MIRPUR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (MUST), MIRPUR

Department of Sociology
 Sociology

Lecture-1: Introduction, Origin, Significance and Subject Matter of Sociology,

Tasmia Matloob
Lecturer
 Learning Objectives

The course is designed to introduce the students with sociological concepts and the
discipline.

The focus of the course is on significant concepts like historical background,

foundation, interaction, action, groups, social systems and structures, socio-
economic changes and social processes.

The course will provide due foundation for further studies in the field of sociology.

Sociology 3
 Etymology of Sociology
Etymology
• The Word “Sociology” is derived from both Latin and Greek origins.
• The latin word: Socius means “ Companion” and the Suffix “logy” means “the
study of” , is from Greek.
• It was coined in 1780 by the French essaist Emmanuel Joseph in an unpublished
manuscript.
Before inducting into a full-fledged discipline, a Belgium Scholar QUETLET used this term.
In 14th and 15th century Allama Ibn-e-Khaldon, an aspirant of experiment in sciences,
established “Ilmul-Imraniat”, a subject that could study the society based on sceitific lines as
pure science use experiments.
Islamic perspective on development of Sociology is traced back since the creation of Adam.

Sociology 4
 Definitions
A heap of literature is available on Sociology as every social scientist defined sociology according to his or her
understanding on social phenomenon based on scientific method:
1. Sociology is study of society
2. Sociology is study of social interaction
3. Sociology is study of social action
4. Sociology is study of group
5. Sociology is study of collective behavior
6. Sociology is study of social relationships
7. Sociology is study of social order and change
8. Sociology is study of institutions
9. Sociology is study of social structure
10. Sociology is study of scientific study of human behavior

Sociology 5
 Subject Matter of Sociology

The main concern of sociology is sociological analysis of human society and culture with a sociological
perspective. It also analyzes evolution of society and tries to reconstruct the major stages in the evolutionary
process and factors and forces underlying historical transformation of society.

Primary units of social life, social interaction and actions, social relationships and individual personality, groups
and communities, associations, organization and population.

Structure and function of basic social institutions i.e., family and kinship, religion and property, economic,
political, legal, educational and scientific, recreational and welfare, aesthetic and expressive institutions.

Sociology 6
 Subject Matter of Sociology

Sociology has placed high premium on the methods of research in formulating concepts, propositions and hence
theories.

Social processes such as cooperation and competition, accommodation and assimilation, social conflict
including war and revolution, communication including opinion, formation, expression and change, social
control and deviance including crime, suicide, social integration and social change.

Sociology focuses on human interaction on the mutual and reciprocal influencing by two or more people of
each other's feelings, attitudes and actions. Sociologists are interested in the way people structure their
relationships the manner in which their social ties with others are formed, sustained and changed.

Sociology 7
 Micro-Sociology
 The study of everyday behavior in situations of face-to-face interaction is usually called Micro-
Sociology. 
•-
 Micro studies are in turn necessary for illuminating broad institutional patterns. Face-to-face
interaction is clearly the main basis of all forms of social organization, no matter how large
scale.
 People do not live their lives as isolated individuals, nor are their lives completely determined
by national states.
 Sociology tells us that our everyday life is lived in families, social groups, communities and
neighborhoods. At this level the meso (or 'middle') level of society it is possible to see the
influences and effects of both micro- and macro-level phenomena.
 Interactionist school of thought mainly covers the micro level sociological principles and
theories given by Max Weber, Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer, CH Cooley.

8
Sociology
 Macro-Sociology
 Macro-Sociology is the analysis of large-scale social systems, like the political system,
economic order and long- term processes of change.
 Macro analysis is essential to understand the institutional background of daily life in which
people live their lives greatly affected by the broader institutional framework life in an
industrialized urban environment.
 Many sociological studies of specific local community deal with the macro sociological
impact of huge social changes, such as industrialization and economic globalization. People
do not live their lives as isolated individuals, nor are their lives completely determined by
national states. Sociology unpacks that everyday life lived in families, social groups,
communities and neighborhoods. At this level the meso level of society it is possible to see
the influences and effects of both micro- and macro-level phenomena. 

Sociology 9
 Sociology
SOC-1101

Characteristics, Significance and Scope of Sociology

Miss Tasmia Matloob

Lecturer-2
 Characteristics of Sociology
Sociology is a Generalizing Science
 It develops general laws and principals about interaction, relationship and structure of the society
 It formulates general principles about the nature, form, content and structure of human groups and societies
Sociology is a Generalized Science
 It borders to subject matters of different disciplines at the same time.
 It covers the social factors that are common to on any social phenomenon.
Sociology is a Social Science
 Its humanistic science deals with social facts, social phenomena, man’s social relationships and behaviors in
the soceity.
Sociology is a Special Kind of Abstraction
 Sociology tends to explain variability in human behavior in terms of variation in society of social structure.
 Different persons are seen to have occupied different positions or statuses in that structure and these
positions condition the behavior of the occupants in a number of ways.

Sociology 11
 Characteristics
Sociology is an Objective Science
 Sociology is primarily concerned with facts and not with value judgments upon them.
 Its value neutral science neither moral and immoral but amoral.
Sociology is Pure or Theoretical Science
 sociology aims at the acquisition of knowledge and it has no concern whether the acquired
knowledge is useful or applied
 This acquisition of knowledge can be used to solve social problems and helpful for
administrators, legislators and social workers
Sociology is a Rational and Empirical Science
  It is based on observation, experimentations and reasoning, not on supernatural revelation
and its results are not speculative.
 Sociology is rational as it stresses on reason and logical inference to develop the sociological
theories.
Sociology 12
 Significance of Sociology
Sociology studies society in a scientific way
 Sociology throws more light on the social nature of man
Sociology increases the power of social action
Sociology studies role of the institutions in the development of the
individuals
Study of sociology is indispensable for understanding and planning of
society
Sociology is of great importance in the solution of social problems
Sociology has drawn our attention to the intrinsic worth and dignity of man

Sociology 13
 Significance

Sociology has changed our outlook with regard to the problems of crime
Sociology has made great contribution to enrich human culture
Sociology is of great importance in the solution of international problems
The value of sociology lies in the fact that it keeps us update on modern situations
Study of society has helped governments to promote the welfare of the tribal and
marginalized communities
Sociology is useful as a teaching subject
Sociology is useful in planning and development
Social welfare, health, education, population welfare, women development
Semi-Government Institutions
NGOs
Sociology 14
 Scope of Sociology
There are two schools of thought with different viewpoints regarding scope and
subject matter of sociology- formal school and synthetic school.
Formal School of Thought
According to formal school sociology was conceived to be a social science with a
specifically defined field. This school had George Simmel, Ferdinand Tonnies, Alfred
Vierkandt and Leopord Von Wiese as its main advocates.
Synthetic School of Thought
Synthetic school is mainly associated with Durkheim, Hobhouse and Sorokin advocated a
synthesis in form of coordination among all social sciences.

Sociology 15
 Formal School of Thought

Sociology should confine itself to the discovery of the fundamental force of change and persistence and
should abstain from a historical study of concrete societies. It emphasized upon the study of forms of social
relationships and regarded sociology as independent and hence has limited scope.
George Simmel argued that sociology is a specific social science which describes, classifies, analyses and
delineates the forms of social relationships or social interactions should be classified into various forms or types
and analyzed.
Alfred Vierkandt argued, sociology should be concerned with ultimate forms of mental or psychic relationship.
According to Von Wiese there are two kinds of fundamental social processes in human society i.e. assocaitve and
dossocaitive.
Ferdinand Tonnies divided societies into two categories namely Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft
(association) on the basis of degree of intimacy among the members of the society.
Sociology of Max Weber aims to interpret or understand social behavior. As social behavior does not cover the
whole field of human relations and not all human interactions are social in nature. Therefore, Sociology is
concerned with the analysis and classification of types of social relationships.

Sociology 16
 Synthetic School of Thought
Sociology is synthesis of social sciences with widen scope of sociology.
According to Durkheim, sociology has three principal divisions
i. Social morphology
ii. Social physiology
iii. General sociology

Hobhouse perceived sociology as a science which has the whole social life of man as its sphere. Its relations with
the other social sciences are one of mutual exchange and mutual stimulation.
Karl Mannheim divides sociology into general sociology and historical sociology.
i. Systematic sociology
ii. Historical sociology
a. Comparative sociology
b. Social dynamics deals

 Ginsberg argued, sociology seeks to provide a classification of types and forms of social relationships especially of those which have come to
be defined institutions and associations. It tries to determine the relation between different parts of factors of social life for example the
economic and political, the moral and the legal, the intellectual and the social elements. It endeavors to disentangle the fundamental conditions
of social change and persistence and to discover sociological principles governing social life.
Sociology 17
 Sociology
SOC-1101

General Scope, Fields of Sociology, Sociology and Science, Methods of Social Research

Miss Tasmia Matloob

Lecturer
 Scope in General
a. Teaching
b. Social Welfare and Women Development
c. Population Welfare
d. Local Govt and Rural Development
e. Police and DMGs
f. Administrative Positions in Institutions
g. Planning and Development
h. NGOS
i. Researchers
j. Monitoring and Evaluation
k. Private Consultancies
l. Freelancers
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 Fields of Sociology
• Sociology of Knowledge • Industrial Sociology
• Applied Sociology • Law and Society
• Collective Behavior • Marriage and Family
• Community Development • Medical Sociology
• Comparative Sociology • Military Sociology
• Crime and Delinquency • Political Sociology
• Cultural Sociology • Sociology of Religion
• Demography • Urban Sociology
• Deviant Behavior • Social Psychology
• Formal and Complex Organizations • Social Control
• Human Ecology • Rural Sociology
• Sociological Theory • Sociology of Violence and Crime
• Sociology of Education • Sociology of Gender
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Sociology
 Sociology and Science

According to Auguste Comte and Durkheim, “Sociology is a science because it

adopts and applies the scientific method. Sociology does make use of scientific
methods in the study of its subject matter. 
 Sociology uses scientific method
 Sociology makes accurate observation
 Sociology is objectivity science
 Sociology determines cause-effect relationship
 Sociology makes accurate measurement
 Sociology makes accurate prediction
 Sociology makes generalizations
 Sociology of value free science
Sociology 21
 Methods of Sociological Research
Research
 Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon.
 Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of
critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance
with suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.
What is sociological research?
 Sociological research is used by sociologists to answer questions and in many cases test
hypotheses. The research method one uses depends upon the question that is asked.
 Subjective knowledge – is knowledge based purely on the opinions of the individual,
reflecting their values and biases, their point of view
 Objective knowledge – is knowledge which is free of the biases, opinions and values of the
researcher, it reflects what is really ‘out there’ in the social world.
Sociology 22
 Sociology
SOC-1101

Methods of Social Research, Relationship of Sociology with other social sciences

Sociological Perspectives

Miss Tasmia Matloob

Lecturer
 Methods of Sociological Research
Research
 Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon.
 Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of
critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance
with suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.
What is sociological research?
 Sociological research is used by sociologists to answer questions and in many cases test
hypotheses. The research method one uses depends upon the question that is asked.
 Subjective knowledge – is knowledge based purely on the opinions of the individual,
reflecting their values and biases, their point of view
 Objective knowledge – is knowledge which is free of the biases, opinions and values of the
researcher, it reflects what is really ‘out there’ in the social world.
Sociology 24
 Methods of Sociological Research
Sources and Types of Data
 Quantitative data refers to information that appears in numerical form, or in the form of
statistics.
• Cross sectional Research
• Descriptive Research
• Explanatory Research
 Qualitative data refers to information that appears in written, visual or audio form, such
as transcripts of interviews, newspapers and web sites.
• Exploratory Research
• Interpretive Research
 Secondary data is data that has been collected by previous researchers or organizations
such as the government.
 Primary data is data collected firsthand by the researcher himself or herself.
Sociology 25
 Methods of Sociological Research
Social Surveys – are typically structured questionnaires designed to collect information from large numbers of people in
standardized form.
 Questionnaire-Structured and Unstructured
 Interview Schedule-Close ended
Experiments – aim to measure cause and effect relationships between variables.
 Field experiment takes place in a real-life setting such as a classroom, the work place or even the high street.
 Controlled Experiment
Interviews – A method of gathering information by asking questions orally, either face to face or by telephone.
 Structured Interviews
 Unstructured Interviews
 Semi-Structured Interviews 
Observation-act of watching and noticing something or a judgment or inference by use of senses.
 Participant Observation
 Non-participant Observation
Ethnographic Research-are an in-depth study of the ways of life of a group of people in their natural setting for a long
period. 
Case Studies involves researching a single case or example of something using multiple methods.
Longitudinal Studies – studies of a sample of people in which information is collected from the same people at intervals over
a long period of time.
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 Methods of Sociological Research

It will be exercise based activity by involving the Method/Methodology

students to learn the steps of conducting the social  Design
research  Population
Scientific Method  Sample Size and Method of Sample Extraction
 Topic  Sampling Frame
Objectives  Tool
 General Objectives  Data Collection
 Specific Objectives  Data Editing
Hypothesis  Data Analysis and Hypothesis Testing
 Tabulation and Interpretation of Results
Literature Review
 Conclusion
 Empirical Review
 Theoretical Review Report

27
Sociology
 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences

Sociology and Anthropology

Sociology and Psychology
Sociology and Political Science
Sociology and International Relations
Sociology and Education
Sociology and Economics
Sociology and History
Sociology and Philosophy
Sociology and Mass Communication

Sociology 28
 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences
Sociology and History (Relationships)
History Sociology

,
--Record of societies of men of the changes that the societies --Concerned with the study of the historical development of societies

have gone through, of the ideas that have determined the actions study the various stages of life, modes of living customs, manners and their
of these societies and the material conditions that have helped expression in the form of social institutions.
or hindered their development. ---Sociology has to depend upon history for it’s material.
----History supply facts that are interpreted and co-ordinated by the ----study of history would be meaningless without the appreciation of social Sociologists.
significance.

Mutually dependent on each other

History is past sociology, and sociology is present history

Sociology 29
 Relationship of Sociology with History
Differences

History is concrete and sociology is abstract

There is much is history that has no direct relation to sociology, whereas there is much in sociology that is not in history.
According to Park, History is the concrete, whereas sociology is the abstract science of human experience and human nature.

Sociology and history have different attitudes

History deals with events in all their aspects, whereas sociology studies them form the viewpoint of social relationships involved.

Sociology 30
 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences

Sociology and Political Science (Similarities)

Political Science
Is a branch of social science dealing with the principles of organization and government of human society.
The social groups organized under the sovereign of the state.
Without the sociological background, the study of political science is incomplete.
The forms of government, the nature of government organs, the laws and the sphere of the state activity are determined by the
social process.

Sociology 31
 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences
Differences
• Sociology is the science of society, whereas political science is the science of state.
• The scope of sociology is wider than that of political science.
• Sociology deals with social man, whereas political science deals with political man.
• Sociology is a general science, whereas political science is a special science.
• Sociology is the study of both organized and unorganized communities. Political science deals with organized communities
only.
• Sociology deals with unconscious activities also.
• Difference is approach.

Sociology 32
 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences
Sociology and Economics

• Defined as a study of mankind in ordinary business of life

• Concerned with that part of individual and social action that is most closely connected with the attainment and with
use of material requisites of well-being.
• Economics in other words, is concerned with material welfare of the human beings.
• But economic welfare is only a part of human welfare and it can be sought only with the propor knowledge of
social laws.
• Economics and social order is inextricably interwoven.

Sociology 33
 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences

Differences
• The field of sociology is wider.
• Sociology has a comprehensive viewpoint.
• Economics is much older than sociology.

Sociology 34
 Relationship of Sociology with Other Social Sciences

Sociology and Anthropology

Sociology and Psychology
Sociology and Political Science
Sociology and International Relations
Sociology and Education
Sociology and Economics
Sociology and History
Sociology and Philosophy
Sociology and Mass Communication

Sociology 35
 Sociological Perspectives
Sociological Perspective
 A perspective is simply a way of looking at the world.
Evolutionary Perspective
 How societies evolved over a period of time
Functionalist Perspective
 According to functionalism, society is a system of interconnected parts that work together in harmony to
maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for the whole.
Conflict Perspective
 views society as composed of different groups and interest competing for power and resources. It explains that how individuals
and groups are in constant struggle to possess power and resources.
Interactionalist Perspective
 Focuses on meanings attached to human interaction, both verbal and non-verbal, and to symbols. Exchange of meaning through
language and symbols—is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds.
Feminism
 It is critical analysis of the way gender affects societal structures, power, and inequality and women are marginalized.

Sociology 36
 Sociology
SOC-1101

Sociological Perspectives

Miss Tasmia Matloob

Lecturer
 Functionalist Perspective
 Structural-functional approach is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability.
 As this approach points to social structure, any relatively stable pattern of social behavior. Social structure gives our lives shape—in
families, the workplace, the classroom, and the community. This approach also looks for a structure’s social functions the consequences of
any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole. All social structures, from a simple handshake to complex religious rituals,
function to keep society going, at least in its present form.
 The structural-functional approach owes much to Auguste Comte, who pointed out the need to keep society unified at a time when many
traditions were breaking down. He further laid down the social static helped to understand the stability and integration of society.
 Emile Durkheim, added the important element of religious values and beliefs which keep the society in equilibrium promoting stability and
solidarity.
 Herbert Spencer compared society to the human body. Just as the structural parts of the human body—the skeleton, muscles, and various
internal organs—function interdependently to help the entire organism survive, social structures work together to preserve society. The
structural- functional approach, then, leads sociologists to identify various structures of society and investigate their functions.
 Robert K. Merton expanded our understanding of the concept of social function by pointing out that any social structure probably has
many functions, some more obvious than others.
 Dysfunction:
 Manifest functions, the recognized an intended consequences of any social pattern
 Latent functions, the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern..
Sociology 38
 Conflict Perspective
Social-conflict approach is a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of
inequality that generates conflict and change.
Unlike the structural-functional emphasis on solidarity and stability, this approach
highlights inequality and change. A conflict analysis rejects the idea that social structure
promotes the operation of society as a whole, focusing instead on how social patterns
benefit some people while hurting others.
Karl Marx-Marxist-Neo-Marxist-Neo-Neo-Marxist
Sociologists using the social-conflict approach look at ongoing conflict between dominant
and disadvantaged categories of people—the rich in relation to the poor, white people in
relation to people of color, and men in relation to women. Typically, people on top try to
protect their privileges while the disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves.
A conflict analysis of our educational system shows how schooling carries class inequality
from one generation to the next.
Sociology 39
 Feminism
One important type of social-conflict analysis is the gender-conflict approach, a point of view that focuses on
inequality and conflict between women and men. The gender- conflict approach is closely linked to feminism,
support of social equality for women and men.
The importance of the gender-conflict approach lies in making us aware of the many ways in which our way of
life places men in positions of power over women: from home to different spheres of life.
Another contribution of the gender-conflict approach is making us aware of the importance of women to the
development of sociology.
Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) is regarded as the first woman sociologist. Born to a wealthy English family,
Martineau made her mark in 1853 by translating the writings of Auguste Comte from French into English. In
her own published writings, she documented the evils of slavery and argued for laws to protect factory workers,
defending workers’ right to unionize. She was particularly concerned about the position of women in society
and fought for changes in education policy so that women could have more options in life than marriage and
raising children.
In the United States, Jane Addams (1860–1935) was a sociological pioneer whose contributions began in 1889
when she helped found Hull House, a Chicago settlement house that provided assistance to immigrant families.
Though her pacifism during World War I was the subject of much controversy, she was awarded the Nobel
Peace Prize in 1931.
Sociology 40
 Symbolic Interactionist
 Sociology uses a micro-level orientation, a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations. Exploring urban
life in this way occurs at street level, where you might watch how children invent games on a school playground or how
pedestrians respond to homeless people they pass on the street.
 The symbolic-interaction approach, then, is a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the
everyday interactions of individuals.
 Society is nothing more than the shared reality that people construct for themselves as they interact with one another.
Human beings live in a world of symbols, attaching meaning to virtually everything, from the words on this page to the
wink of an eye. We create “reality,” therefore, as we define our surroundings, decide what we think of others, and shape
our own identities.
 The symbolic-interaction approach has roots in the thinking of Max Weber (1864–1920), a German sociologist who
emphasized the need to understand a setting from the point of view of the people in it. Since Weber’s time, sociologists
have taken micro-level sociology in a number of directions.
 George Herbert Mead
 Herbert Blumer
 CH Cooley
 Goffman
Sociology 41
 Sociology
SOC-1101

Social Action and Social Interaction

Miss Tasmia Matloob

Lecturer
 Social Action
Action is social when actors behave in such manners that his action is intended to influence
action of one or more than one persons.
Element of Social Action
 Actor
 Goal
 Situation
 Normative Orientation
 Energy
Types of Social Action
 Rational Action
 Value Oriented Action
 Effective Action
 Traditional Action

Sociology 43
 Social Interaction
Interaction (What is interaction?)
 Social Interaction
“When two persons or individuals interpenetrate into the minds of each other”
 Importance of Social Interaction
Elements of Social Interaction
 Two or more than two persons
 Reciprocal relationships
 Influence each other
Forms of Social Interaction
 Individual to Individual
 Individual and Group
 Group and Group
 Individual and Culture

Sociology 44
 Social Interaction
Measurement of Social Interaction
 Frequency
 Duration
 Intensity
 Focus
Types of Social Interaction
 Direct or Physical Interaction
 Indirect Interaction
 Symbolic Interaction
Difference between social action and social interaction

Sociology 45
 Social Processes
MacIver and Page define Continuous change taking place in definite manners through operation of forces present
from the first within the situation.
 Horton and Hunt: Repetitive forms of behaviour that are commonly found in social life.
All the social processes are product of social interaction.
Associative
 Cooperation
 Accommodation
 Assimilation
 Acculturation
 Amalgamation
Dissociative
 Competition
 Conflict
Associative
 Cooperation
• It is the process where two or more person work together to achieve the common goal.

Sociology 46
 Sociology
SOC-1101

Social Processes

Miss Tasmia Matloob

Lecturer
 Social Processes
Types of Cooperation
 Direct Cooperation
 Indirect Cooperation
Competition
 Striving of two or more person for the common good which is limited so that all cannot share
Forms of Competition
 Absolute
 Relative
 Personal
 Impersonal
Competition and Culture
Competition and Modern Society
Competition and Mass Media
Sociology 48
 Social Processes
Conflict
Gillan and Gillan-Individuals or groups seek their ends directly challenging the antagonist by violence or
threat of violence
Horton and Hunt-One seeks to monopolize the rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors.
Types of Conflict
 Direct Conflict
 Indirect Conflict
Accommodation
 Suspension of rivalries between the parties for temporary and permanent time
 Issue is not settled or resolved
 For the time being rivals diffuse the tension
 Joint effort or agreement
 Antagonistic behaviour persist there
A process in which man attain sense of harmony with the environment
Adjustment of man to both natural and man made environment
Sociology 49
 Social Processes
Park and Burgess divided accommodation into two categories:
 Adjustment with New Natural Conditions
 Adjustment with New Social Conditions
Forms of Accommodation
 Truce-rivalries are stopped for a definite or indefinite period while the issues are not settled. It means the
problem remains unsolved and the fighting parties stop their hostility for a fixed period or forever.
 Arbitration and Conciliation-hearing and determining of a dispute or the settling of differences between
parties by a person or persons
 Toleration-there is no settlement of difference but only the avoidance of overt conflict.
 Conversion-involves conviction on the part of one of the contending parties that it has been wrong and its
opponent right.
 Compromise-Rivals dealing with some sort of concession to resolve the issues.
 Temporary Subordination-suspend the rivalries and accept the other force for a period.
 Super-ordination and Subordination-organization of any society is essentially the result of such
a type of accommodation like family, relatives etc
Sociology 50
 Social Processes
Characteristics of Accommodation
 Accommodation is the natural result of conflict.
 Accommodation is mainly an unconscious activity.
 Accommodation is universal.
 Accommodation is a continuous process.
 Accommodation is a mixture of both love and hatred.
Amalgamation
 Diffusion of traits between contacting cultures, acculturation process t earlier stage is visible, and assimilation is
achieved, and more fusion is resulted. Furthermore, it is mature stage of cultural fusion and diffusion. Fusion
two previously distinct groups and cultures into one in such a way that they loose respective identity.
Marginal Man
 An individual suspended between two cultural realities may struggle to establish his or her identity.
 Anyone when come out of the country is marginal because he has to experience the culture of others by nor familiar.
 A person doesn’t know how to use machines is marginal man in this time period.

Sociology 51
 Social Processes
Assimilation
Assimilation describes the process of social, cultural, and political integration of a
minority into a dominant culture and society. Assimilation is a gradual process by which a
person or group belonging to one culture adopts the practices of another, thereby
becoming a member of that culture. 
Fusion or blending of previously unknown cultures into one.
Acculturation
Acculturation is a process of social, psychological, and cultural change that stems from the
balancing of two cultures while adapting to the prevailing culture of the society. Acculturation is a
process in which an individual adopts, acquires and adjusts to a new cultural environment.
Acculturation can be defined as the 'process of learning and incorporating the values, beliefs,
language, customs and mannerisms of the new country immigrants and their families are living in,
including behaviors that affect health such as dietary habits, activity levels and substance use.
Sociology 52
 Sociology
SOC-1101

Lecture-10: Culture, Characteristic, Types and Functions

Mr. Tasmia Matloob

Lecturer
 Culture
Culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, moral, law, customs, and
any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Man made part of environment,
It is social heredity transmitted from one generation to the other with the accumulation of
human experiences.
Elements of Culture
Norms
 Group shared expectations by member of group and society.
Values
 Beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture about what is good or bad
Beliefs
 Feeling of certainty that something exists, trustworthy, true and lasting.
Sociology 54
 Characteristics of Culture

Culture is Learnt: Culture is learned by human beings in society and transcended.

Culture is Social: It is found in society dealing with most of social phenomena.
Culture is Shared: It is shared by human beings and inducted into successors.
Culture is Transformed: It is transformed from one generation to other.
Culture is Continuous and Cumulative: It persists and takes work of predecessors.
Culture is Based on Symbols: A symbol represents something else.
Culture is Consistent and Integrated: It recognises humans and keeps identity live.
Culture is Dynamic and Adaptive: It has capacity to change and one may adopt.
Culture is Gratifying: It gives identity and keeps it alive to make a person satisfied.
Culture Varies from Society to Society. It varies in each society even local cultures exist.
Culture is Super-organic and Ideational: It is an entity that exists over and beyond the
individuals and an ideational culture, also called a spiritual culture, is one that is based on what
cannot be seen but can be felt.
Sociology 55
 Types of Culture
Material Culture
 Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture.
These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices,
factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products, stores, and so forth
Non-Material Culture
 Nonmaterial culture includes creations and abstract ideas that are not embodied in physical objects. In other
words, any intangible products created and shared between the members of a culture over time are aspects of
their nonmaterial culture. Social roles, rules, ethics, and beliefs 
Ideal Culture
 Ideal culture refers to the practices, values or norms that society is supposed to follow or desires to achieve. It
refers to those goals that a society considers ideal, or worth aiming for.
Real Culture
 Real culture refers to practices and norms people of that culture actually follow.

Sociology 56
 Functions of Culture
Culture is the Treasury of Knowledge
 Culture gives insights into the culture i.e., values, beliefs, norms, religion, music, art etc
Culture Defines Situations
 Anyone indulge into difficult situation will find the solution in cultural teachings to come out of difficulty.
Culture Defines Attitudes Values and Goals
 In any society values and norms guide the attitudes and behaviors of person to seek the goals.
Culture Decides Careers
 Society allows one to choose the career and profession best suited in particular culture.
Culture Provides Behavior Patterns
 There are certain behavior patterns that guide human beings to behave according to culture.
Culture Moulds Personality
 Culture influences every individual in development of personality.
Sociology 57
 Sociology
SOC-1101

Lecture-11: Cultural Uniformities, Variabilities, Causes, Organization and Related Concepts

Mr. Tasmia Matloob

Lecturer
 Cultural Uniformities and Variabilities

Cultural Uniformities
Cultural Variabilities
Family Life
Marriage Types of Family
Inheritance Types of Marriage
Customs of Marriage
Language
Cultural Values
Housing Religious Attitudes
Cloth and Utensils Different Political System
Education Law of Inheritance
Economy Settlement Pattern
Types of Language
Profession Fashion and Dress
Political System Education System
Religious Beliefs Modes of Civilization
Normative Control
Sociology 59
 Causes of Cultural Uniformities and Variabilities

Geographical Environment
Social Needs of Societies
Cultural Environment Varies
Learning Capacity Differs across Societies
Nature and Extent of Material is Different
Core Culture Differs
Ideal and Real Culture Differ
Economic System
Development of Technology has Great Impact on Cultures
Educational System
Political System
Industrial System

Sociology 60
 Organization of Culture
 Cultural Trait
 Smallest unit of culture. Fabricates the larger units.
 Reputedly irreducible unit of learned behavior pattern a material product thereof.
Cultural Complex
 Intermediate between trait and institution. A cluster of traits develop cultural complex.
Cultural Area
 Its geographical area where cultural traits originated.
 The place where it is born is called place of origin.
 These traits spread around through diffusion and make cultural area.

Worldwide cultures are organized in this way that make the fabric of society to satisfy the
human needs.
As trait interweave the larger structure of traits, develop cultural complex and ultimately a
cultural area is achieved.
Sociology 61
 Related Concepts
Cultural Universals
 Cultural universals are elements, patterns, traits, or institutions that are common to all human cultures worldwide.
Cultural Specialties
 Cultural specialties are elements of culture which are shared by some, but not all, groups within a society.
Cultural Alternatives
 When alternative lines of action or conduct for individuals in certain cases are allowed to make choices.
Core Culture
 Core culture is central part of culture i.e., cultural configuration, made up of the intangible values and ethos, ideas
and sentiments that define an organization's cultural framework.
Sub-Culture
 A subculture is a group of people within a culture that differentiates itself from the parent culture to which it
belongs, often maintaining some of its founding principles. 
 Regional Sub-Cultures
 Urban-Rural Sub-Cultures
 Class Sub-Cultures
 Occupational Sub-Cultures
 Religious Sub-Cultures

Sociology 62
 Related Concepts
Ethnocentrism
 Ethnocentrism is an act of judging another culture and believing that the values and standards
of one's own culture are superior regarding language, behavior, customs, and religion.
Ethnocentrism and Personality
 There is great impact of ethnocentrism on the people of that particular society. It makes them
ethnocentric as they consider their culture best among the others.
Cultural Relativism
 Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make
judgments using the standards of one's own culture. 
Xenocentrism
 When member of a society come to dislike its culture and finds others culture attractive.
Civilization
 A civilization is any complex society characterized by urban development, social stratification,
a form of government and a symbolic systems of communication such as writing.
Sociology 63
 Related Concepts
Cultural Lag
 Cultural lag refers to the notion that culture takes time to catch up with technological
innovations, and the resulting social problems that are caused by this lag
Marginal Man
 Marginal man is a person who participates slightly in the life of two cultural groups without
feeling identified with either group.
 Cultural Amalgamation
 Cultural amalgamation is a term that refers to two or more cultures blending to create a new,
unique culture. 
Language and Culture
Technology and Culture
Society and Culture

Sociology 64
 Sociology
SOC-1101

Lecture-12: Community

Mr. Tasmia Matloob

Lecturer
 Community
Member of any group either large and small live together in such a way that they share not this
or that particular interest but the basic conditions of common life.
 Social group with some degree of We feelings.
Smallest testimonial group that can take all the aspects of social life.
Elements
 Group of People
 Territory
 Common Culture
 Common Gaols
Community is a group who follow a social structure within a society (culture, norms, values,
status). They may work together to organize social life within a particular place, or they may be
bound by a sense of belonging sustained across time and space.
Sociology 66
 Nature and Characteristics of Community

A group of people living together in an area fulfilling their needs by mutual cooperation.
A group of people having a sense of belongings to place of residence creates a sentiments of a
community.
Community is a group of people having common culture.
Naturality
Permanence
Similarities
Wider Ends
Organized Official life
Particular Name
No Legal Status
Size of Community
Concrete Nature

Sociology 67
 Types of Community
Rural Community
 It is a natural phenomenon and presents in every society. Almost every society has distinct culture and social
life.
Characteristics of Rural Community
 Small Population
 Lack in Administrative Organization
 Absence of Big Social Institution
 Agrarian in Nature
 Scattered Housing Patterns
 Equal Division of Labour
 Informal Interaction
 Slow Interaction and Social Change
 Celebrations of Events
 Homogeneity
 Traditional Recreation
 Endogamy
 Sociology 68
 Rural Community
Urban Community
 An area with high density of population, availability of basic requirements, good resources, lots of opportunity of
employment and such an area which can be considered as life-giving for luxurious desires of human.
Characteristic of Urban Community
 Large Population and Administrative Organization
 Presence of Modern Facilities
 Modern Recreation
 Expanding Social Institutions
 Division of Labor and Specialization
 Homogeneity
 Fast Interaction
 Changing Behavior Pattern
 Rapid Social Change
 Frequent Social Mobility
 Religious Beliefs and Social Life
 Anonymity
 Exogamy
Sociology 69
 Sociology
SOC-1101

Lecture-13: Society

Mr. Tasmia Matloob

Lecturer
 Difference

Urban Community
Rural Community
Division of Labor
Density of Population Division of Labor
Nature of Relations Density of Population
Environment Nature of Relations
Social Mobility Environment
Social Stratification Social Mobility
Size of Population Social Stratification
Social Differentiations Size of Population
Social Interactions Social Differentiations
Social Solidarity Social Interactions
Social Solidarity

Sociology 71
 Society
Any group of people who have lived and worked together long enough to get themselves
organized and to think of themselves as social units with well defined limits.
Large group within which men share a total common life.
A society is a group of people with common territory, interaction, and culture.
Social groups consist of two or more people who interact and identify with one another.
Presently, most countries have formal boundaries and territory that the world recognizes as
theirs.
Society and Individual
 Role of Individual in society
 Group and Individual
 Group and Larger Groups and Society
Social Life of Humans
 Social Needs and Human Behavior and Social Relationships
 Human beings are social animals, and the tenor of someone's social life is one of the most important
influences on their mental and physical health. Without positive, durable relationships, both minds and
bodies can fall apart
Sociology 72
 Nature and Characteristics of Society
Composed of Social Groups
Large Social Groups of People
Main Organs-Social Institutions
Society changes with the rate depending upon the culture.
Dynamism
Rural Urban Composition
Presence of Culture
Fulfilment of Human Needs
Consciousness of Kind
Organized in Nature
Limited Geographical Boundary
Presence of Social System
Mechanism of Social Norms and Social Sanctions
Specialization of Individuals
Permanent Social Group
Reciprocal Relationships
Cooperation
Sociology 73
 Elements of Society
Elements constitute the human society as the structure of the group depends upon the likeness
and mutual interests and help of the people living in a particular area and exercise common
culture.
A big Aggregate of People
Living Together
Sense of Belongings
More or less Permanent Association
Common Culture
Likeness
Reciprocal Awareness
Differences
Independence
Cooperation
Conflict
Human Needs
Sociology 74
 Sociology
SOC-1101

Lecture-14: Social thought, Characteristics, Levels, Sociological Theory, Characteristics of

Sociological Theory

Mr. Tasmia Matoob

Lecturer
 Social Thought
Social thought is a product of mind of philosopher or thinker
Social thought is the result of environment around the thinker. A tinker is a philosopher
who looks around the social environment of people in which they live.
Social Thought is thinking about social problem by one or two persons here and there in
human history in the past
 Social Thought is concerned with human beings in their relations with their fellows
Social Thought is totality of man’s thought about the relationship and obligations to his
fellowmen
Social Thought refers to any relatively systematic attempt to theories about society and
social life whether it be classical and modern or scientific and unscientific.
Social thought exited before the development of social theory and still its being practices
across the world.
Sociology 76
 Characteristics of Social Thought
Social thoughts are originated from social problems
Social thoughts are also related to the human social life
It is the result of social interactions and interrelations
Social thoughts are influenced by the time and also place
Here; thinkers are very much influenced by their social life, and personal
experiences
It inspires the development of civilization and culture
Social thoughts are based on abstract thinking
It is an integral part of social utility
It helps in promoting social relationships
It is neither absolute nor static. It is evolutionary

Sociology 77
 Levels of Social Thought
In each society there are three stages or levels of social thinking:
Socially Beneficial Thinking:
 Socially beneficial thinking is usually comprised of progressive or constructive social proposals
which are clearly designed to bring about progressive changes in the society. It leads to general
welfare of the society. The thinkers are inspired by the law of humanity.
Negative Social Thinking:
 Negative Social thinking is characterized by selfishness, disregard of general welfare etc. It is
parochial and retrograde in nature. In this negative type of social thinking the welfare of the
majority is not taken into consideration. Only interests of the few either in power or authority
or those who can manipulate the situation in their favor take advantage of the situation.
Scientific Social Thinking:
 Scientific Social thinking is now the order of the day. The present society wants this type of
thinking. This thinking is impartial and unbiased. It is a type of thinking which promotes
collective welfare. Now this type of thinking can be scientifically considered or analyzed.
Sociology 78
 Theory and Sociological Theory
Theory is mental activity. It is the process of developing ideas that can allow us why events
should occur
Explanation of relationship between phenomena which is not as solidly established as law
but is more than a mere hypothesis
Sociological theory is bunch of ideas from which uniformities can be drawn.
A sociological theory is a set of ideas that provides an explanation for human
society. Theories are selective in terms of their priorities and perspectives and the data
they define as significant. ... Structural theory sees society as a system of relationships that
creates the structure of the society in which we live.
A sociological theory is a supposition that intends to consider, analyze, and/or explain
objects of social reality from a sociological perspective, drawing connections between
individual concepts in order to organize and substantiate sociological knowledge.
Sociology 79
 Characteristics of Sociological Theory
A theory is couched into well defined concepts and logically interconnected prepositions
Sociology is a systemized symbolic construction and does not share ineluctability of fact. Theory building is
achievement and involves a qualitative jump beyond evidence
It is provisional in character. It is always open to revisions depending upon new insights and evidences. It is
neither necessary nor desirable for the sociological theory to be final formulation
It is verifiable in the preliminary way, that is, consistent with body known facts available advocates
It is systemized formulation that seeks to reconcile the needs of a humanistic tradition with the demand od
scientific traditions
Theory contain defined concepts and logically interrelated propositions
Systematically arranged symbolic construction full probability of facts which can contribute in deriving
predictions of social phenomena about what it is proposed.
It is flexible to revise or modify after finding the new facts and phenomena based on scientific evidences.
It is not a final formulation and proposition; thus it is not rigid, always open to receive new facts.
It can be verified and tested.
It considers the social needs and humanistic traditions and useful for understanding the social phenomena about
what it is stated.
It is based on estimation nor on speculations.
Sociology 80
 Books and Readings
• Anderson, Margaret and Howard F. Taylor. (2001). Sociology the Essentials. Australia: Wadsworth.
• Brown, Ken. (2004). Sociology. UK: Polity Press
• Gidden, Anthony. (2002). Introduction to Sociology. UK: Polity Press.
• Macionis, John J. (2006). 10th Edition Sociology New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
• Tischler, Henry L. (2002). Introduction to Sociology 7th ed. New York: The Harcourt Press.
• Frank N Magill. (2003). International Encyclopedia of Sociology. U.S.A: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers
• Macionis, John J. (2005). Sociology 10th ed. South Asia: Pearson Education
• Kerbo, Harold R. (1989). Sociology: Social Structure and Social Conflict. New York: Macmillan Publishing
Company.
• Koening Samuel. (1957). Sociology: An Introduction to the Science of Society. New York: Barnes and Nobel.
• Lee, Alfred Mclung and Lee, Elizabeth Briant.( 1961). Marriage and The family. New York: Barnes and Noble,
Inc.
• Leslie, Gerald et al. (1973). Order and Change: Introductory Sociology Toronto: Oxford University Press.
• Lenski, Gevbard and Lenski, Jea nm. (1982). Human Societies. 4th edition New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
• James M. Henslin. (2004). Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach. Toronto: Allen and Bacon

Sociology 81
THANKS
 Sociology

Lecture : Social Stratification

Tasmia Matloob
Lecturer
Department of Sociology
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

To understand the Dimension of Social Stratification

• Class and Cast Systems
• Social Class, Status, Power
• Social Mobility and its types
• Poverty, economic inequality

Sociology 84
 Social Stratification
• A system by which a society rank/categorize people in a hierarchy.

• A relatively permanent ranking of statuses and roles in a social system in

terms of differential privileges, prestige, influence and power is called social
stratification.

• A stratified society is the one marked by inequality , by differences among

people that are evaluated by them as being ‘lower’ or ‘higher’.

Sociology 85
 Determinant of Social Stratification

Economic Resource

Occupation

Prestige

Power

Education

Class System

Cast System

Age and Gender

Sociology 86
 Characteristics of Social Stratification

• SS governed by social norms and sanctions,

• is likely to be unstable because it may be distributed by different factors
• is intimately connected with the other systems of society such as the political,
religious, economic, educational and other institutions.
• It is social and ancient, universal, found in diverse forms.
• It is consequential.
• Social stratification has two important consequences
• One is “life chances” and the other one is “life style”.
• The class system not only affects the “life-chances” of the individuals but also
their “life -style”

sociology 87
 Class and Caste Systems

Closed systems, (caste system) which allow for little change in social position,
and open systems, (class system) which permit much more social mobility.

Caste System: based on ascription, or birth. A pure case system is closed

because birth alone determines a person's entire future, allowing little or no
social mobility based on individual effort. People live out their lives in their
rigid categories assigned to them, without the possibility of change for the
better or wrong.
• An illustration: India,
• The Indian system identifies four major castes: Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya,
and Sudra. On the local level, each of these is composed on hundreds of sub
caste groups.

Sociology 88
First, from birth, a caste system determines the direction of a person’s life. First, with the
exception of farming, which is open to everyone, families in each cast perform one type of
work, as priests, soldiers, barbers, leather workers, street sweepers, and so on.

Second, a caste system demands that people marry others of the same ranking. endogamous
marriage (endo-stems from the Greek word for ‘within’) people marry others of the same
ranking.

Third, caste guides everyday life by keeping people in the company of ‘their own kind’. Norms
reinforces this practice by teaching.

Fourth, caste systems rest on powerful cultural beliefs. Indian culture is built on the Hindu
tradition that doing the caste’s life work and accepting an arranged marriage are moral duties

Sociology 89
 The Class System

Because a modern economy must attract people to work in many occupations

other than farming, it depends on developing people’s talents in diverse fields.
This gives rise to a class system. social stratification based on both birth and
individual achievement.

Categorizing people according to their color, sex, or social background comes

to be seen as wrong in modern societies as all people gain political rights and,
in principle, equal standing before the law.
Sociology 90
 Meritocracy

Meritocracy refers to social stratification based on personal merit (from a Latin word
meaning ‘earned’) which includes a person’s knowledge, abilities, and effort.

Because industrial societies need to develop a broad range of abilities beyond farming,
stratification is based not just on the accident of birth but also on merit.

A rough measure of merit is the importance of a person’s job and how well it is done.

To increase the extent of meritocracy, industrial societies expand equality of

opportunity and teach people to expect unequal rewards based on individual
performance.

Sociology 91
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

To understand the

• Dimension of Social Stratification
• Class and Cast Systems
• Social Class, Status, Power
• Social Mobility and its types
• Poverty, economic inequality

Sociology 92
 Dimensions of Social Stratification

Important set of dimension derived from the work of the great German theorist Max Weber

Social Class (ones economic position in the stratification system, especially one’s occupation,

defines a person’s social class.

Status (relates to the prestige attached to one positions within society.

Power (the ability to get others to do what you want them to do, even if it is against their will)

Consistency/In-consisteny across three dimensions of social stratification

Sociology 93
 Social stratification is based on four important principles .

• Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a reflection of individual

differences. Many of us think of social stratification in terms of personal talent
and effort and as a result, we often exaggerates the extent to which we control
our own fate. But neither the rich nor the poor created social stratification, yet
this system shapers the lives of us all.

• Social stratification carries over from generation to generation. We have only to

look at how parents pass their social position on to their children to see that
stratification is a trait of societies rather than individuals. Some people,
especially in high-income societies, do experience social mobility. However, the
social standing of most people remains much the same over their lifetime.

sociology 94
 Cont….

• Social stratification is universal but variable. Social stratification is found

everywhere. Yet what is unequal and how unequal it is varies from one society
to another. In some societies, inequality is mostly a matter of prestige; in
others, wealth or power is the key element of difference. In addition, some
societies contain more inequality than others.

• Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well. Any system
of inequality not only gives some people more than others but also defines
these arrangements as fair. Just the details of inequality vary, the
explanations of why people should be unequal differ from society to society.

Sociology 95
 What is Social Mobility

• movement from one class/status position to another •

• There are 2 types: i) Intra- generational – ii) Inter generational
Intra- generational – movement within one generation e.g. a person moves from
one social class to another in the course of their life time
Inter generational – movement between generations e.g. a person’s father was a
Labourer and he is a teacher
Absolute mobility measures whether (and by how much) living standards in a
society have increased—often measured by what percentage of people have
higher incomes than their parents.
Relative mobility refers to how likely children are to move from their parents’
place in the income distribution.

Sociology 96
 Social Mobility can be classified as:

• Vertical mobility: The movement of individuals and groups up or down the

socioeconomic scale. Those who gain in property, income, status, and position
are said to be upwardly mobile, while those who move in the opposite direction
are downwardly mobile.
 
• Horizontal mobility: The movement of individuals and groups in similar
socio-economic positions, which may be in different work situations. This may
involve change in occupation or remaining in the same occupation but in a
different organization, or may be in the same organization but at a different
location.
 

Sociology 97
• Lateral/territorial mobility: It is a geographical movement between neighborhoods,
towns or regions. In modern societies there is a great deal of geographical mobility.
Lateral mobility is often combined with vertical as well as horizontal mobility

• Upward and downward mobility. Upward social mobility is a change in a person's

social status resulting in that person rising to a higher position in their status
system. • However, downward mobility implies a person's social status falls to a lower
position in their status system. • Upward and downward social mobility are not
directly correlated with higher education.

Sociology 98
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

To understand the

• Dimension of Social Stratification
• Class and Cast Systems
• Social Class, Status, Power
• Social Mobility and its types
• Poverty, economic inequality

Sociology 99
 Income Inequality

• Explaining Income Inequality

• Deindustrialization
• Technological Advances
• Political climate
• Tax cuts
• Federal benefits doing less to address inequality
• Incomes of executives and superstars
• Wealth Inequality
• Difference of Status, power, and wealth

Sociology 100
 Definition of poverty
• Poverty is an economic state where people are experiencing scarcity or the
lack of certain commodities that are required for the lives of human
beings like money and material things. Therefore, poverty is a
multifaceted concept inclusive of social, economic and political elements.
 
• The word poverty comes from French word “poverté” which means poor.

• It is complex to define poverty. Because it is depend on multifaceted and

multidimensional elements like region, era, geographical condition,
circumstances and many more.

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 Poverty
On the basis of social, economical and political  aspects, there are different ways to identify the type of

Poverty:

1.  Absolute poverty.

2.  Relative Poverty.

3.  Situational Poverty.

4.  Generational Poverty.

5.  Rural Poverty.

6.  Urban Poverty.

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 1. Absolute poverty
•-

1. Also known as extreme poverty or abject poverty,

it involves the scarcity of basic food, clean water, health, shelter, education and information.
Those who belong to absolute poverty tend to struggle to live and experience a lot of child
deaths from preventable diseases like malaria, cholera and water-contamination related
diseases.

Absolute Poverty is usually uncommon in developed countries.

"It is a condition so limited by malnutrition, illiteracy, disease, squalid surroundings, high infant
mortality, and low life expectancy as to be beneath any reasonable definition of human
decency.
" Said by Robert McNamara, the former president of the World Bank.

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 2. Relative Poverty:
• It is defined from the social perspective that is living standard compared
to the economic standards of population living in surroundings. Hence it
is a measure of income inequality. For example, a family can be
considered poor if it cannot afford vacations, or cannot buy presents for
children at Christmas, or cannot send its young to the university.

• Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of the population

with income less than some fixed proportion of median income.

• It is a widely used measure to ascertain poverty rates in wealthy

developed nations.

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 Situational Poverty:

• It is a temporary type of poverty based on occurrence of an adverse event

like environmental disaster, job loss and severe health problem.

• People can help themselves even with a small assistance, as the poverty
comes because of unfortunate event.

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 Generational Poverty: 

It is handed over to individual and families from one generation to the one. This is more

complicated as there is no escape because the people are trapped in its cause and unable to

access the tools required to get out of it.

“Occurs in families where at least two generations have been born into poverty.  Families

living in this type of poverty are not equipped with the tools to move out of their situation”

(Jensen, 2009).
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 Rural Poverty
• It occurs in rural areas with population below 50,000. It is the area where
there are less job opportunities, less access to services, less support for
disabilities and quality education opportunities. People are tending to live
mostly on the farming and other menial work available to the
surroundings.

• The rural poverty rate is growing and has exceeded the urban rate every
year since data collection began in the 1960s. The difference between the
two poverty rates has averaged about 5 percent for the last 30 years, with
urban rates near 10–15 percent and rural rates near 15–20 percent
(Jolliffe, 2004).

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 Urban Poverty
• It occurs in the metropolitan areas with population over 50,000. These are
some major challenges faced by the Urban Poor:
• Limited access to health and education.
• Inadequate housing and services.
• Violent and unhealthy environment because of overcrowding.
• Little or no social protection mechanism.

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