SIPP: Introduction to

Values

Maria Keet

Department of Computer Science

University of Cape Town
 Terminology: Computer Ethics
■
Computer Ethics describes the field that examines ethical/moral
issues pertaining to computing and information technology
■
Related terms:
– Information ethics refers to a cluster of ethical concerns
regarding the flow of information that is either enhanced or
restricted by computer technology.
– Internet ethics concerns ethical issues involving the Internet in
particular
– Cyberethics broadens the scope beyond individual machines or
the concerns of computer professionals
■
We use computer ethics because computer science is a well
established term that is not restricted to individual machines nor are
its concerns only those of computer professionals.
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Terminology: Ethics and
Morality
■
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that studies morality,
“objects of the study of ethics are therefore the moral
rules, the ways in which they are created and justified, and
the ways in which they are applied or should be applied…
spectrum of what is right and wrong …[and deals] with the
issue of the good life and the search for happiness”
■
Morality refers to manners and habits, considered as a
“collection of codes of conduct that are created by the
conscience, society, or religion” or is universal and
“inherent to all human beings despite the particular
situation” with as source human reason.

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But…

1. How do I know that X is good?

2. Why is X good?

Ø.
Use a moral theory for that

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Moral theory: a way of defining
morality
■
There are multiple moral theories
■
They differ on the core from which you start reasoning toward
whether something is ethical or ‘good’; e.g.:
– Divine command theory: X is good just because God commands
it
– Cultural relativism: an action is judged good (or bad) based only
on the standards that have been adopted by one’s society
– Teleological (utilitarianism): the right decision what is good or
desirable (not the motivation behind it) is the one that causes
the most happiness
■
9 theories described in pdf “Ethics in a Computing Culture” (on AT),
summarised and contrasted on its p38 (and more about that in a few
slides)

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Terminology: Moral agency

■
Determined by several entity innate conditions, three of
which are commonly agreed upon:
1. Causality: An agent can be held responsible if the
ethically relevant result is an outcome of its actions.
2. Knowledge: An agent can be blamed for the result of
its actions if it had (or should have had) knowledge of
the consequences of its actions.
3. Choice: An agent can be blamed for the result if it had
the liberty to choose an alternative without greater harm
for itself.
■
Implicitly, observers tend to exculpate agents if they did
not possess full moral agency, i.e., when at least one of
the three criteria is absent
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 Moral Theories

Basic Concepts: Distinctions and Approaches

MoralTheories
Law

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 Cultural Relativism
■
Ethics is relative
– What is right for me might not be right for you
■
There is (always has been) a good deal of diversity
regarding right and wrong
– Moral beliefs change over time and in a given Society
– Social Environment plays an important role in shaping moral
ideals
■
All the above are true individually but don’t prove (or
disprove) that there is a Universal right or wrong

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 Two Basic Versions of
Ethics
How should I act?
action-based theories

What is the basic issue?

What sort of person should I be?

virtue-based theories

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 Virtue Ethics
From Plato and Aristotle’s Theories
– What is a good person?
– What are the virtues of a good person? E.g.:
■
Courage, Benevolence, Generosity, Kindness,
Honesty, Tolerance, Self Control, Excellence,
Forgiveness, Humility, Tenacity, Empathy, …
– What is a good Computing
Professional?
■
We can apply the above
criteria

Check the Bengirongo lyrics by

Zahara SP: Analytical Tools 10
 Virtue Ethics
eudaimonist virtue ethics
(eudaimonia = “happiness” or “flourishing”)

agent-based virtue ethics

(in terms of motivational and
dispositional qualities of agents)

How to combine virtue

and practical wisdom target-centred virtue ethics
(and other concepts) (virtuous acts; acts that follow from the virtue)

Platonistic virtue ethics

('goodness' of agency)

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Golden Rule (ethic of reciprocity)
Confucius said in The Analects:
– 己所不欲、勿施於人
– Never impose on others what you would not
choose for yourself.
Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton

Christianity
– “So in everything, do to others what you would
have them do to you, for this sums up the Law
and the Prophets.”
Matthew 7:12

Similarly in many other religious and ethical

Confucius ( 孔夫子)
systems (see 28 Sep 551–479 BCE
www.religioustolerance.org/reciproc.htm)
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Action-Based Approaches

What are the consequences?

teleological theory
(Greek telos, meaning “end” or “goal”)

How should I act?

What is my duty?
deontological theory
(Greek deon=That which is binding, needful,
right, proper.')
+ logia=discourse/reason
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 Action-Based Ethical Theory:
Deontology and Teleology
■
Action-based theories focus entirely upon the actions that a
person performs
– When actions are judged morally right based upon how well they
conform to some set of rules, we have a deontological moral
theory.
■
Greek deontos, expresses “obligation”
■
actions are essentially right or wrong, without regard to their
consequences
■
Some actions are never justified (ends cannot justify means)
– When actions are judged morally right based upon their
consequences, we have teleological or consequentialist
ethical theory.
■
Greek telos, meaning “end” or “goal”
■
Action may be justified by special circumstances (ends can
justify means)
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Action-Based Approaches

Duties
What are one's duties?
(ought to follow)

Deontology

Rights
What are one's rights?
(entitlement to that)

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Deontology: Duty-based Ethics
(Pluralism)
Seven basic moral duties that are binding on moral agents:
■
Fidelity: one ought to keep promises
■
Reparation: one ought to right the wrongs that one has
inflicted on others
■
Justice: one ought to distribute goods justly
■
Beneficence: one ought to improve the lot of others with
respect to virtue, intelligence, and happiness
■
Self-improvement: one ought to improve oneself with
respect to virtue and intelligence
■
Gratitude: one ought to exhibit gratitude when
appropriate
■
Non-injury: oneTools
SP: Analytical ought to avoid injury to others
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 Deontology: Rights-based Ethics
■
A right is an entitlement to something
– Specified in, e.g., UDHR, SA Constitution

■
In Information Technology, e.g.:
– The right to know
– The right to privacy
– The right to property

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(Another pop song with a message)
Deontological Theories

■
If I tell the truth because I recognise that I
must respect the other person
– Then I act from duty and the action is right
■
Immanuel Kant
– Categorical Imperative (1785): 1st Principle
“act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the
same time will that it become a universal law.” (principle of
universality)

– 2nd Principle (1797):

“So act that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in the
person of every other human being, never merely as a means, but
always at the same time as an end”
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e.g.: killing is wrong, slavery is wrong, …
Teleology

■
Teleological theories give priority to “the good” over “the
right”
■
They evaluate actions by the goal or consequences that
they achieve.
– Correct actions are those that produce the most good
or optimise the consequences of choices,
■
E.g. Voltaire’s “best of all possible worlds”
– Wrong actions are those that do not contribute to the
good.

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Action-Based Approaches

Ethical egoism
'good/happiness' to self

Teleology Utilitarianism
'good/happiness' to the most

Altruism
'good/happiness' to the other

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 Ethical Egoism
■
Egoism focuses on self-interest
■
Ethical egoism claims that it is necessary and
sufficient for an action to be morally right that it
maximize one's self-interest.
“Does the action benefit me, as an individual, in any
way?”

■
Philosophical point:
how would you argue with a
person who subscribes to this
view in case you do not
subscribe to it?

SP: Analytical Tools (Tongue-in-cheek Egoism hip hop song)

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Utilitarianism
■
Utilitarianism embodies the notion of operating in the
public interest rather than for personal benefit.
■
An action is right if it maximises benefits over costs for
all involved, everyone counting equal.
■
www.utilitarianism.com/

Jeremy Bentham

John Stuart Mill

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Utilitarianism – some other
detail
■
Who gets to be on the scale of deliberation for happiness
to the most? E.g.:
– Humans only
– All sentient beings who have the capability to suffer
(Jeremy Bentham)
■
Can animals suffer?
■
If so (and noting humans can get all required nutrients by
avoiding eating sentient animals), then we all should be
vegetarians!

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 Utilitarianism
■
You do something because it is useful
■
Claim: what makes behaviour right or wrong depends
wholly on the consequences
– Rules are good if they are useful in bringing about
happiness

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