DSC - SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

Vaishali Chaudhary
22/0338

Question-
Critically examine Emile Durkheim’s definition of religion.

Answer-

Émile Durkheim, a prominent French sociologist, made significant contributions to the study of
religion, particularly in his seminal work "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life" (1912) and
was also the first sociologist to give his own definition of religion. The necessity of defining
religion was to precisely and formally set it apart from other phenomena. Durkheim called for
challenging preconceived assumptions in the study of religion because he thought it was
illuminating and connected individuals with their nature. He discusses the significance of
challenging prejudicial or biased ideas that obstruct a true knowledge of religion before
exploring his concept of religion. In order to expose the true essence of religion as a notion,
Durkheim highlights the importance of dispelling and refuting these myths. As a part of this
essay, I will focus on illuminating the challenges of prejudiced interpretations of defining religion
as well as describing the four key elements of religion as identified by Durkheim: rites, beliefs,
the sacred, and the profane. Additionally, I would focus on distinctions between magic and
religion based on Durkheim's perspective. Finally, the essay touches on criticisms, particularly
those presented by Malinowski in "Magic, Science, and Religion," concerning Durkheim's ideas.

“A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say,
things set apart and surrounded by prohibitions - beliefs and practices that unite its adherents in
a single moral community called a church.”

The above definition was given by Durkheim in his book on ‘The Elementary Forms of Religious
Life’. Arriving to this definition, however, wasn’t easy and there had to be various clarifications
regarding preconceived notions of religion and religious beliefs. Challenging these
misconceptions and revealing the true nature of religion as a concept was the journey which
Durkheim embarked through his book. The two main preconceptions he highlights in his book
are that of ‘supernatural’ and ‘divinity’ and how these are often confused with religion.

Durkheim challenged the notion of religion as supernatural. Supernatural refers to all the things
that are unexplainable. They are the mystery, unknowable and incomprehensible. The origins of
early religious activities have been hidden in mystery. According to Max Müller, religion is an
attempt to reach for the infinite, comprehend the unimaginable, and express the inexpressible.
These 'unknowable' events were frequently explained away as miracles in a pre-scientific age.
Religious sentiments and dogma faded as science became more and more prominent and gave
way to reason. Durkheim was against the fact that religion arose solely from supernatural
forces, focusing that it explains the ‘regular’ and ‘constant’ phenomena, not the ‘unexceptional’
or ‘abnormal’. Mystery and irrationality, which pretty much sums up the idea of the supernatural,
aren't accurate to characterize ‘religion’. Durkheim’s view was thus, revolutionary and shifted the
focus from mysterious and supernatural to the idea that religion helps us make sense of the
regular, expected aspects of our lives. This redefinition of religion's role is a crucial part of the
ongoing conversation about faith and its place in the modern world.

Another aspect that he tackled was the idea of divinity, god and spiritual being. The commonly
held understanding of religion often revolves around the concept of divinity. This concept
involves the idea of sacred and spiritual beings beyond the realm of ordinary human experience.
These divine entities are believed to possess extraordinary abilities and powers. In this
perspective, religion is seen as having several essential components. Firstly, it aims to create a
connection between humans and these divine entities. Secondly, worship and devotion are
crucial for maintaining this connection, expressed through practices like prayer, meditation,
rituals, ceremonies, and offerings. Thirdly, religions also provide a framework for regulating and
sustaining this connection, often through moral codes and doctrines.

However, Émile Durkheim challenged this conventional view of religion by examining Buddhism
and Jainism. These two belief systems don't fit the traditional association of religion with divine
beings. For instance, Buddhism doesn't involve gods and instead focuses on the Four Noble
Truths, which emphasize giving up worldly desires to attain salvation through a state called
Nirvana. While Buddhism recognizes the Buddha's exceptional abilities, he is not considered
divine but a human who achieved enlightenment. Jainism, on the other hand, rejects the idea of
a creator and sees the world as eternal. Durkheim's exploration of these religions highlights that
not all belief systems are centered around divine personalities. This expands the scope of what
can be considered as religion. It shows that there are various ways to practice and understand
religion beyond the traditional notion of worshiping gods, allowing for a more diverse and
inclusive perspective on religious belief and practice.

Moreover, Durkheim was able to study religion as a set of fundamental phenomena that make
up religious behaviors rather than as a whole. He started off by illuminating religious events that
are not associated with any particular religion and are typically found in folklore or the ruins of
long-gone belief systems. Two essential ideas—beliefs and rituals—that Durkheim presented
are essential to comprehending religion. He clarified that rites are distinct from everyday human
actions because of the unique characteristics of the items involved. The significance of these
rites within religious ceremonies is rooted in the belief in the uniqueness of these things. The
fundamental component that propels the execution of a rite is belief.

The ideas of the sacred and the profane, which are found in all religions, were also presented
by Durkheim. He emphasized that anything that possesses the necessary degree of prestige
can be included in the notion of the sacred, which goes beyond gods or spirits. The notion of
holiness is arbitrary and differs throughout faiths. When compared to the profane, the sacred is
seen as having greater authority and dignity, with the energy at work in these two areas are
different in nature but not in strength. The division between the holy and the profane produces a
heterogeneity that can occasionally cause disputes or hostility in religious settings.

What we can deduce from all this and the formal definition above is that Durkheim’s definition of
religion encompasses four main elements: rites, beliefs, sacred and profane. While religious
beliefs reflect the nature of the sacred and its relationship with believers, rites prescribe
behavior around sacred items. Prohibitions guard and separate the holy, and the profane is all
that is included in these prohibitions and the separation from the sacred.Durkheim's definition
emphasizes religion as a cohesive system of actions and beliefs that constitutes a unique whole
apart from other systems. These components highlight the unique role that religion plays in
society by illuminating the intricate interactions between the holy and the profane.

Lastly, durkheim sets out to distinguish between religion and magic, since both encompass the
aspect of beliefs and rites. He outlined the main distinctions between the two. Religious
institutions create groups of people who share certain fundamental views about what is sacred
and what is profane. Religious beliefs are usually held within a specified community and make
these activities easier. On the other hand, magic does not depend on a shared association or
virtuous society. There is no set number of followers for magicians, and their services don't
require a particular bond with seekers. Magic frequently lacks the organized practices present in
religious systems which highlight the unique character of magic in contrast to religion's
communal component.

In summary, his ultimate definition of religion states that religion is an integrated system of
beliefs and practices about sacred objects, beliefs and practices that bring its followers together
into a unified moral community, which is commonly referred to as a church. In this definition,
Durkheim acknowledges that people can practice religion on a personal level while
simultaneously placing appropriate focus on the communal aspect of religion and the function of
the "moral community."

Having understood the definition of religion by Durkheim as well as the various misconceptions
and presuppositions to guarding other concepts united to religion like supernatural, divinity and
rationality, I would now shift the focus on Bronislaw Malinowski and his criticism of the writings
of Durkheim mentioned in the book “Magic, science and religion and other essays”.

Bronislaw Malinowski took issue with the Durkheimian interpretation of religion for a number of
reasons. First, he challenges Durkheim's thesis that "society is divinized," that is, that religion is
social since society is worshiped. Malinowski highlights the significance of religious rituals
centered around the individual and stresses the necessity of the individual and solitude in
deeply experiencing religion. Even people's fear of breaking taboos stems from a combination of
their own conscience and sense of duty prohibiting them from doing so as well as their fear of
the immediate negative consequences of doing so. He goes on to say that while religious beliefs
are definitely shaped by society, they also originate with the individual and their mentality. As a
result, it is a combination of the two, neither purely individual nor purely social.
Durkheim's concept of collective effervescence, which describes the elevated emotions and
enhanced sense of power experienced by individuals as members of a social group during
religious events, is another important addition to our understanding of the social side of religion.
Malinowski emphasizes, though, that crowd phenomena and gatherings are not the only
settings in which communal euphoria can occur. He makes the point that people can feel
endowed with higher forces and experience similar emulation, just like hunters do when they
capture wild creatures or craftsmen do when they create their masterpieces. Additionally, he
underlined that community gatherings unrelated to religion, like group activities like picking
crops together, can also exhibit collective effervescence.

Furthermore, Malinowski goes on to say that if we think of society as a permanent and

all-encompassing entity, then we are taking into account both the sacred and the profane facets
of social existence.

The domain of divinity belongs entirely to the sacred; hence, religious concepts or divine things
cannot be founded on the ordinary aspects of society. Primitive religion's primary function is to
elevate the sacred elements of customs, particularly through initiation rituals and tribal
mysteries. Therefore, religion cannot claim holiness from something that religion has already
declared sacred. As such, he disapproves of the notion of personifying society as a "Collective
Soul" since he thinks it is unfounded and goes against the exacting procedures of social
research.

In conclusion, we see how Durkheim conceptualized religion as a cohesive and integrated

system, comprising religious beliefs and rites centered around sacred objects. These activities
and ideas help to unite followers into a common moral community known as the church. His
definition thus emphasizes the social dimension of religion. Malinowski takes issue with
Durkheim because religion in prehistoric civilizations originated mostly from private sources.
Second, religious views are not always produced by a throng in society; in fact, a group's
effervescence might sometimes be secular. Thirdly, both sacred and profane aspects are
incorporated into tradition in prehistoric communities. Lastly, there is no empirical foundation for
the personification of society, the idea of a "Collective Sou".