under
The propagation
propagation factor.

Points to Remember
important tool for
1. Radar range equation is an
i) Assessing radar performance
ii) Designing radar system
ii)Generating technical requirements
Radar Systems 2-24
Radar Equati
mistakes of
Selection of proper threshold is necessary to avoid
L.
i) Missed detection
ii) False detection
target is given by,
3. Number of pulses returned after hitting
n =

4. The integration of pulses is the process of summing all the radar echoes
received from target.
5. The integration of pulses before second detector is known as predetection
integration or coherent integration.
6. The integration of pulses after second detector is known as post detection or
coherent integration.
7. Integration efficiency for post detection integration
(^N),
Ei(n) n(5/N),
8. Radar cross-section (RCS) is given by
Lim 4nR2 |E,|
R0
|E,2
9. RCS for sphere is given by,
2
Tta

}(-1° (2n+1)(a, tba)|

n=1
10. Average transmitted power is given by
P t
Ip
11. Duty cycde of radar is
i) Type of waveform
dependent on
iü) Pulse width
ii) Pulse compression
v) Type of iv) Radar range
12. Radar
transmitter
system osses are
i) mainly contributed by
i)
Microwave plumbing losses ii) Antenna losses
Signal processing loss
v) Propagation effects. iv) Collapsing loss
RadarSystems 2-25 Radar Equation

Review Questions
1. Which factors affect the radar range practically?
What s the role of threshold in deciding minimum detectable signal?
detection.
3. Define false detection and missed
4 Explain integration of pulses and its types.
5. Define RCS. Give its expression.
sphere.
6. Explain RCS for sphere and cone ?
average transmitted power ? Howit affects radar range
7. What is
ambiguities in radar system.
8. Describe briefly range radar.
system losses in any
9. DisCuss various