PSYCHOLOGY AND LANGUAGE TEACHING SILA ÇELEBI

 Good language learner studies in the 1970s (Rubin and Stern, Naiman et al.)
In terms of approaches, two approaches have been followed. One of them involves the identification of good
students and interviews orally or with written questions. (as in Naiman et al. 1978). The second one includes
comparisons of more and less successful learners are made.
The five major aspects of successful language learning were evidenced by the various studies summarized,
which are
1. concern for language form,
2. a concern for communication (functional practice),
3. an active task approaches
4. an awareness of the learning process, and
5. a capacity to use strategies flexibly following task requirements.

In Rubin’s (1975) study, learners of mixed ages in classroom settings were observed by recording them
through a camera. The following strategies were observed;

1. preparedness to guess
2. attempt to communicate (i.e. get the message across)
3. willingness to appear
4. attention to form
5. practising (e.g. by initiating conversation)
6. monitoring own and other speech
7. attending to meaning (e.g. by attending to context)

In Naimart et al.’s (1978) study, 34 mostly multilingual graduate L2 learners and students of L2 French in
grades 8.10, and 12 were interviewed (semi-directed and directed interviews). Also, the classroom
observation schedule was implemented not successfully. The following strategies were identified;

1. Active task approach

2. Realization of language as a system
3. Realization of language as a means of communication and interaction
4. Management of affective demands
5. Monitoring L2 performance

In Rubin’s (1981) study, the participants were young adults in classroom settings. Classroom observations
and observations of learners’ performance on specific language tasks were used. Additionally. Unstructured
self-reports and directed self-reports were administered. The following strategies were identified;

1. clarification/verification
2. monitoring
3. memorization
4. guessing/inductive inferencing
5. deductive reasoning
6. practice (i.e. learners practise on their own

Rubin’s (1975) study listed ‘attention to form’ and ‘monitoring one’s own and other's speech’ as key
strategies. Naiman et al. (1978) include ‘self-monitoring and critical sensitivity to language’ as an important
characteristic. They found that good language learners treat language as a system by making effective cross-
lingual comparisons, analyzing the target language, and using reference books. Such learners also monitor
their L2 performance and try to learn from their errors by asking for corrections when they think these are
needed. Naiman et al. (1978) reported that the learners they studied emphasized fluency in the early stages,
giving more attention to form later.
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Good language learners show active involvement in language learning. They appreciate teachers who are
systematic, logical, and clear but prefer to treat them as ‘informants’ rather than to rely on them (Pickett
1978). They like to take charge of their own learning by identifying and pursuing goals and by trying to
introduce new topics into a conversation. However, being ‘active’ does not necessarily mean engaging in
language production. Reiss (1985) reported that many successful classroom learners were ‘silent speakers’
(i.e. they rehearsed and practised silently while listening to others)

Last but not least, metalingual strategies are used by successful learners. Successful learners are thoughtful
and aware of themselves concerning the learning process. They make conscious decisions and they follow
their own preferred learning style.

 Taxonomy of language learning strategies (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990 etc.)

Three major types of strategy are distinguished which are cognitive, metacognitive and social /affective.
Cognitive strategies refer to ‘the steps or operations used in problem-solving that require direct analysis,
transformation or synthesis of learning materials' (Rubin 1987).

O’Malley and Chamot’s typology of learning strategies (Chamot 1987) cited in Ellis (1995)
PSYCHOLOGY AND LANGUAGE TEACHING SILA ÇELEBI

Metacognitive strategies refer to the utilization of cognitive processes and attempts to regulate language
learning by employing planning, monitoring, and evaluating.

O’Malley and Chamot’s typology of learning strategies (Chamot 1987) cited in Ellis (1995)

Social/affective strategies refer to how learners elect to interact with other learners and native speakers

O’Malley and Chamot’s typology of learning strategies (Chamot 1987) cited in Ellis (1995)

 Taxonomy of language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990)

In another taxonomy presented by Oxford (1990), there is an additional general discrepancy was made
between direct and indirect strategies. The direct strategies refer to strategies that directly involve the
target language’ in the sense that they ‘require mental processing of the language’ ( Oxford, 1990: 37) while
the second one provides indirect support for language learning through focusing, planning, evaluating,
seeking opportunities, controlling anxiety, increasing cooperation and empathy and other means' (1990:
151). Further division was implemented as
1. Metacognitive strategies refer to strategies that help learners to regulate their learning.
2. Affective strategies refer to the learner's emotional requirements such as confidence
3. Social strategies lead to increased interaction with the target language.
4. Cognitive strategies refer to strategies that mental strategies learners use to make sense of
their learning
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5. Memory strategies refer to strategies that used for the storage of information
6. Compensation strategies refer to strategies used to overcome knowledge gaps to continue
communication. This involves strategies of “guessing intelligently” and “overcoming limitations
in speaking-writing”.

 Strategy training
According to MacIntyre and Noels (1996), students can benefit if students first understand the strategy itself,
then find it effective, and lastly, find it not difficult to implement.
According to Brown (2005), Teachers can;
 Help students to become aware of their own learning styles and derived strategies through
interviews, and checklists.
 Employ compensatory techniques for providing diagnostic procedures to determine
students’ performance then help students to overcome problematic aspects of language
learning by making them develop successful strategies.
 Utilize the textbook including strategy instructions.

Oxford (1990) offered a practical guide in strategy training and it is resented below;

Taken from Brown (2005, pg 138)

PSYCHOLOGY AND LANGUAGE TEACHING SILA ÇELEBI

REFERENCES

Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). New York: Longman.

R. Ellis(1994). The study of second language acquisition. Per Linguam. 10. 10.5785/10-1-248.