Journal of Wilderness Medicine 3,292-300 (1992)

REVIEW

The use of dogs in search, rescue and recovery

VIKKI FENTON, BSN
2312 Pine Street, Bilings MT 59101, USA
Key words: search, search and rescue, canine, dog training, canine olfactory, refind

Introduction
Canines have been associated with man since long before the beginnings of recorded
history. As demonstrated by cave drawings more than 5000 years old, the mutually
beneficial relationship had already evolved a multiplicity of facets, represented by
shepherd dogs, sight dogs, guard dogs and trailing dogs.
The monks at the St. Bernard Hospice in Switzerland first recorded the utilization of
dogs for search and rescue (SAR) as early as the 1700s. These dogs searched for and
often found lost or stranded travelers or their bodies in the mountain passes between
Switzerland and Italy [1]. During the great World Wars, dogs continued to be used to
search for and rescue humans. In World War I, the French and Germans trained dogs to
find wounded soldiers, and thus lead medics to the injured. The British used dogs to
locate people buried in rubble during World War II. During World War II, the Korean
War, and Vietnam War, Americans utilized dogs as message carriers, sentry dogs, sledge
dogs and scout dogs. The scout dogs indicated the presence of the enemy, including
scuba divers under water, to the handler [2]. Today, the working relationship of humans
and dogs encompasses these historical skills, as well as new ones. Modern dogs are
trained to locate illicit drugs, bombs, cadavers and evidence of arson. The physical
endowments and canine learning capabilities have been modified to assist man in
avalanche rescue, disaster recovery, lost person discovery, body recovery in water and
tracking/trailing.

Canine considerations
The theory explaining the working dog's scenting capability is at best vague. The primary
premise is that each human emits an individualized smell (scent). This scent is generated
by bacteria attached to regularly-shed small epidermal flakes, by perspiration and by skin
oils which are unique to each individual. There is also a gaseous component, which
includes air exhaled from the lungs or expelled from the digestive tract. The gaseous
scent is dispersed more rapidly than the other components, but remains distinctly
individual [3]. The cumulative debris, also known as 'rafts', envelops each person in an
invisible cloud that constantly drifts or disperses. Some of this debris settled on the
ground or on the surfaces beneath the individual; some may be carried on air currents for
long distances. The variables determining the distance the debris is carried and duration
of scent emission are moisture, terrain, temperature and wind speed [4].
0953-9859 © 1992 Chapman & Hall
 The use of dogs in search, rescue and recovery 293
Compared to dogs, modern man has a comparatively small and simple olfactory
system. He is thus termed 'microsmatic'. Many four-legged animals, including dogs, have
a complex nose design, as well as a relatively large olfactory lobe in the brain. They are
thus termed 'macrosmatic'. In many animals, olfaction is the most highly developed sense.
A comparison between the olfactory systems of dogs and humans lends insight into
how dogs detect scent so well. Comparing the brain of one of the working varieties of
dog, such as the German Shepherd, with an adult human brain shows that almost one
eighth of the dog's brain and over 50% of the internal nose is committed to olfaction.
The olfactory areas of macrosmatic animals have evolved an elongation of the nose and
folding of the nasal bones (turbinates), increasing the sensory surface. It is estimated that
man has five million olfactory cells, while a German Shepherd has an average of 220
million. Recent data suggest that the lower level of a dog's scenting sensitivity is between
10 and 100 times greater than that of a man [4]. Dogs with short and/or 'pug' noses have
correspondingly fewer turbinates and olfactory cells. A bloodhound has an average of
300 million olfactory cells.
Chemicals, such as petroleum products, encountered in a SAR environment can affect
the scenting acuity of a dog. For instance, a dog should optimally be allowed between 20
to 30 minutes to clear its nose from the effects of a vehicle ride before starting a search.
The handler can use this time to see if there are any other contaminants in the area.
Many medications prescribed for a dog can also adversely affect its scenting ability.
Examples are steroids and phenylbutazone. Veterinarians who work with SAR dogs are
aware of this problem and avoid using these drugs.
The range of a dog's hearing is from 20 cycles per second (cps) to 50000 cps. Humans
also start at 20 cps, but their range ends near 20000 cps. When trained, dogs are able to
locate a sound, such as that from a whistle, with amazing accuracy. They are also able to
discriminate as little as one-third of a tone difference (measured in cps) [4]. However,
hearing is a learned ability, not totally instinctive. When properly combined with the
dog's sense of smell, the capabilities become remarkable.
Both man and dog are binocular. Man has a binocular visual field of about 120
degrees. The dog's binocular field of vision is 75 degrees for long-nosed breeds and
about 85 degrees for short-nosed breeds. The canine's eye is smaller than man's, even
though the retinal cells are of equal size. Thus, the image formed on the dog retina is
about 75% less than that formed on that of a human, and therefore covers a smaller number
of cells. Detail is lost in both sharpness and depth [5].

Search dogs
Search dogs are generally selected from working breeds of medium size, such as Golden
or Labrador Retrievers, German Shepherds or Border Collies. Bird hunting breeds are
command-oriented and focus less well on the handler while working, which works well
when searching for a bird, but may prove to be a handicap when trying to cover a search
area in a controlled and thorough manner.
People purchasing a dog to train for SAR often will choose a purebred. Investigation
of the pedigree gives the buyer a much better idea of the working potential of the dog, as
well as possible genetic problems. For example, the St Bernard was among the first
breeds used in SAR. Over the years, the increase in the breed's size and associated health
problems, such as epilepsy and hip dysplasia, have diminished the breed's working
294 Fenton
capabilities. By carefully studying various bloodlines, it is still possible to find a St
Bernard that can stand up to the rigors of SAR work. The working and living environ-
ment may also influence the handler's choice of breed. A handler living in Florida may
think twice about training a long haired German Shepherd, choosing instead a smooth
coated Border Collie or a Doberman (the short coats allow more heat tolerance). If a
person chooses a mixed breed, the dog mayor may not be able to do the job. There are
of course, exceptions to any general guidelines. With time and patience, most dogs can be
trained in the basics of SAR. The trainer/handler has to decide how much effort he or
she is willing to expend to train a less adaptable breed.
If many dogs have the inherent capabilities to perform SAR, what additional traits
separate the special dog from the rest of the pack? Some of the determining character-
istics are sound temperament, intelligence, fearless curiosity, scenting acuity, willing
exuberance, endurance, gait and trainability. The younger the dog is when the training
begins, the longer will be its working life. Neither the sex of the dog nor sexual intactness
is a determining factor [6].

Training techniqnes
The books which state preferences for methods and espouse given techniques of dog
training would easily fill a small library (Table 1). At the beginning, it is easy to lock onto
one method of training. Most new canine handlers join an established SAR unit. More
experienced teams within the unit frequently act as mentors for the novice handlers and
dogs. As of this writing, there are no training schools specifically dedicated to SAR dog
training. There are, however, numerous training seminars hosted by various organiza-
tions. For example, during the month of May 1991, Absaroka Search Dogs, in
conjunction with the Federal Emergency Management Agency, hosted a disaster training
seminar; Maine Search and Rescue Dogs hosted a multi-topic week-long seminar; and
California Swiss Disaster Dogs brought in a Swiss disaster expert for three consecutive
weekends.
Each handler ultimately develops a personalized style of training. In any case, the keys
to being a good trainer are to modify the program to suit the dog, be willing to try new
methods, be willing to admit being wrong, and learn to train in a patient manner.
Bringing a puppy into a 'yes' house will make the training easier. A positive
environment enhances the learning process of an animal, in the same manner as it would
a child. In this author's opinion, search training should be positive, reward-based train-
ing. An end goal is to have the dog become a partner that will disobey when it
knows it is right. This is termed 'intelligent disobedience'. It cannot be forced or
programmed. The dog must have confidence in itself and its handler to endure the rigors
of advanced training and the extra efforts associated with a difficult search [71.
When a puppy is brought into the home, at least a couple of weeks should be allowed for it
to get its bearings. Once basic manner training is begun, search training can start, usually at
about 8 to 10 weeks of age. The goal is to teach the puppy to use its senses, primarily that
of smell, to find people. One of the first games is hide and seek. The handler, who
initially can run faster than the puppy, runs a short distance and hides behind a tree or
bush, taking care to run into the wind. When the puppy finds the handler, it must be
made to feel that it has done absolutely the best thing in the world. At the completion of
each problem, the puppy must be successful.
 The use of dogs in search, rescue and recovery 295
Table 1. Additional reading on search dogs

LaValla, R. and Stoffel, S. Search is an Emergency. Olympia, WA: The Emergency Response
Institute, 1987.
Pearsall, M. and Pearsall, M. The Pearsall Guide to Successful Dog Training. New York: Howell
Book House, 1982.
Bergman, G. Why Does Your Dog Do That? New York: Howell Book House, 1985.
Carlson, D. and Giffin, M. Dog Owner's Home Veterinary Handbook. New York: Howell Book
House, 1981.
Perla, R. and Martinalli, M. A valanche Handbook. US Department of Agriculture. Washington,
DC: US Government Printing Office, 1975.
LaChapelle, E.R. The ABC of A valanche Safety. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers, 1987.
Buck, C. and Schroeder, M. Fire Weather. US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC: US
Government Printing Office, 1977.
Bowman, W. Outdoor Emergency Care. Lakewood, CO: National Ski Patrol, 1988.

It isn't too long before the handler cannot outrun the puppy and must enlist the
assistance of friends. The assistant usually starts out by holding the puppy while the
handler runs away. This in itself can be difficult since the puppy is supposed to remain
enthusiastic and is generally not given any obedience commands (such as 'sit' or 'stay').
As the puppy learns the routine, the assistant becomes the one to hide. The training
progresses through seeing the 'victim' run away, to not seeing him leave, through working
for a long period of time without finding anyone. During this stage, there must be a
variety of victims, terrain, length of problems and time of day the problems are worked.
Consideration must also be given to providing a variety of distractions, such as cats,
bunnies and bouncing balls. Agility training is also begun. This may consist of climbing
over a large boulder, going through a short culvert, or swinging on a tire pendulum with
the handler, or going to playgrounds.
In addition to search training, the puppy needs to be socialized with both animals and
humans other than its handler. It also needs time to be just a puppy. Formal obedience
training usually doesn't start until at least six months of age, though there are puppy
classes available to help with socialization. If a novice team spends an average of 20 to 30
hours a week training, the team will be qualified for SAR in approximately two to two
and a half years. Rewards are extremely important. Each dog has a particular reward (game
or toy) that is special. This reward should only be offered at the completion of a search
problem or training session. Since communicating with a dog is somewhat difficult, the
special toy is often discovered by trial and error. This makes for an interesting 'toy box' for
visiting dogs.
Most search dogs are worked by one person. A dog and handler who have spent two
years in intensive training should have developed close rapport. Communication is
frequently nonverbal and very subtle. It is difficult for another handler to be able to 'read'
all nuances that happen between the duo. There are exceptions to this rule. If a second
handler has spent a lot of time with a dog and has developed a good working relationship
with it, he may be able to work the dog effectively. However, the likelihood of missing
clues and indications of a victim location remains [7].
Initially, the most commonly accepted school of thought was to first teach dogs to air
scent, or identify human odor carried in the air, then to progress to other aspects of
search training. Presently, it is more common to teach a dog first to follow a track and
296 Fenton
Table 2. Combined canine and human first aid field kit.

Drugs
Naproxen 500 mg tab
Triazolam tab 0.125 mg
Decongestant
Diphenoxylate atropine HC12.5 mg tab
Diphenhydramine HCl25 mg tab
Ibuprofen 200 mg tab
Meprobamate with ASA
ASA tabs 325 mg
0.5% betamethasone ointment
Polymyxin ophthalmic ointment
Temporary dental filling material
Dressings
4 X 4 gauze pads
8 X 7 combination gauze pad
Cravats (3)
Very thin 6" X 6" leather straps
Veterinary wrap
2" self-adherent cloth wrap
2" athletic tape
Elastic bandages
Equipment
Microshield
Rubber gloves (2 pair)
Seam ripper
Skin stapler
Staple remover
Super glue
Leather dog booties (2)
10 cc syringe
Mosquito clamp
Large safety pins (2)
Germicidal soap
EMT shears
Disposable razor
2 quarters for phone
Hypothermia rectal thermometers (2)

then to air scent. Teaching tracking first tends to help the dog become more thorough in
its searching techniques, thereby missing fewer clues. Once the two concepts are
understood by the animal, the types of training problems are mixed to help keep interest
high.
In an area search, dogs work 'off lead', without the restraint of harness or leash. Often
a dog is a quarter- to a half-mile ahead of its handler. The dog must be able to return to
its handler and indicate that it has found a person or an object which carries a smell, and
then lead the handler to that spot. This is called a recall/refind, which is a primary skill.
Once a dog understands the concept of finding humans or their smells, its repertoire
can be expanded to include an incredible variety of skills. Locating people under snow, in
water, or under debris is begun by introducing the concept that the scent may come from
The use of dogs in search, rescue and recovery 297
Table 3. Contents of 72 hour search pack.

Basic Clothes
Long john tops and bottoms
Wool shirt, long sleeve
Wool shirt, short sleeve
Wool or cotton handkerchief
Pile pants
Wind pants
Gortex parka & pants
Polypro gloves
Fingerless gloves
Light & heavy weight mittens
Overmitts
Leather gloves
Polypro socks (2 pair)
Wool socks (4 pair)
Neck shield
Sunhat or visor
Light & heavyweight hats
Gaitors
Belt
Underwear
Down booties
Boots, leather
Dog
Collar, bells
Leash
Search vest
Rapelling harness
Water dish
Food dish
Dog food, snacks
Closed cell foam pad
Equipment
Sunglasses Altimeter
Insulated air mattress (Thermarest) Headlamp
Sleeping bag appropriate for season Extra batteries
Stove (Peak 1 multi-fuel) Flashlight, pocketsize (2)
Fuel Water disinfection equipment
Pot with lid Toilet paper
Wide mouth 1.2 L Nalgene bottles (2) Large garbage bag
Cup, spoon, bowl Flagging
Food: Cup-o-soup, hot chocolate, candy bars, Map
High calorie fruit bread, tortillas, Binoculars
Cheese, salami, gorp, etc. Compass
Personal kit: Matches, cigarette lighter, toothbrush, First aid kit
toothpaste, sunscreen, lip salve
insect repellent, comb, soap, spare
contact equipment
Radio, instruction manual, charger (for basecamp)
Radio harness
Small notebook (waterproof) and pencil
Condensed "Search is an Emergency" [Lavalla R. Stoffel S, eds.
The Emergency Response Institute, Olympia, Wa. 1987]
298 Fenton
Swiss army knife & hunting knife
Survival kit: 1/8" nylon cord, signal mirror, spare matches,
lighter, whistle, candle or other fire starter
Climbing harness
Locking carbiners (2)
75 feet of 9 mm rope

'under something'. The 'run away' game is again used to introduce a dog to finding someone
under snow. The handler initially runs and hides in a shallow pit and the dog 'finds' him.
The game then progresses from having a few inches of snow over the handler to a fully
buried unknown victim. All safety precautions (radio transceivers, warm clothing, people
with shovels standing by) are employed with a full burial. Divers at various depths help
introduce the dogs to the concept of people under water. This time the 'run away' game
is played by seeing the diver submerge. Body parts and clothing are frequently used to
simulate drowned victims.
Cadaver training is another option. A dog trained in water search has already
identified a corpse as having a human smell. The degree of decomposition alters the
scent. The dog may respond to a dead person with a different indication and/or refind,
usually less enthusiastic and quieter. Procuring body parts for training is difficult. The
potential for dissemination of infectious diseases, as well as ethical concerns in our
litigious society, make such procurement one of the most difficult aspects of cadaver
training. This writer works with a local orthopedic surgeon to obtain tissue and bone. The
surgeon decides which patients might be receptive to a request to donate body parts for
search dog training. One should explain the reason for the request and obtain written
permission to have the tissue after surgery. The tissue or part is not embalmed. Hair
salons are a good source of hair; dentists can help obtain teeth. Sigma Chemical
Company, PO Box 14508, St Louis, Missouri, 63178 USA makes 'biochemicals and
organic compounds for research'. These chemicals can be used to mimic certain stages of
human decomposition, but are not as good as the real thing. A real test of true friendship
is whether someone will allow you to draw blood in order to help train the dog. The
blood may be placed on some soil, a piece of cloth or gauze, or a fired rifle casing.
A dog trained for disaster work possesses advanced agility, the ability to respond to
hand signals, and the ability to indicate a live victim differently from a corpse. The agility
includes moving over high unsteady surfaces, climbing up and down ladders, and enter-
ing small, dark and forbidding spaces.

Handler considerations
A well trained SAR dog must be paired in the field with an equally well trained and
physically fit handler in order to be maximally effective. The handler, depending on prior
training, may also need a minimum of one and a half to two years to become fully
capable. The handler needs to be trained in a variety of skills, including canine and
human first aid (Table 2), wilderness survival, meteorology, lost person behavior, and
determining probability of detection. The handler must also be able to function without
support for up to 72 hours (Table 3), travel safely in varied terrain, navigate with a map
and compass (often from a xeroxed copy of a topographic map), give position
coordinates to the search base, and leave home and job within 30 minutes of notification
of a callout.
 The use of dogs in search, rescue and recovery 299
Search coordination
In the US, the local sheriffs department is responsible for SAR. They may be familiar
with Police Service dogs, but not necessarily with SAR dogs. The handler may need to
demonstrate to law enforcement agents the capability of the dog team in advance of a
rescue. Each county in which the team or unit wishes to work probably needs such an
introduction. After a period of time, a unit's good or bad reputation precedes it. A family
member of a person who is missing may request that the sheriff call in the search dogs,
but the teams must be activated through the sheriffs office or its designee. Most search
units are volunteer, non-profit organizations, so there is no cost for the search.
Most units develop standards and regularly test participating teams in order to valid-
ate mission readiness. There is much 'networking' between individual groups, which has
helped set the stage for developing standards nationally for SAR dogs. Since dog handlers
tend to be quite independent, this has not been a politically painless process. The two US
national organizations that are facilitating this process are the National Association for
Search and Rescue, which is an umbrella organization involved in all aspects of SAR, and the
North American Search Dog Network, which focuses on expanding the capabilities of all
working dogs.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency is responsible for national response to
disasters. It currently draws upon the expertise of the rescue community to develop
standards for disaster response teams. The goal is to have self-contained teams situated
across the nation. These will be capable of responding to a national disaster, bringing all
necessary people and equipment with the team. Within this operation, presently in the
planning stages, pertinent topics include disaster dog standards, methods of transporta-
tion and packaging, medical needs, heavy rescue, supply, storage, and cost.
Notwithstanding the trend toward national standards and testing, search dog units
continue to maintain their individuality. Each unit responds to local needs by tailoring its
training to fit the terrain and type of searches in its area. Teams which live and train at or
around sea level would not be the best resource for a search at 10 000 feet.
Training and handling a search dog frequently turned into an avocation. The time and
energy required to do the job well are substantial. This fact alone limits the number of
active handlers. Once a person has become a SAR dog handler, it is seldom possible to
return to the casual world where a dog is just another pet. It has been said that most
handlers, if forced to choose between the companionship of other humans and their dogs,
would choose their dogs. While the closeness of the relationship may be curious to
outside observers, it should be a comfort to anyone who is lost to know that such strong
bonds exist, for such a relationship between handler and dog may be the crucial element
in enacting a successful rescue.

References
1. Abbot, RE., Barwig, S. and Mays, A, eds. The German Shepherd Book. Wheat Ridge, Co:
Hoflin Publishing, 1986.
2. Koening, M. and Koening, R. History of Search Dogs in the U.S., in press.
3. Pearsall, M. and Verbruggen, H., eds. SCENT Training to Track, Search and Rescue. Clark
Mills, NY: Arner Publications, 1981.
4. Syrotuck, W. Scent and the Scenting Dog. Clark Mills, NY: Arner Publications, 1972.
300 Fenton
5. Whitney, L.F. Dog Psychology: The Basics of Dog Training. New York: Howell Book House,
1984.
6. Bryson, S. Search Dog Training. Pacific Grove, CA: Boxwood Press, 1974.
7. Bryson, S. Search and Rescue Dog Training. Pacific Grove, CA: Boxwood Press, 1984.