Independent learning strategies

Definition of learning strategy

Many researches have been stated on the nature and definition of Language Learning
Strategies. So, Rubin (1979,17) defines LLSs as "the techniques or devices which a learner may use
to acquire knowledge." Bolte and Herrlitz (1986:207-9) advocate that all language learners use
LLSs either consciously or unconsciously when processing new information and performing tasks
in the language classroom, in other words, the methods which learners use to intake, store, and
retrieve during the learning process. Also, Oxford(1990, p. 8). wrote “ learning strategies are
specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-
directed, more effective , and more transferable to new situations “.Therefore, Learning strategies
are “specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques used by students to enhance their own
learning” (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992, p.63);that is to say, when the learner consciously chooses
strategies that fit his or her learning style and the L2 task at hand, these strategies become a useful
toolkit for active, conscious, and purposeful self-regulation of learning.

2 Models of learning strategy:

In EFL context, the use of language learning strategies can help learners to develop their
language learning. Some researchers and scholars try to investigate the learning strategies used by
the learners and classify them into categories. This research outlines the classification of language
learning strategies proposed by the following researchers O'Malley (1985), Rubin (1987), Oxford
(1990), and Stern (1992).

1 O'Malley's (1985) Classification of Language Learning Strategies

O'Malley et al. (1985:582-584) divided language-learning strategies into three main
subcategories:
 Metacognitive Strategies : strategies which include planning for learning, thinking about the
learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one's production or comprehension, and
evaluating learning after an activity is completed. Among the main metacognitive strategies,
planning for learning and self-management.

 Cognitive Strategies are limited to specific learning tasks and they involve direct
manipulation of the learning material. They consist of repetition, resourcing, translation,
grouping, note taking, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualization,
elaboration.
  Socio-affective Strategies It can be stated that they are related with social activity and
transacting with others. Cooperating and questioning for clarification (ask for help from
teachers or peers) are the main socio-affective strategies. (O'Malley et al. 1985, cited in
Hismanoglu. 2000)

2 Rubin’s (1987) Classification of Language Learning Strategies

Rubin (1987) suggested three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or
indirectly to language learning. These are:

Learning Strategies

Among the learning strategies that contribute directly to the development of the language
system constructed by the learner are

 Cognitive Learning Strategies

Examples of the strategies of this type are: Clarification / Verification, practice, memorization, self-
monitoring …etc.

 Metacognitive Learning Strategies

A various strategies involved in this type are planning, setting goals, self-management… etc.
 Communication Strategies
Communication strategies are those actions used by the learner when faced with some
difficulty or when confronted with misunderstanding. These actions participate in the development
of communication ability. For example, when foreign language learner speaks, he/she should focus
on the words that he knows and try to get the whole meaning. If not he can participate with what he
understands and tries again to grasp the meaning.
 Social Strategies
Social strategies are those activities that learners engage in to learn. Such as peer assessment,
peer reviewing, collaborative learning… etc. (Rubin.1987, cited in Hismanoglu2000)
3 Oxford's (1990) Classification of Language Learning Strategies
Oxford (1990) divides language-learning strategies into two main classes, direct and indirect.
 Direct strategies
All direct strategies requires mental processing of the target language (kitawaki . 2008). These
strategies are directly related to language learning. They are classified into: Memory (creating a
mental link between ideas, applying images, sounds, and grouping …etc.), Cognitive (practice,
analyze… etc.), and Compensation strategies which are “communication strategies used by
learners to compensate for limitations in their language” (British council, 2017), for example
guessing the meaning when you do not understand, using gestures, or using synonyms, allow the
learner to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge.

 Indirect strategies

These types of strategies are concerned with the organization and planning of learning. They are
classified into three categories: Metacognitive strategies (planning, evaluating learning…etc),
Affective strategies (self-encouragement, self-support… etc), Social strategies (asking questions,
collaborating with others…etc).(Oxford.1990, cited by Hismanoglu, 2000). See Figure 01
( Kitakawa .2008)

Classification of language learning strategies

-the two classes and six groups

Figure 01 -Cognitive Strategies

Direct Strategie -Memory Strategies

-Compensation Strategies
-Metacognetive Strategies
Indirect Strategies -Affective Strate
-social strategies

4 Stern's (1992) Classification of Language Learning Strategies

There are two main language-learning strategies. These are as follows: Management and
Planning Strategies
These strategies concerned with the organization of the learning process such as setting place
and time for learning. Cognitive Strategies ;An example of this type of strategies like repetition,
summarizing, guessing the meaning, using imagery for memorization…etc. Communication
Strategies: In this type of strategies, learners can use to develop their communication abilities; for
example using gestures. Interpersonal Strategies concern students relationships with their peers
like team work. Affective Strategies: they are concerned with managing emotions for example
creating positive affective environment helps the learning process. (Stern, 1992, cited in
Hismanoglu. 2000)
Among the fourth models of learning strategies above, there are some similarities between
O’Malley’s (1985), Rubin’s (1987), Oxford’s (1990) and Stern’s (1992) classifications of language
learning strategies. Each one of them differs in classifying those strategies into two, three or five
main classes of strategies. However, they all shared the main categories that are metacognitive,
cognitive and socioaffective strategies. Thus, it will be inappropriate to have a preference of specific
model over the others.

Key independent learning strategies

According to Rubin (1975),strategies are “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to
acquire knowledge”.However,one of the difficulties with researching language learning strategies is
that they cannot usually be observed directly; they can only be inferred from language learner
behaviour. Over the years, different researchers have suggested a variety of key independent
leaning strategies that make independent language learners more successful than dependent
language learners .
1 Goal-setting
Most theories of self-regulation emphasize its inherent link with goals. Goals enhance self-
regulation through their effects on motivation, learning, self-efficacy and self-evaluations of
progress (Bandura 1997; Schunk, 1995 stated in Schunk Dale H.2001). According to Locke and
Latham, goals affect behavior indirectly through their effects on cognitive and motivational
mechanisms. For one, goals motivate people to exert effort necessary to meet task demands and to
persist at the task over time. The greater effort and persistence pay off with better performance. For
another, goals direct individuals' attention to relevant task features, behaviors to be performed, and
potential outcomes, and also can affect how information is processed. Goals can give people "tunnel
vision" to focus on the task, select task-appropriate strategies, and decide on the effectiveness of
one's approach, all of which are likely to raise performance(schunk 1995, p5-6). Goals also direct
individuals' attention to relevant task features, behaviors to be performed, and can also help people
select and apply appropriate strategies. Zimmerman (2004) mentioned that a student might set short-
term goals for their learning to get the long-term goals. This strategy can be an effective way to help
students track their progress. In other words , Short-term attainable goals often are used to reach
long-term aspirations. For example, if a student sets a long-term goal to do well on an exam, then he
or she also may set attainable goals such as studying for a set amount of time and using specific
study strategies to help ensure success on the exam(Sharon Zumbrunn, Joseph Tadlock, Elizabeth
Danielle Roberts 2011).
2 Planning /Organizing and transferring
Similar to goal setting, planning can help students self-regulate their learning prior to engaging in
learning tasks. In fact, research indicates that planning and goal setting are complementary
processes, as planning can help learners establish well thought out goals and strategies to be
successful (Schunk, 2001). Planning occurs in three stages: setting a goal for a learning task,
establishing strategies for achieving the goal, and determining how much time and resources will be
needed to achieve the goal (Schunk, 2001). Teaching students to approach academic tasks with a
plan is a viable method for promoting self-regulation and learning (Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995;
Scheid, 1993).
3 Attention Control
Autonomy is “The ability of the learner to take responsibility for his own or her own learning
and to plan, organize, and monitor the learning process independently of the teacher” (Hedge, 2000
cited in Joshi, 2011, p.14). Therefore,in order to self-regulate, learners must be able to control their
attention (Winne, 1995). Attention control is a cognitive process that requires significant self-
monitoring (Harnishferger, 1995). Often this process entails clearing the mind of distracting
thoughts, as well as seeking suitable environments that are conducive to learning (e.g., quiet areas
without substantial noise) (Winne, 1995). Research indicates that students’ academic outcomes
increase with focused time spent on-task (Kuhl, 1985). Thus, teaching students to attend to learning
tasks should be a priority. Teachers can help their students control their attention by removing
stimuli that may cause distractions, and providing students with frequent breaks to help them build
up their attention spans.
4 Seeking information and resourcing:
In ILF contexts seek for learning resources is an important strategy (Hurd and Lewis 2008,
p.109). The first source to seek information is by asking help from the teacher and sometimes from
other students. However, there are other sources that the learners can use to look for new
information independently. For example, using the Internet, library, etc.
5 Keeping records and reviewing records:
Students make efforts to record events or results as taking notes or voice records of the class
discussion. They can use a variety of devices like smart phones. Students could reread their notes or
listen to voice records by themselves or they can share it with their teacher and peers by emailing
for evaluation purposes. Stannard (2013) considers this strategy among the autonomous learning
strategies.
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