RELIGION AND SOCIAL ORDER

FUNCTIONALIST ACCOUNTS OF RELIGION

In the functionalist view, society has functional prerequisites or basic needs such as value consensus (broad
agreement on society's values) which must be met if it is to survive over time. Functionalism examines
social institutions such as religion in terms of their functions. It focuses on the positive role of religion in
society and its contribution to meeting society's needs.
Durkheim and Parsons argue that religion performs important functions for society, while Malinowski
argues that it performs an important function for the individual.
Religion acts as a conservative force (preventing social change & supporting traditional values) which
maintains the status quo to keep society as it is.

Emile Durkheim's account of religion, the sacred and profane

Durkheim (1912) argued that all religious beliefs divide the world into two completely separate parts: the
sacred (special symbols and ceremonies involved in overtly religious activity) and the profane (ordinary,
everyday things). Religion relates to the sacred aspect of society. However, the 'sacred' are not simply
things such as gods or spirits. According to Durkheim, there is nothing in any object or action that makes it
inherently sacred; anything could potentially be sacred, including a tree or a rock. What sacred things have
in common is the reverential attitudes (feelings of great respect and awe) that they inspire among believers.
In order to understand the role of religion in society, he believed that it is necessary to examine the
relationship between sacred symbols and what they represent.
Durkheim used the totemic religion of Australian aborigines to develop his theory of religion. Aboriginal
society was divided into a number of clans. Each clan has its own unique totem (A totem is a sacred object
representing and having symbolic significance and importance for a group), usually an animal such as a
kangaroo or a plant which was represented by drawings or carvings made on wood or stone. The totem is a
sacred symbol and ritual observances separate it from profane or ordinary things. A representation of the
totem — the totemic emblem or image — is placed or painted on objects or people. The totemic emblem is
also surrounded by rituals and is considered more sacred than the totemic object itself. The totem provides
clan members with their shared name. This means that clan members themselves possess sacred qualities
because of their sacred name.

Durkheim deliberately chose what he considered to be a very primitive religion in order to focus on the
essential elements of belief and its functions.
Durkheim argued that the totem is created by society and is so sacred because it is a symbol of the group
or society. When worshipping the totem, people are really worshipping society.
Durkheim's study of aboriginal totemism convinced him that for members of any society the totem, or any
other sacred or religious representation, is both the symbol of a god and the symbol of society. He
suggested that, in worshipping god, people are actually worshipping society (something that has similar
properties). Society is more important and powerful than the individual. Durkheim argued that ‘Primitive
man comes to view society as something sacred because he is utterly dependent on it.’
People invent a sacred symbol such as totem or humankind needs a totem to worship rather than just literally
worshipping society (or the clan in the case of Aborigines) because the clan is a too complex thing for
people to conceptualise and it is easier for someone to ‘visualise and direct his feelings of awe toward a
symbol than towards so complex a thing as a clan.

Durkheim’s analysis is based on his study of Totemism, that is the practice of worshipping a sacred object
known as totem among the aborigines of Australia.
Durkheim argued that in worshipping sacred objects or God, people are in fact worshipping society as just
like God, society is more important and powerful than the individual. Sharing common sacred symbols,
religious beliefs and rituals act as a kind of social glue binding people together and creating a collective
conscience. For example, participating in shared rituals and collective worship such as wedding ceremony
or funeral bring people closer and create a sense of belonging (promoting social solidarity). In this way,
religion enforces unity and promotes social solidarity which Durkheim considers necessary for having social
order.
Durkheim argues that religion in all its forms is an important agent of secondary socialisation. The major
function of religion is to socialise society’s members into a collective conscience, meaning common
agreement about values and ways of behaving. This can work by investing particular values with a sacred
quality.

In addition, Durkheim said, societies use religion as a form of social control. People behave well, not only
out of fear of their friends and families disapproving, but also out of a desire to remain in their god’s good
graces. Christianity and Judaism, for example, have the Ten Commandments, a set of rules for behaviour
that they believe were sent directly from God. But these commandments aren’t just rules about how to
worship – many of them match up with societal norms, like respecting your parents or not committing
adultery, or with secular laws, which prohibit murder and theft.

Evaluation of Durkheim
1. Critics argue that Durkheim studied only a small number of Aboriginal groups, which were not typical. It
might be misleading to generalise about Aboriginal beliefs and religion as a whole from this sample.
2. Some, such as P. Worsley (1956) have criticised Durkheim’s study of the Australian aborigines from an
anthropological and theological perspective, suggesting that he misunderstood certain aspects of the religion,
particularly the idea of the separation between the sacred and profane and the significance of totems.
Durkheim overstated his case by equating God to society. Most sociologists do not support his view that
religion is the worship of society.
3. Andrew Dawson (2011) suggests that some of the fieldwork data that Durkheim relied on were of
doubtful validity. Other critics argue that totemism is not a religion.
4. Durkheim's views on religion are more relevant to small, non-literate societies whose members share a
common belief and value system. They are less relevant to modern societies with diverse subcultures, social
and ethnic groups, and a wide range of religious beliefs, rituals and institutions.
Despite these criticisms, many sociologists recognise Durkheim's contribution to an understanding of
religion. William E. Paden (2009) argues that Durkheim's observations about the importance of religion for
social solidarity remain valid in many circumstances today. The symbolic importance of the Western (or
Wailing) Wall in Jerusalem for Jews is an example of the continuing symbolic importance of sacred objects.

Talcott Parsons account of religion

Parsons (1937, 1964, 1965) argued that religious beliefs provide guidelines for human action and standards
against which people's conduct can be evaluated. In a Christian society, for instance, the Ten
Commandments show that many of the norms of the social system can be integrated (or brought together) by
religious beliefs. For example, the commandment 'Thou shalt not kill' integrates diverse norms such as how
to drive a car, settle an argument and deal with the suffering of the aged. The norms that direct these areas of
behaviour prohibit murder and euthanasia, but they are all based on the same religious commandment. In
this way, religion provides general guidelines for conduct, which are expressed in a variety of norms. By
establishing general principles and moral beliefs, religion helps to provide the value consensus that is
necessary for social order and stability.
Religion and social order
Parsons saw religion as addressing particular problems that occur in all societies and disrupt social life.
These problems fall into two categories. The first relates to 'the fact that individuals are "hit' by events
which they cannot foresee and prepare for, or control, or both'. One such event is death, particularly
premature death. Parsons saw religion as a mechanism for adjustment to such events and as a means of
restoring the normal pattern of life.
The second problem area is that of 'uncertainty’. This refers to endeavours in which a great deal of effort
and skill has been invested, but where unknown or uncontrollable factors can threaten a successful outcome.
One example is humanity's inability to predict or control the effect of weather upon agriculture. Parsons
argued that religion provides a means of coming to terms with such situations through rituals which act as 'a
tonic to self-confidence’. In this way, religion maintains social stability by relieving the tension and
frustration that could disrupt social order.

Religion and meaning

Parsons argued that religious beliefs give meaning answer questions about humanity and the world we live
in. One of the major functions of religion is to 'make sense' of all experiences, no matter how meaningless
they appear. One example is the question of why some people experience suffering. Religion provides
answers to this: suffering tests a person's faith; it is a punishment for sins; and those who endure suffering
with strength will be rewarded in heaven. In this way, suffering becomes meaningful.
Parsons (1965) saw a major function of religion as providing meaning to events that people do not expect or
feel ought not to happen. This allows them to adjust to these events. On a more general level, this adjustment
promotes order and stability in society.

Evaluation of the functionalist perspective

1. Critics argue that the functionalist perspective over-emphasises the role of religion in maintaining social
order and stability. It underplays dysfunctional or negative aspects of religion and neglects the many
instances where religion can be seen as a divisive and disruptive force. Functionalism gives little
consideration to hostility between different religious groups within the same society, such as Shia and Sunni
Muslims in Iraq, Hindus and Muslims in India or Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland. In such
cases, religious divisions can be seen as a direct threat to social order.

Malinowski on the role of religion

Malinowski (1954) studied the religious practices of the Trobriand islanders. What he noted was that when
the islanders were fishing on inshore, safe waters they did not practice religious ceremonies, but they did so
when fishing in more dangerous waters. He concluded that religion had a psychological function: it
helped individuals to deal with an anxious and stressful situation. These sorts of unpredictable events
can cause instability and disruption in society, so by performing this psychological function religion also
helped preserve the stability of society (social order). The equivalent of the dangerous fishing expeditions, in
contemporary society and religion, is events like births and deaths. Religious ceremonies accompany these
events in order to preserve stability. In this way, religion performs psychological functions for the
individual.
Evaluation
Malinowski’s study was unusual for a functionalist in that it was a participant observation. This was high in
validity and was very detailed, conducted over four years. However, from a positivist perspective, it was
unreliable and the conclusions could not be generalised to other tribes or societies.

Bellah & civil religion

Robert Bellah (1967) introduced the concept of civil religion (a set of fundamental beliefs shared by the
majority of people in a society) to sociological debates surrounding the role and function of religion in
society in the early 1960s. Robert Bellah argued that ‘civil religions’ had become the main type of religions
in the 20th century, as mainstream, traditional religions declined. Civil religions effectively performing
many of the same functions of ‘traditional religions’, just without the concept of a god or higher power.
Bellah analyses the role of religion in much the same way as classical functionalists such as Durkheim,
hence he has been labelled a neo-functionalist in many A-level sociology text books.

Bellah (1967) argued that in some modern secular states, people worshipped society in a clear way, still
based around symbols, but without the supernatural, divine element of traditional religions. His example is
Americanism, the way American society, which was religiously diverse and increasingly secular, coalesced
instead around America itself, with the religious symbols being the flag, the national anthem, famous
historical figures, etc.
While this might not fit everyone’s definition of religion, it performs the same functions that Durkheim
identified and promotes social cohesion, order, stability and prevents radical change, again acting as a
conservative force. While the USA is the clearest example of this, some sociologists have pointed to how
strong association with a royal family reveals a similar sort of civil religion (e.g. the public mourning on the
death of Princess Diana in the UK). People can unite around ideas like “God Bless America!” without
necessarily all worshipping the same God, or practising the same religion (or practising a religion at all).
People can have very different ideas about what happens after death, but can take comfort from someone
“dying for their country”.
Evaluation
 Some would argue that describing “Americanism” as a religion stretches the definition of religion
too far. It is clear that patriotism or nationalism does functions as a form of belief system or ideology
and that it may well carry out some of the functions that Durkheim, Parsons or Malinowski ascribe to
religion. However, is that enough for something to be considered religious, or does it not require
some sort of supernatural, divine element to it?
“Americanism” arguably does have this (“God Bless America!” etc.) but this is arguably the
application of traditional religious belief to a political ideology, rather than being a religion in its
own right.
 It is quite a loose concept in that it is possible to interpret any nationalistic activity as being part of a
‘civil religion’.
 It is unlikely that people taking part in watching sporting events, or even ‘pledging allegiance’ to the
flag are as committed in their belief in America as traditionally religious people are to their religions.
 To criticise Bellah’s concept of Americanism specifically it is clear that not all Americans have been
united equally into the American nation. American Muslims have experienced particularly high
levels of ostracism since September 11th for example.