Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2021, 20(2): 482–493

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The effect of solar radiation change on the maize yield gap from the
perspectives of dry matter accumulation and distribution
YANG Yun-shan1, 2*, GUO Xiao-xia1*, LIU Hui-fang3, LIU Guang-zhou2, LIU Wan-mao1, MING Bo2, XIE
Rui-zhi2, WANG Ke-ru2, HOU Peng2, LI Shao-kun1, 2

1
The Key Laboratory of Oasis Eco-agriculture, Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps/College of Agronomy, Shihezi
University, Shihezi 832003, P.R.China
2
Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology and Ecology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese
Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, P.R.China
3
College of Agronomy, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, P.R.China

Abstract
The uneven distribution of solar radiation is one of the main reasons for the variations in the yield gap between different
regions in China and other countries of the world. In this study, different solar radiation levels were created by shading and
the yield gaps induced by those levels were analyzed by measuring the aboveground and underground growth of maize.
The experiments were conducted in Qitai, Xinjiang, China, in 2018 and 2019. The maize cultivars Xianyu 335 (XY335)
and Zhengdan 958 (ZD958) were used with planting density of 12×104 plants ha–1 under either high solar radiation (HSR)
or low solar radiation (LSR, 70% of HSR). The results showed that variation in the solar radiation resulted in a yield gap
and different cultivars behaved differently. The yield gaps of XY335 and ZD958 were 8.9 and 5.8 t ha–1 induced by the
decreased total intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (TIPAR) of 323.1 and 403.9 MJ m–2 from emergence to the
maturity stage, respectively. The average yield of XY335 was higher than that of ZD958 under HSR, while the average
yield of ZD958 was higher than that of XY335 under LSR. The light intercepted by the canopy and the photosynthetic
rates both decreased with decreasing solar radiation. The aboveground dry matter decreased by 11.1% at silking and 21%
at maturity, and the dry matter of vegetative organs and reproductive organs decreased by 9.8 and 20.9% at silking and
by 12.1 and 25.5% at physiological maturity, respectively. Compared to the HSR, the root weights of XY335 and ZD958
decreased by 54.6 and 45.5%, respectively, in the 0–60 cm soil layer under LSR at silking stage. The aboveground and
underground growth responses to different solar radiation levels explained the difference in yield gap. Selecting suitable

Received 13 April, 2020 Accepted 30 June, 2020

YANG Yun-shan, E-mail: 18093656011@189.cn; Correspondence
LI Shao-kun, Tel/Fax: +86-10-82108891, E-mail: lishaokun@caas.
cn; HOU Peng, Tel/Fax: +86-10-82108595, E-mail: houpeng@
caas.cn
*
These authors contributed equally to this study.
© 2021 CAAS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
doi: 10.1016/S2095-3119(20)63581-X
 YANG Yun-shan et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2021, 20(2): 482–493
cultivars can increase maize yield and reduce the yield gaps induced by variation of the solar radiation levels in different
regions or under climate change.
Keywords: maize, solar radiation, yield gap, cultivar
1. Introduction
Through the expansion of planting area, cultivar replacement
and the introduction and intensification of field cultivation
management measures, the global grain yield has increased
significantly in the past 50 years (Cassman 1999; Foley et al.
2005; Neumann et al. 2010). Nevertheless, food security
is under threat as natural resources are reduced and food
production stagnates due to many factors, especially climate
change (Senapati and Semenov 2020). The most effective
way to ensure global food security is to improve the yield
potential, increase the adaptation of agricultural production
to climate change and close the yield gap between current
and potential yields (Krandikar and Risbey 2000; Li et al.
2014; Senapati and Semenov 2020).
Potential yield refers to the yield obtained by a suitable
crop cultivar under good growth conditions, without being
restricted by water, fertilizers or the stress of pests and
diseases (Yang and Liu 2014; Liu et al. 2015). Under optimal
management conditions, the yield potential of a particular
crop cultivar depends on meteorological factors, such as
solar radiation and temperature at a specific location (Van
Ittersum and Rabbinge 1997; Liu et al. 2016). A previous
systematic analysis of global maize, rice, wheat, and
soybean yields concluded that if 95% of the world’s planting
areas reached climate potential, their yields would increase
by 50, 40, 60, and 20%, respectively (Licker et al. 2010).
Due to the limitation of soil, pests, management measures,
and farmers’ enthusiasm, the actual yields of crops are far
lower than the potential yields of local crops (Liu Z J et al.
2017). The existence of a yield gap between different
regions is mainly driven by meteorological factors, especially
solar radiation. There are great differences in solar radiation
in different regions of China, especially between the eastern
and western regions (Yang et al. 2011; Hou et al. 2014).
Solar radiation in the western regions is more abundant than
that in the eastern regions in China. As a result, there is a
great yield gap between the eastern and western regions
(Xu et al. 2017; Hou et al. 2018).
As a driving factor for crop growth and development,
solar radiation is closely related to plant morphogenesis and
yield formation (Demetriades-Shah et al. 1994; Bansouleh
et al. 2009). Maize is a typical C4 crop with short sunlight
and high light efficiency, and it needs good solar radiation
483
conditions during the whole growth period. Ensuring suitable
light time and light intensity are beneficial for promoting
photosynthesis and yield formation (Li et al. 2002). In the
absence of other limiting factors in the environment, maize
yield is closely related to the intercepted photosynthetically
active solar radiation, and a simple linear relationship exists
between them (Muchow et al. 1990; Braconnier 1998;
Hammad et al. 2016). With the decrease of intercepted solar
radiation, the yield decreases (Muchow et al. 1990; Hammad
et al. 2016). At the stage of maize reproductive growth, a
decrease in solar radiation will restrict the establishment of
reproductive organs, and lead to declines in leaf area index,
photosynthetic rate and aboveground and underground
biomass (Mbewe and Hunter 1986; Zhang et al. 2007; Cui
et al. 2013; Ren et al. 2016; Gao et al. 2017). At the same
time, the rate of grain filling is decreased, the durations of
the grain filling peak and active filling days are shortened,
the effective filling period of maize is limited, and the grain
size and weight are decreased, eventually leading to the
yield decrease (Andrade and Ferreiro 1996; Chen et al.
2014; Yang et al. 2016; Gao et al. 2018).
Agriculture is a human activity that is intimately linked
to climate, and farmers are always faced with an array of
changing contexts. A major concern in understanding the
impacts of climate change is the extent to what agriculture
will be affected and its adaptation to climate change (such
as solar radiation) (Krandikar and Risbey 2000). In recent
years, solar radiation intensity has been declining globally
as a result of climate change (Stanhill and Cohen 2001; Che
et al. 2005; Abakumova et al. 2008; Liu et al. 2012). Solar
radiation in China has also shown a decreasing trend due
to environmental pollution (Shi et al. 2008; Qi et al. 2019;
Zhang Q et al. 2019; Chen and Pang 2020). At the same
time, due to differences in economic development between
regions, the environmental situation varies as well as the
degree of declination in solar radiation among regions (Liu
et al. 2015; Liu S et al. 2019; Zhao et al. 2020). Previous
studies on yield gap have focused on the effects of field
management systems on crop yield, such as the effects of
weed and pest stress (Hochman and Horan 2018), water
management (Mohammadi-Ahmadmahmoudi et al. 2020)
and fertilization (Rhebergen et al. 2020). The effect of solar
radiation on the yield gap is mostly simulated by models,
which have indicated that the yield gap decreases due to the
decrease in simulated yield potential after a solar radiation
decline and the actual yield increase under optimized
484 YANG Yun-shan et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2021, 20(2): 482–493
cultivation management measures (Liu et al. 2012; Tao
et al. 2015; Zhao et al. 2015). However, few studies have
focused on the effect of solar radiation on the yield gap
through field experiments. In addition, the previous studies
mainly focused on the effect of shading on maize growth,
but did not incorporate the quantification of radiation. In this
study in the region with the best solar radiation resources
in China, we used shading to mimic the low solar radiation
conditions in other regions of China, and explored the yield
gap caused by the experimental decrease of solar radiation
and its internal physiological mechanisms. The results
will provide a theoretical basis for reducing the yield gap
between regions and under the conditions of solar radiation
declines caused by climate change.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Experimental design
The experiment was conducted in Qitai (Xinjiang Uygur
Autonomous Region, China, 43°49´27´´N, 89°48´22´´E)
in 2018 and 2019. Meteorological data for the 2018
and 2019 maize growing seasons were obtained from a
“Watch Dog” Data Logger (Spectrum Technologies, Inc.,
USA) located in the experimental field. The two-year
meteorological data are summarized in Table 1. The effect of
solar radiation on yield gap was studied by using single factor
experiments involving two widely planted high-yield maize
cultivars, namely Xianyu 335 (XY335) and Zhengdan 958
(ZD958). The planting density was 12×104 plants ha–1.
Solar radiation intensity was 70% of natural solar radiation
after shading (low solar radiation, LSR), and that level was
compared with natural solar radiation (high solar radiation,
HSR). Shading was imposed from the three-leaf stage until
maturity. The experimental plots were 11 m×10 m in size,
and adjacent plots were separated by a walkway with a
width of 1 m. Shading nets of different shading levels were
designed and fabricated. A detachable shade shed was built
using a shade net, the top of which was positioned about
1.5 m away from the maize canopy, which ensured that the
microclimatic conditions (other than the solar radiation) in the
shade shed were consistent with the unshaded portions of
the field (Yang et al. 2019). A photo of the field experiment
is shown in Fig. 1.
Previous studies found that shading did not affect
the quality of incident light in the maize canopy (Yang
Table 1 Mean daily maximum temperature (Tmax), minimum temperature (Tmin), diurnal temperature variation (Td), solar radiation,
relative humidity (RH), and precipitation (Pre) during the maize growing season at Qitai Farm, Xinjiang, China in 2018 and 2019
Year Tmax (°C) Tmin (°C) Td (°C)
2018 24.0 10.3 17.2
2019 25.9 11.5 18.7
et al. 2019). The amount of the photosynthetically active
radiation reaching the top and bottom of the canopy were
measured with a Sunscan (SUNSCAN, Delta-T, UK). The
total intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (TIPAR)
from the period of emergence to the maturity stage was
calculated according to the following formula:
TIPAR (MJ m–2)=(1– B )×C
A
where A is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)
above the canopy, B is transmitted photosynthetically
active radiation at the bottom of the canopy and C is total
accumulated photosynthetically active radiation from the
period of emergence to the maturity stage. PAR was
measured with a diagonal orientation every 30 cm above
the ground (Liu G et al. 2019). The fraction of intercepted
PAR was measured on clear days during the silking stage,
using a line quantum sensor (SunScan, Delta-T) in 2018
and 2019. The three ear leaves were chosen at the silking
stage for photosynthesis measurements in 2018 and 2019.
The measurements of gas exchange were carried out on
clear days at 12:00–13:00 using a programmable, open-
flow gas exchange portable system (LI-6400, Li-Cor Inc.,
Lincoln, NE, USA) operated at a 500-µmol s–1 flow rate, and
the CO2 concentration of the reference chamber (CO2-R)
was set at 400 μmol mol−1. Light inducements were done
by keeping the leaves in the chamber under PAR=2 000
μmol m−2 s−1 until parameter readings were stable (Sofo
et al. 2009; Zhang Y et al. 2019).
Sufficient water was applied to prevent water stress.
On the first day after sowing, all experimental plots were
irrigated (15 mm), and starting from 60 d after sowing,
single water applications of 58 mm were delivered at 9–10 d
intervals throughout the growing season for a total of nine
applications; the total irrigation amount was about 540 mm
(Zhang et al. 2017). Base fertilizers were applied as 150 kg
N ha– 1 from urea, 225 kg P2O5 ha–1 (super phosphate) and
75 kg K2O ha–1 (potassium sulfate) prior to sowing. An
additional 300 kg N ha–1 was applied during the growing
season to ensure a non-limiting supply of nutrients. Weeds,
diseases and pests were controlled manually in the plots to
eliminate confounding effects.
2.2. Sampling and measurement
Dry matter At the silking and physiological maturing stages,
three consecutive plants were measured in the center row of
Solar radiation (MJ m–2 d–1) RH (%) Pre (mm)
9.41 53.4 221.0
9.75 52.6 138.5
 YANG Yun-shan et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2021, 20(2): 482–493
Fig. 1 Maize fields under natural and 70% natural solar
radiation levels.
each plot. All organs were cut off in their natural state within
the canopy. The organs were separated into the stem, leaf,
sheath, tassel, ear, and bract, and dried to constant weight
at 85°C (Liu G Z et al. 2017).
Roots In each plot, the roots of three adjacent plants from
the same inside row were removed from the soil by digging
at the silking stage. Each root system was excavated with
a certain volume of soil, depending on the average area that
the plant occupied, at a depth of 60 cm; and this sample was
then divided into three layers of 20 cm each. The soil from
each of these three layers was kept in a separate numbered
nylon bag for subsequent manual root washing and picking,
and after washing and picking, the roots were scanned
with a scanner (Epson V800, Indonesia) and analyzed by
an analysis program (WinRhizo Pro Vision 5.0, Canada) to
obtain the root length. Finally, the roots were dried at 85°C
to a constant weight to determine the root dry weight.
Yield At physiological maturity, an area of three central rows
and 5 m long was harvested manually from the center of each
plot and grain weight was measured. A portable moisture
meter (PM8188, Kett Electric Laboratory, Tokyo, Japan) was
used to determine the moisture content of the grains. Grain
yield was then determined at 14% grain moisture content.
Statistical analysis Statistical calculations were performed
using the Microsoft Excel 2010 Software, plots were
generated with SigmaPlot, and statistical analyses were
performed using the SPSS 21.0 Software (IBM, Armonk,
NY, USA).
3. Results
3.1. Yield gap of maize induced by solar radiation
change
The difference in solar radiation level caused a variation in
maize yield, which was HSR>LSR. There were significant
485
differences in yield between the two different years, and
the average yield in 2019 was higher than that in 2018.
The yield gap between HSR and LSR in 2018 was greater
than the gap in 2019, and the TIPAR showed the same
trend. TIPAR of XY335 and ZD958 decreased by 323.1
and 403.9 MJ m–2, respectively, and the average yield gaps
were 8.9 and 5.8 t ha–1 (by averaging 2018 and 2019 data).
In other words, the reductions of average TIPAR were 26.3
and 33.5%, and the average yield reductions were 41.8 and
30.6%, respectively. The average yield of XY335 (21.4 t
ha–1) was higher than that of ZD958 (18.8 t ha–1) under
HSR, so the yield gap between the two cultivars was 2.6 t
ha–1 under HSR. The average yields of XY335 and ZD958
under LSR were 12.5 and 13.0 t ha–1, respectively, so the
yield gap between the two cultivars was 0.5 t ha–1, which
was far less than the yield gap under HSR. These results
indicated that XY335 was more sensitive to changes in
solar radiation, while ZD958 had better adaptability to the
decreased solar radiation (Fig. 2).
3.2. Effect of solar radiation change on aboveground
dry matter accumulation and distribution in maize
At silking and maturity stages, the amounts of dry matter
in each organ decreased as solar radiation decreased,
and the decreases in XY335 were greater than those in
ZD958. The aboveground dry matter of XY335 and ZD958
decreased by 13.1 and 9.1% at silking and by 22.4 and
19.6% at maturity, respectively (by averaging 2018 and
2019 data). The proportions of stem, leaf and sheath dry
matter increased with decreasing solar radiation, and the
proportions of ear and tassel dry matter decreased with
decreasing solar radiation at silking and maturity stages.
The dry matter proportions of stem, leaf and sheath were
greater than those of ear and tassel.
At the silking stages in 2018 and 2019, the stem, leaf,
sheath, ear, and tassel dry matter weight proportions of
XY335 were 43.3, 31.1, 17.3, 5.5, and 2.9% under HSR,
respectively, while they were 43.4, 32.2, 16.9, 5.0, and
2.6% under LSR during the two years. The stem, leaf,
sheath, ear, and tassel dry matter weight proportions of
ZD958 were 37.5, 32.7, 17.5, 6.2, and 6.4% under HSR,
respectively, while they were 38.8, 34, 16.5, 5.1, and 5.7%
under LSR (Fig. 3-A and B). The overall reductions of the
dry matter of vegetative organs and reproductive organs
were 9.8 and 20.9%.
At the maturity stages in 2018 and 2019, the dry matter
weight proportions of stem, leaf, sheath, ear, bract, and
tassel of XY335 were 18.7, 11, 5.4, 59.7, 4.75, and 0.5%
under HSR, respectively, while they were 20, 11.7, 5.9, 57.9,
4.2, and 0.5% under LSR. The dry matter weight proportions
of stem, leaf, sheath, ear, bract, and tassel of ZD958 were
486 YANG Yun-shan et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2021, 20(2): 482–493

HSR LSR
A 25 B 25
2018 2019
a a
a
20 20 b
5.7
c 3.5
d
12.2 8.1
Yeild (t ha–1)

Yeild (t ha–1)
15 b 15
b
10 10

5 5

0 0
XY335 ZD958 XY335 ZD958
C 1 600 D 1 600
2018 2019
a
a a a
1 200 1 200
TIPAR (MJ m–2)

TIPAR (MJ m–2)

353.0
b 474.2 b 293.2 b 333.6
c
800 800

400 400

0 0
XY335 ZD958 XY335 ZD958

Fig. 2 Maize yield and the total intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (TIPAR) from the period of emergence to the maturity
stage of Xianyu (XY335) and Zhengdan 958 (ZD958) under high solar radiation (HSR) and low solar radiation (LSR) in 2018 and
2019. Error bars represent the standard deviations of three replicates. Means with different letters are significantly different at
the level of 0.05.

15.6, 12, 5.6, 61.6, 4.4, and 1% under HSR, respectively,
while they were 17.3, 14.9, 6.1, 56.3, 4.2, and 1.3% under
LSR. In 2018 and 2019, the proportions of vegetative
organs (stem+leaf+sheath) of XY335 were 35.1 and 37.5%
under HSR and LSR, respectively, and they were 33.2 and
38.3% for ZD958. The proportions of reproductive organs
(ear+bract+tassel) of XY335 were 64.9 and 62.5% under
HSR and LSR, respectively, and they were 66.9 and 61.8%
for ZD958. Compared to HSR, the proportions of vegetative
organs of XY335 and ZD958 were decreased by 17 and 7.1%
under LSR, respectively, in 2018 and 2019. The proportions
of reproductive organs of XY335 and ZD958 were decreased
by 25.5 and 25.5% under LSR, respectively, in 2018 and 2019.
The reductions of the dry matter of vegetative organs and
reproductive organs were 12.1 and 25.5%. Comparing the
data of the two cultivars under HSR, the decrease in XY335
was greater than that in ZD958. The reductions of the dry
matter of vegetative organs and reproductive organs in 2018
were greater than that in 2019 (Fig. 3-C and D).
3.3. Distribution of light in the canopy
Light transmission increased with increasing plant height
under both treatments in 2018 and 2019 (Fig. 4). The
distributions of light for XY335 under HSR and LSR matched
logarithmic functions, which were y=53.785ln(x)+75.767 and
y=55.598ln(x)+23.094, in 2018, and y=67.299ln(x)+71.286
and y=82.481ln(x)–21.238, respectively, in 2019. The
distributions of light for ZD958 under HSR and LSR
matched logarithmic functions of y=67.720ln(x)–9.187 and
y=42.583ln(x)+26.297, in 2018, and y=54.737ln(x)+17.798
and y=53.781ln(x)+17.987, respectively, in 2019. The
averages of photosynthetically active radiation transmission
of HSR and LSR for XY335 were 21.3 and 36.3%, and 23.9
and 31.5% for ZD958, respectively, in 2018. The averages
photosynthetically active radiation transmission of HSR
and LSR for XY335 were 20.6 and 31.1%, and those of
ZD958 were 30.3 and 32.3%, respectively, in 2019. These
results indicated that the average light interception by the
canopy of the population decreased when the solar radiation
decreased. The average photosynthetically active radiation
transmission gaps of HSR and LSR for XY335 were 15.0
and 10.5% in 2018 and 2019, respectively, while they were
7.6 and 2.0% for ZD958. These results indicated that the
photosynthetically active radiation transmission gaps of the
two treatments in 2018 were greater than those in 2019, and
 YANG Yun-shan et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2021, 20(2): 482–493 487

Ear Stem Leaf Sheath Bract Tassel

A B
50 50
2018 Silking stage 2019 Silking stage
Dry matter accumulation (t ha–1)

Dry matter accumulation (t ha–1)

40 40

30 30
a
20 a ab 20 b bc c
ab b
10 10

0 0
HSR LSR HSR LSR HSR LSR HSR LSR
XY335 ZD958 XY335 ZD958
C D
50 50
2018 Maturity stage 2019 Maturity stage
Dry matter accumulation (t ha–1)

Dry matter accumulation (t ha–1)

a a a
40 40 bc ab
b c
30 b 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
HSR LSR HSR LSR HSR LSR HSR LSR
XY335 ZD958 XY335 ZD958

Fig. 3 Dry matter accumulation and distribution among various organs of Xianyu 335 (XY335) and Zhengdan 958 (ZD958) under
high solar radiation (HSR) and low solar radiation (LSR) in 2018 and 2019 at the silking and physiological maturity stages. Error
bars represent the standard deviations of three replicates. Means with different letters are significantly different at the level of 0.05.

they were greater for XY335 than for ZD958.
3.4. Photosynthetic rate of maize induced by solar
radiation change
The photosynthetic rates of XY335 and ZD958 decreased
with decreasing solar radiation at the silking stage. In 2018,
the photosynthetic rates of the XY335 and ZD958 cultivars
were 34.5 and 36.9 μmol m s under HSR, and 30.1 and
30.7 μmol m−2 s−1 under LSR, respectively. Compared to
the HSR, the photosynthetic rates of XY335 and ZD958
decreased by 12.6 and 16.9%, respectively, under the LSR.
In 2019, the photosynthetic rates of XY335 and ZD958
were 38.6 and 35.9 μmol m s under HSR, and 28.4 and
34.6 μmol m−2 s−1 under LSR, respectively. Compared to
the HSR, the photosynthetic rates of XY335 and ZD958
decreased by 26.9 and 3.7% under the LSR (Fig. 5).
3.5. Distribution of roots
The root dry weight and root length of the 0–60 cm soil
layer decreased with decreasing solar radiation. In 2018
and 2019, the average dry weights of XY335 and ZD958
decreased by 54.6 and 45.5% under decreased solar
radiation. The significant difference in the effect of solar
radiation on the root dry weight was mainly found in the
0–20 cm soil layer. In 2018 and 2019, the average root dry
weights for XY335 and ZD958 in the 0–20 cm soil layer under
LSR were 55.4 and 45.9% lower than those under HSR,
−2 −1
respectively (Fig. 6-A–D). The root length of the 0–20 cm soil
layer decreased more than that of the 40–60 cm soil layer.
In 2018 and 2019, the root lengths of the two cultivars in the
0–20 cm soil layer decreased significantly under reduced
solar radiation, and the average root lengths for XY335 and
−2 −1
ZD958 in the 0–20 cm soil layer under LSR were 50.9 and
46.3% lower than HSR, respectively (Fig. 6-E–H). Under
the different solar radiation conditions, the root dry weight in
2018 was greater than that in 2019, but the difference was not
significant. However, the root length in 2019 was significantly
greater than that in 2018. Root dry weights and root lengths
of the two cultivars were significantly different, and both were
greater in XY335 than in ZD958, especially under HSR.
488 YANG Yun-shan et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2021, 20(2): 482–493

4. Discussion radiation on increased yield is greater than the effect of

temperature (Yang et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2019). Variations
4.1. Effect of solar radiation change on maize yield in resources and environment result in yield gaps among
gap maize growing regions (Lobell et al. 2009). Due to the
special geographical environment of China, there are
Recent studies have shown that solar radiation and varying degrees of regional differences in solar radiation and
temperature resources are significantly related to maize temperature resources, resulting in the existence of yield
grain yield, and the negative impact of decreased solar gaps between different regions (Yang et al. 2011; Hou et al.

HSR LSR

A 400 B 400
2018-XY335 2018-ZD958
350 350
y=53.785ln(x)+75.767 y=67.720ln(x)–9.187
Plant height (cm)

Plant height (cm)

300 R2=0.985** 300 R2=0.916**
250 250
200 200
150 150
y=55.598ln(x)+23.094 y=42.583ln(x)+26.297
100 100
R2=0.922** R2=0.888**
50 50
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Transmission (%) Transmission (%)
C 400 2019-XY335 D 400 2019-ZD958
350 y=67.299ln(x)+71.286 350 y=54.737ln(x)+17.798
R2=0.980** R2=0.946**
Plant height (cm)

Plant height (cm)

300 300
250 250
200 200
150 y=82.481ln(x)–21.238 150 y=53.781ln(x)+17.987
100 R2=0.968** 100 R2=0.969**
50 50
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Transmission (%) Transmission (%)

Fig. 4 Distribution of photosynthetically active radiation transmission every 30 cm in the canopy of Xianyu 335 (XY335) and Zhengdan 958
(ZD958) under high solar radiation (HSR) and low solar radiation (LSR) in 2018 and 2019. **, significant at the level of P<0.01.

HSR LSR
A B
50 50
Photosynthetic rate (μmol m–2 s–1)

Photosynthetic rate (μmol m–2 s–1)

2018 2019
a
40 a 40 a a
a
b b
b
30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
XY335 ZD958 XY335 ZD958

Fig. 5 Effects of photosynthetic rate at the silking stage in leaves under high solar radiation (HSR) and low solar radiation (LSR)
in 2018 and 2019. XY335, Xianyu 335; ZD958, Zhengdan 958. Error bars represent the standard deviations of three replicates.
Means with different letters are significantly different at the level of 0.05.
 YANG Yun-shan et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2021, 20(2): 482–493 489

HSR LSR
Root dry weight (g/plant)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
A B C D
a a a a
0–20 b b b b
Soil depth (cm)

c c c c
20–40 c c d c

c c d c
40–60 c 2018-XY335 c 2018-ZD958 2019-XY335 c 2019-ZD958
d
Root length (m/plant)
E F G H
a a a a
0–20 b b b b
Soil depth (cm)

c c c c
20–40 c cd d d

c d e d
40–60 c 2018-XY335 d 2018-ZD958 e 2019-XY335 e 2019-ZD958

Fig. 6 Distributions of root dry weight and root length of Xianyu 335 (XY335) and Zhengdan 958 (ZD958) under high solar radiation
(HSR) and low solar radiation (LSR) at the silking stage in 2018 and 2019. Error bars represent the standard deviations of three
replicates. Means with different letters are significantly different at the level of 0.05.

2012; Xu et al. 2017). The results of this study showed
that when the level of solar radiation was decreased, the
effective solar radiation interception during the growth
period of the maize decreased, and the photosynthetic rates
of XY335 and ZD958 at the silking stage also decreased
with decreasing solar radiation, which led to the decreases
in maize yield and caused the yield gaps. The difference
in yield gap between different years was mainly due to the
difference in TIPAR in the two years.
Canopy light distribution is important for crop
photosynthesis, which is a key factor for crop production
(Gu et al. 2014; Kromdijk and Long 2016). Dry matter
production is the physical basis of maize grain yield (Hou
et al. 2020), and photosynthesis is the basis of biomass
formation. In this study, light transmission in the canopy
increased with increasing plant height and the average
amount of light intercepted by the canopy decreased when
the solar radiation was reduced, which indicated that under
the low solar radiation, the light captured by the canopy
was weak. The photosynthetic rates at the silking stage
decreased under reduced solar radiation, as did the amounts
of dry matter of each organ and dry matter accumulation,
thus resulting in yield gaps (Zhu et al. 2016; Gu et al. 2017;
Khan et al. 2017; Yao et al. 2017; Liu G et al. 2020).
4.2. The aboveground and underground growth
responses to different solar radiation levels
The root draws water and nutrients from the soil to supply
the growth of the ground of the plant, which is the key
determinant of the plant growth potential and closely related
to the yield formation. Root growth is closely related to solar
radiation, maize root growth under high solar radiation is
better than that under low solar radiation, and the responses
of roots of different genotypes to solar radiation are different,
resulting in varying yield gaps (Son et al. 1988; Amos and
Walters 2006; Niu et al. 2019). The results of this study
confirmed this view. With the reduction of solar radiation, the
root dry weight and root length in each soil layer decreased.
The 0–20 cm soil layer had a larger rate of decrease, and
the decrease rate for the two cultivars was XY335>ZD958
(Fig. 6). Root growth of XY335 was greatly affected by solar
radiation, which might result in a larger yield gap. In this
study, the total root lengths of the two cultivars in the LSR
treatments in 2019 were found to be significantly higher than
those in 2018. Therefore, the absorption and utilization of
water and nutrients might increase, which could increase
the yield and reduce the yield gap between HSR and LSR
in 2019 (Fig. 6). In addition, the photosynthetically active
radiation transmission gaps between HSR and LSR in
2018 were greater than that in 2019, and the reduction of
aboveground dry matter accumulation in 2018 was greater
than that in 2019; all of which might have been the reason
for the greater yield gap in 2018.
The aboveground and underground components of
maize complement each other to form the overall functional
system of the crop, which is self-adaptive and -adjusting
to the external environment. When the solar radiation
decreases, the plant supplies photosynthates for nearby
organ growth, so the aboveground growth is better while
490 YANG Yun-shan et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2021, 20(2): 482–493
underground growth is severely limited (Casper and
Jackson 1997; Chen et al. 2002; Miralles et al. 2011). This
mechanism is consistent with the results of the present
study. At silking, the root weights of XY335 and ZD958 under
LSR were decreased by 54.6 and 45.5%, respectively, and
the aboveground dry matter decreased by 13.1 and 9.1%,
which meant that the reduced level of solar radiation had a
greater impact on the underground root growth. Meanwhile,
compared to the HSR, with the decrease of the radiation
level, the dry matter weight of each organ on the ground
decreased, and the reductions of the dry matter of vegetative
organs and reproductive organs were 9.8 and 20.9% at silking
stage, and 12.1 and 25.5% at the physiological maturity
stage, respectively, so the dry matter of reproductive organs
was greater than that of vegetative organs. This pattern
was consistent with previous studies which indicated that
under LSR, the development of maize ears (a reproductive
organ) was limited, and the growth of tassel and ears was
unbalanced, which would lead to an increase in male and
female separation during the flowering period and thus
decrease grain yield (Cui et al. 2015; Yang et al. 2016).
4.3. Yield gap between different regions induced by
solar radiation
Previous studies have indicated that adequate light
conditions can increase grain yield (Li et al. 2010; Chen
et al. 2014). The east-west distance spanning the maize
ecological regions in China is large and this results in a
significant difference in solar radiation, especially between
the west and east regions, and leads to the differences in
planting densities and final grain yields (Li and Wang 2008;
Xu et al. 2017; Yang et al. 2019; Hou et al. 2020). In this
study, shading was adopted to mimic regions of low solar
radiation conditions, especially the eastern region of China.
One of the most effective measures for maximizing maize
yield has been adjusting the plant density to different climatic
conditions (Xu et al. 2017). In this study, the variation of
solar radiation that was tested resulted in yield gaps ranging
from 5.8 to 8.9 t ha–1, which were smaller than the actual
conditions in the field. This difference might be because the
higher yield gap between the western and eastern regions
is not only related to solar radiation change, but also closely
related to the actual planting density (Xu et al. 2017; Hou
et al. 2020). The planting density in the western region is
higher than that in the eastern region (Xu et al. 2017; Zhang
D et al. 2019).
4.4. Reducing yield gap by using suitable maize
cultivars
Other factors, such as cultivars, weeds, plant diseases,
water management (Mohammadi-Ahmadmahmoudi et al.
2020), fertilization (Rhebergen et al. 2020), and social
economy (Yang and Liu 2014), also affect the yield gaps
between regions (Liu W et al. 2020). In addition, abiotic
factors can constrain yield as well, such as climate change
(Liu et al. 2012, 2016), temperature and rainfall (Xu et al.
2017; Abdulai et al. 2020). Considering these factors,
selecting the most appropriate cultivars is more important for
reducing the regional yield gaps (Andrea et al. 2018). In this
study, different cultivars responded differently to changes
in solar radiation. The difference in yield of XY335 caused
by the reduced solar radiation was greater than for ZD958,
indicating that XY335 was more sensitive to changes in solar
radiation. However, the average yield of XY335 was higher
than that of ZD958 under HSR (Fig. 1). In this respect,
XY335 can be used to improve production potential in
areas with abundant light resources. Previous studies on
light response curves of different cultivars at the silking
and grain filling stages have indicated that XY335 has a
greater ability to utilize strong light and ZD958 has a greater
ability to utilize weak light under the same planting density
in the same area (Liu 2016). In this study, the average
yield of ZD958 was higher than that of XY335 under LSR,
indicating that ZD958 had better adaptability to LSR.
Therefore, cultivars similar to XY335 should be selected
in areas with high solar radiation resources, and on the
contrary, cultivars similar to ZD958 should be selected in
areas with low solar radiation resources to increase grain
yields and reduce yield gaps.
5. Conclusion
In this study, we found that yield gaps could be induced
by solar radiation change and different gaps were found
between cultivars XY335 and ZD958. Under HSR, grain
yield of XY335 was higher than that of ZD958, while the
opposite trend was found under LSR. This indicated that
XY335 could be used in areas with abundant light resources
and ZD958 should be used under low solar radiation
conditions to increase grain yields and reduce the yield gap.
The light intercepted by the canopy, photosynthetic rates,
the amounts of dry matter of different organs, and root dry
weight and length all decreased at reduced solar radiation
levels, and the decreases in XY335 were greater than those
in ZD958, resulting in different yield gaps. The reduced level
of solar radiation had a greater impact on the underground
root growth than aboveground growth, and it had a greater
impact on reproductive organ growth than vegetative organ
growth, which explained the difference in the yield gaps.
Selecting suitable cultivars can increase yields and reduce
yield gaps that are driven by variations of solar radiation in
different regions or under climate change.
 YANG Yun-shan et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2021, 20(2): 482–493
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the National
Key Research and Development Program of China
(2016YFD0300110, 2016YFD0300101), the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (31871558) and the
National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program,
2015CB150401).
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Managing editor WANG Ning