Acceptance cone and Acceptance angle

Lost by
Aceptanece diatin
angle
Aeptanoe Cone

Core

B/ Clading
8,-Maximum angle to the axis at which
light may enter the fiber in order to be
propagated.

For rays to transmitted by TIR within the fiber core they must be incident on
the fiber-core within an acceptance cone defined by 0,
 Numerical Aperture (NA)
Refractive index based geometrical property to measure light holding (collecting)
capacity of optical fiber.

NA =n, Sinb, =/n,? - n,? NA = n,V20

A> index difference
4="-n?
2n
for A<<1

Meridional &Skew rays

" Rays transmitted without passing through fib Core avis

cross-section

Oackctude eoch Lborory

 Modes in a planar waveguide
TEm/TMm
Caadrg penetratiom

Dominant modes propagating in Z

direction with electric field in x CGunde
direction formed by rays with Cladding
ITE,
m=1,2,3.

m denotes no. of zeros in transverse

pattern.
m2
Gading peretrten
" Also signifies order of the mode and
is known as mode number.

Ray propagation and corresponding TE

field patterns of three lower order
modes in planar guide

T hdore
Otocleoc Naedior Reech Lory
 Modes in a cylindrical waveguide
Since, cylindrical wavegulde is bounded in 2D ’ TEm/TMim
corresponding tomeridional rays
Resulting from Skew ray propagation > Hybrid modes (E, H, # 0)’
HElm/EHim> If E makes larger contribution to transverse fleld.
If H makes larger contribution to transverse (to axis) fleld.

" Usually, fiber satisfy weakly guiding

approximation,
where, A K1(usually A~3% = 0.03) for practical fiberS
" Since, HE,EH,TE&TM ’ LP modes
Linear combination of degenerate modes ’ field maxima around
LP Exact circumference of core
m> field maxima along
LPos HE1 radial vector
LP1 HEzz,TEot. TM11

odecr Rsceck Labortory

 EMmodes: Light Intensity
(a) The electric field (b) The intensity in (c) The intensity (d) The intensity
of the fundamental the fundamental in LP n
mode
in LP 21
mode LP o

Core

Cbdding

EoA The clectricfield distribution of the fundamental mode

inthe transverse plane to the fiber axis z. The light
intensity is greatest at the center of the fiber. Intensity
>r patterns in LP o, LP i and LP 2, nodes.
1999 S.0. Kasp, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

OPTOELECTRONIC NANODEVICE RESEARCHLARORATORY

 Normalised Frequency or V-number
211
Various EM Modes
V= a. (NA) Guided modes
211
ayn,'-ng 2
V= radiation modes
2r1 * Leaky modes ’
IV= an,V24 practically confined guides modes

Fibre Types (based on number of guided modes)

1) Single Mode Fibre (SME): Only EM mode will be supported
2) MultiMode Fibre (MME): More one EM mode

Crtocfectioc Naodoce Rescarch latotory Tadoe

 Single Mode Fiber

Only one electromagnetic mode is allowed to

propagate ’ No modal dispersion
" Most widely used in long haul high speed
links
"For single mode condition, the V-Number
(Normalized Frequency) < Cut-off V

2ra(NA)
V=
<V.
OPTOELECTRONIC NANODEVICE RESEARCH LABORATORY
 Step Index Fiber

Cladding

Core z Fiberaxis

The step index optical fiber. The central region, the core, has greater refractiv1
index than the outer region, the cladding. The fiber has cylindrical symmetry.
usethe coordinatesr, zto represent any point in the fiber. Cladding is
normally much thicker than shown.
O 1999 S.0. KasapDploelectronics(Prentice Hall)
OPTOELECTRONIC NANODEVICE RESEARCH LABORATORY
 Quantum efficiency and LED power
Excess carrier density decays exponentialy with time

Ranges from milliseconds to fractions of a nanosecond depending on mater1al

composition and device defects.

The excess carriers can recombine either radiatively or nonradiatively.

The total rate at which carriers are generatedis the sum of externally supplied and
the thermallygenerated rates.
Thermal generation rate is given by n/r. Hence, the rate equation for carrier
recombination in an LED is
dn Jn
dt qd T

" The equilibrium condition is found by setting above eqn equal to zero, yielding
Jr
n=
qd
 Steady-state electron density in the active region when a constant current is flowing
through it.

The internal quantum efficiency in the active region is the fraction of the electron
hole pairs that recombine radiatively. If the radiative recombination rate is R,
andthe nonradiative recombination rate is Rr, then the internal quantum
efficiency is, }int =
Rf+Rnr
For decay of excess carriers, the radiative recombination lifetime is T, = "/p. and
the nonradiative recombination1 lifetime is Tnr = "/Rg Thus, the internal quantum
efficiency is, 7int =

14T,/Tnr
where. the bulkrecombination lifetime t is
1 1 1
Tnr

If the current injected into the LED is then the total number of recombination per
second is R, + Rar = I/q
R, is the total number of photons generated per second and that each photon has an
energy hy, then the optical power generated internally to LED is
hcl
Pint = ing -hv= Nint
qà
t Nvde BeahLerdry
 Optical Feedback and Laser Oscillations
Basic cavity/resonator (Fabry-Perot Resonator)’ provides positive feedback of
photons by reflections at the mirrors at the either side

Resonance condition, L
L = Y...1):
2n
q-integer, n-refractive index and A-EM wavelength
Alternatively, f =--2)
Znt.

Different frequency of oscillations within cavity are determined by various integer

values of q&each constitutes a resonanca or mod (longitudinal modes).

Mode separation, 8f=2nL -...3)

Mode separation in terms of wavelength,
8f --4)
using eqn (3), SA =
2rnl.

TEM modes ’ Laser oscillations may also occur in direct perpendicular to axis of
cavity ’ resonant modes transverse to propagation direction ’ Transverse EM
modes (TEM)
 Threshold Condition for Laser Oscillation
In addition to population inversion, a minimum or threshold gain within o.
amplifying medium must be attained for initialization and sustain of laser
oscillations

Fraction loss = r,,exp(-2L)-1)

@’ loss coefflcient per unit length (cm )
r,r,> mirror reflectivities
[on each round trip the beam passes through the medium twice]
Fractionalgain(round trip) = exp(-2jL)--42)
g> gain coefficient per unit length by stimulated emission
Therefore, exp(-2gL). rjhexp(-2al)=1
nrexp[2(g )L]-1
Transmission loss through the
" Threshold gain per unit length mirrors
1 1
2L
For laser action to occur a high threshold gain per unit length is required in order to
balance the losses Gain
fromcoefficient
the cavityrn=BIhreshold current density for
stimulated enission
Gatntactor device constant
 Laser Diode Rate Equation
The relationship between optical output power and diode drive current comes
from the rate equations that govern the interaction of photons and electrons n
the active region

For apn junction with a carrier-confinement region of depth d, the rate equations
are

= Cro + R --(1)
dt

=stimulated emission + spontaneous enission + photon loss

which governs the number of photons , and

dnJn-Cno
dt qdgd ----2)

= injechon + spontaneous recombination + stimulated emiss1on

which governs the number of electrons n.
Note that the two rate equations are coupled via the stimulated emission term. Thus, the
equations suggest 2nd-order diferential equations in time - oscillation of n and ¢.
30
 Solving these two eqns for steady state condition willyield an expression io
the output power.
1
Cn --0 -o-(3)
Tph
This shows that nmust exceed a threshold value in order for to increase.
Interms of the threshold current needed to maintain an inversion level n=nh
in the steady state when the number of photons = 0;
MEh_Jen 4)
qd
This expression defines the current required to sustain an excess electron density
in the laser when spontaneous emission is the only decay mechanism.

Next, consider the photon and electron rate eqn in the steady state condition
at the lasing threshold. Eqn (1) and (2)become
0= Cnn, + Rsp ---(5)

0 J
0= - Cn,,--6)
qd Tsp
Adding eqn (5) &(6),yield the no. of photons per unit vol.,
, =-Jh)+
qd Tph Rsp
Opoethtron, NrodeBesch Laty
ut
 Single longitudinal modes
Operation on a single longitudinal mode, which produces asngl
Îrequency output, may be achieved by reducing the length dof ti
resOnator sothat the frequency spacing between adjacent longiludmal
modes exceeds the spectral width of the amplifying medium.

Belter approach for attaining single-frequency operation involves

the useof distributedreflectors (lBragg gratings) in place of the cleaved
crystal surlaces that serve as lumped mirrors inthe Fabry-Perot
configuration. When distributed fcedback is provided, the surlaces of
the crystal areantireflection (AR)coated to minimize reflections.

e.g. Bragg gratingsas lrequency-selective reflectors can be placed

in the plane of the junction (Distributed Feedback lasers) or outside the
activeregion (Distributed Bragg Reflector lasers, Vertical Cavity 69
Surfuce Emitting Lasers).
 Distributed-feedback (DFB) laser diodes
" Thenost popular techuiques for WDM
p-contact

p-lnP Bragg grating provides distributed feedback

p-lnGaAsP (grating)
InGaAsP active region
n-InP
N-contact
AR coating
The fabricated Bragg grating selectively reflects onhy one wavelength

or
wrchLertory
 The grating in DFB lasers
"The laser has acorrugated structure etched intemallyjust above (ot
below) the active region.
"The corrugationforms an gptical grating that selectively reflects light
according to its wavelength.
" This grating acts as a distributed filter, allowing onlv one of the
caviy longitudaral nodes to propagate back and forih.
"The grating ineracts direcily with the evanescent mode in the space
just above (or below) the active layer.

" The grating is not placed inthe active layer, because ctching in this
regioncould introduce defects that would lower the efticiency of the.
laser, resulting in a bigher threshold current. 71

Oporevos Nanode Ron Ltory

 Bragg grating in aCD/DVD

OThe most common demonstration of

Bragg diffractlon Is the spectrum of
colors seen reflected from a
compact disc: the closely-spaced
tracks on the surface of the disc
form a diffractlon grating, and the
individualwavelengths of whlte light
are diffracted at different angles
from it, in accordance with Bragg's
law.

123 mdeo pts by injockon moidng

a c t r Nuradce BeedA Ltrstuy

 Bragg diffraction in nature
OThe structural colors of butterflies (or
beetles) are produced by periodic
nanostructures of chitin and alr in
the scales of the wings.
OThe wing scales are arranged in a
series of rows like shingles on a
house
UThe structural colors of butterflies
and moths have been attributed to a
diversity of physical mechanisms,
including multilayer interference,
diffraction, Bragg scattering, Tyndall
Scattering and Raylelgh scattering.
Ainate Window:
 Bragg condition
" The operating wavelength is determined from the Brugg conditno:
A=m(,/2n,)
A
isthe grating period, ,/n-r is the wavelength as measured in the
diode as a waveguidc, and mis the integer order of the Bragg
diffraction. (usually m= 1)
D-r is the effective refractive inder of the lasing mode in the active
layer --- n-flies somewhere bctween the index of tlhe guiding layer
(the active region of he diode) andthatof thecladding layers
For double-heterosrnctures, the active region is the higher index
narrow-bandgap region (say n ~3.5), and the cladding region is
the lower-index wide-bandgap region (say n ~ 3.2). 75
DFB laser radiates only one wavelength g-a single longitudal od

d~ 100 um Single
Anti A~ sub-um longitudinal
mode
reflectio AR
(AR) Active rcgion
DFBlaser

For an InGaAsP DFB laser operating at = 1.55um, Ais about 220 nm

if we use the firs-order Bragg difraction (m=l)and n,3.2-3.5.

Oytortt NoávKe PorechLor tur

Power-current characteristics of DFB laser dide

Cband Lo1200am
700

Funabaslhiet al.: Rerent advnces in DIB

100
lasers for ultradese WD\M applicatCIs.
IEEE JSTQE, Vol. 10, Mauch Apnl 2004

400 1200 1402

Laser Curert (na)

Different cavity lengths of 400,600, 800,and 1200 um. Theinset shows

thesinglemode laser spectrum from a packaged 800-um long DFB laser
at a fiber-coupled power of 150 mW @600 mA. 77
 DFBlasers characteristics

" Narrow linewidths (typically 0.1 0.2 nm), attractive for long-haul
high-bandwidth transmission.

" Less temperature dependence than most conventional laser

diodes

The grating tends tostabil1ze the output wavelength, which varies with
temperature changes in the refractive index. An n/2

Typical temperature-induced wavelength shifts are just under 0. 1l nnv'C,

diodes.
aperformance 3-5 times betterthan that of conventional laser
 Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser diodes
" The verucal-cavity surface-enitting laser (VCSEL) was developed
in the 1990s,several decades after the edge-enmitting laser dode
" Thisdiode emits fion its surfacerather than from its sde. The lasng
Is perpendicular to the plane detined by the active layer

" Instead of cleaved facets, the optical feedback is provided by Bragg

relectors(or distributedBragg reflectors DBRS) consisting of layers
with alternating high and low refractive indices.

" Because of the very short cavity length (lhereby a short gain medium),
very high(99%) reflectivityare required, so the reflectors typically
have 20 to 40 layer pairs.

Otodeco Nanodot rrah Lootory KTdore