ABSTRACT

As a traditional society, Afghanistan has always been a hotbed of gender inequality in different
aspects; especially in terms of female education. Female education in Afghanistan has witnessed
many upheavals all through the history of Afghanistan. Gender stereotyping has been common
practice in Afghanistan’s history; ultimate silent sufferers in terms of education have been
females. Disapprove of girls' education is not from sound religious perspective, but rather a
limitedand extreme political view and not in accordance with Islamic Principles.This article aims
to examine the gender stereotype in female education in Afghanistan and presents the main
obstacles thatprevent women or girls from having access to education. The specific objectives
are from this study to recognize the Islamic approaches towards girls’ education from the
viewpoint of Quran, Sunnah and Hadith, to put forth the authentic approach of Islam about girl’s
education
RESEARCH METHADOLOGY
Due to current security issues in Afghanistan, on-the-ground research is severely restricted,
especially in the southern regions where the Taliban control large areas. In addition, the
possibility to select one’s own respondents is currently considerably limited and cultural
restrictions hamper the possibility for an outsider to interview local women. Hence, this research
is based on findings of journalists, researchers and aid-workers that have worked in Afghanistan
over the years, as well as on extensive literature research. Findings are combined and put into a
historical context so as to provide a broad analysis of the position of women towards the Taliban.
The research paper will discuss the relevant historical background of Afghan women and their
position towards violent conflicts in the past.

BACKGROUND OF THE ISSUE

In the 1990s, Afghanistan was divided and there was a power vacuum as various mujahedin
groups were at odds with the government and with each other. The most disastrous period in
Afghanistan's history resulted from warlords like Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, Ismail Khan, Ustad
Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, and Rashid Dostum seizing control of different regions. The unrest paved
the way for the Taliban's rise, which began in the Islamic schools in the camps where Afghan
refugees were being housed in Pakistan. Their rule was based on a strict interpretation of the
Quran and they suppressed human rights, civil liberties, and women's rights. They isolated
Afghanistan from the outside world and upheld their harsh rule until the tragic events of
September 11, 2001. The country was in ruins, millions of people fleeing and 1.5 million dead.
The suffering was due to drought, starvation, extremist beliefs, and human rights abuses. The
situation in Afghanistan has been extremely challenging, and the people have paid a heavy price
for the conflicts and struggles that have occurred.1,,,,, The situation of women in Afghanistan is
even more challenging . The Taliban’s restrictions on women's rights are compounding
the humanitarian disaster in Afghanistan that was prompted by the sharp cut-off of most foreign

1
Farhoumand-Sims, Cheshmak. “Unfulfilled Promises: Women and Peace in Post-Taliban Afghanistan.”
International Journal 62, no. 3 (2007): 642–63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40184865.
aid after the Taliban takeover in August 2021. Women in Afghanistan have to face severe
restrictions on their freedom and rights. Since the Taliban's takeover in August 2021, women and
girls have been banned from various activities such as entering amusement parks, public baths,
gyms, and sports clubs. They have also been excluded from public office and the judiciary,
required to adhere to a strict dress code, and compelled to stay at home, leading to a loss of
employment and increased poverty. Furthermore, women and girls have been deprived of access
to education beyond the sixth grade and employment opportunities, and they face significant
threats to their safety and well-being. These challenges have led to a dramatic regression in the
fulfillment of their human rights, including the rights to education, work, health, freedom of
movement, and freedom from discrimination.2

BRIEF HISTORY OF WOMEN'S RIGHTS IN AFGHANISTAN

Islam was introduced in Afghanistan in the seventh century. Today, 99 percent of the population
is Muslim, of which the large majority follows the Sunni teachings. Minorities consist of Shia
Muslims and small pockets of Buddhists, Christians and Sikhs. The Afghan society contains
several ethnicities and tribes, which are of major importance through all levels of society and
politics. Tribal codes are important structures that provide security and order within the tribal
community. They are important in shaping and defining behavior among men and women. Honor
is one of the most desired status symbols in tribal Afghan society, and an important element of
the cultural code of the ethnic majority of the Pashtuns. It is considered the duty of the men to
uphold the respectability of their women. Purdah (prevention of men seeing women, both
through physical segregation and by covering women’s bodies so as to hide their form and skin)
is a key element in the protection of the family’s pride and honor and an essential component of
the honour code.3 The strict segregation related to Purdah is not practiced in all parts of
Afghanistan. Nomadic Kuchi women, for instance, are usually not segregated from men, neither
are the Shiite Hazara women required to seclude themselves. Purdah is also less practiced among
the Tajik people of Afghanistan.4

2
OHCHR. (n.d.). Afghanistan: UN experts say 20 years of progress for women and girls’ rights erased since Taliban
takeover. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2023/03/afghanistan-un-experts-say-20-years-progress-women-
and-girls-rights-erased

3
D. Cortright, and K. Wall, “Afghan women speak: enhancing security and human rights in Afghanistan”, Kroc
Institute for International Peace Studies (University of Notre Dame, August, 2012), p. 8,
http://kroc.nd.edu/sites/default/files/Afghan_Women_Speak_Report.pdf.
It is interesting to note is that in accordance with the Pashtun tribal code, when no male family member is able or
alive to reclaim the honour of the family, it is obligatory for women to carry out vengeance. See: M. P. M. P.
Dearing, “Agency and structure as determinants of female suicide: a comparative study of three conflict regions”,
Naval Postgraduate School (Dec. 2009),”, p. 84 footnote 270; M. Larson, L. Hazelton, “Hazara People”. National
Geographic ver. 6 (17 June 2008),
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/geopedia/Hazara_People. This site also lists further reading; D. Cortright, and
K. Wall, “Afghan women speak” (August 2012) 2009), p. 106.
4
Throughout modern Afghan history, the influence of tribal linkages and religious authority often
surpassed that of central authority, leading to strong opposition when reforms from Kabul
contradicted tribal or religious customs. In the 1920s, Amanullah Shah's efforts to improve
women's status faced resistance as he advocated against veiling and opened schools for girls.
Similarly, Prime Minister Mohammed Daoud's reforms in the 1950s officially ended seclusion
and veiling, particularly benefiting urban women. However, rural areas resisted change, viewing
Kabul's reforms as a challenge to their tribal values.5
In the 1950s and -60s, violence erupted between reform opponents and Kabul representatives,
mainly tribes, Mullahs, and religious students. The Soviet Union's interference in 1979 escalated
tensions, leading to resistance groups, Mujahedeen fighters, backed by the US and Pakistan,
waging an anti-Soviet jihad. Some women supported the Mujahedeen by sheltering them,
maintaining weapons, and serving as couriers. The collapse of the Soviet-backed government in
1992 plunged the country into civil war, with widespread violence and destruction. Amid the
chaos, some former Mujahedeen regrouped in the early 1990s to form the Taliban, positioning
themselves as cleansers of Afghan society.
The Taliban's rise in 1996 had profound consequences for women, especially in cities. Schools
for girls were closed, and strict interpretations of sharia law and Pashtun customary law were
enforced. Women were banned from working outside the home or leaving without a chadari and
a mahram. Ethnic minorities like the Tajik, Uzbek, and Hazara faced systematic targeting and
abduction. In parts of Afghanistan dominated by other ethnicities, the Taliban's control was
limited. Resistance groups, particularly the United Front (Northern Alliance), played a crucial
role in pushing back the Taliban. The ongoing struggle for women's rights in Afghanistan reflects
a complex interplay of tribal, religious, and central authority throughout the nation's turbulent
history.
The journey toward women's rights saw a significant milestone in 1919 when Afghan women
gained the right to vote, a year before their counterparts in the UK and the United States. King
Amanullah Khan and Queen Soraya Tarzi played pivotal roles in establishing the first girls'
school, promoting women's education, and challenging restrictive traditions. In the 1950s Prime
Minister Mohammed Daoud (1953-1963) officially ended seclusion for women and abolished
veiling.6In 1950, Afghanistan abolished the purdah system, marking a turning point by granting
women greater personal and social freedoms. However, the communist era brought challenges,
and the 1970s conflict unraveled progress made for women. While the 1964 constitution

5
Collett, Pamela. “Afghan Women in the Peace Process.” Peace Review, vol. 8, no. 3, Informa UK Limited, Sept.
1996, pp. 397–402. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.1080/10402659608425986.

6
Antonius, Rachad. “Valentine M. MOGHADAM, Modernizing Women. Gender and Social Change in the Middle
East, Boulder & London : Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1993, 311 Pages (Broché).” BOOK REVIEWS / COMPTES
RENDUS, vol. 15, no. 2, Consortium Erudit, Nov. 2021, pp. 147–49. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.7202/1083895ar.
emphasized women's rights, progress was slow, and the subsequent rule of Mohammad Daoud
Khan did not prioritize women's rights.
Following the Soviet withdrawal, Mujahedeen factions prioritized control over women's rights,
leading to increased violence and repression. The Taliban's 1996 takeover marked a dark period,
with women denied basic rights and barred from education and work.
Post-Taliban, the 2001 constitution promised equal rights, yet progress was slow. The
Elimination of Violence Against Women (EVAW) law criminalized certain forms of violence,
and a 2013 strategy aimed to improve women's status. Despite challenges, it increased women in
decision-making roles and enhanced access to education, healthcare, and justice. However, since
the 2021 withdrawal of international troops, the Taliban's resurgence has reversed decades of
progress, plunging Afghanistan into a humanitarian disaster, with devastating impacts on
women's rights, the economy, and overall stability.

During the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, which began when they took control of Kabul, there
was a significant departure from previous religious and cultural practices. Before the Taliban's
rise to power, active participation in various sectors, constituting around 50% of the civil servant
corps, and a considerable number of physicians in the city were women.
However, with the Taliban in control, Afghan women experienced a drastic shift which was
justified in the name of religion and culture, imposing strict decrees that restricted women's
choices in dress, movement in public, and career opportunities. The Taliban's 1997 policy of
segregating men and women in hospitals, later reversed after negotiations with the Red Cross,
severely limited women's access to healthcare. Overall, the Taliban regime adversely affected
Afghan society, particularly women's rights, drawing international concern and condemnation for
human rights abuses.7
There have been many instances in which women are threatened with death and abducted and
detained by Mujahideen groups and commanders and then used for sexual purposes or sold into
prostitution. What can be worse than Taliban mothers being forced to watch their young
daughters being raped? 8

GIRLS EDUCATION
7
Tomar, Sangeeta. “Human Rights Concern and Conditions of Women in Afghanistan.” India Quarterly: A Journal of
International Affairs, vol. 58, no. 1, SAGE Publications, Jan. 2002, pp. 153–64. Crossref,
https://doi.org/10.1177/097492840205800112.

8
Tomar, Sangeeta. “Human Rights Concern and Conditions of Women in Afghanistan.” India Quarterly: A Journal of
International Affairs, vol. 58, no. 1, SAGE Publications, Jan. 2002, pp. 153–64. Crossref,
https://doi.org/10.1177/097492840205800112.
“There is no country in the world where the basic human rights of women and girls are more
restricted than in Afghanistan, and no government anywhere that has expressed support for the
Taliban’s policies there.”
In three decades of civil war and conflict in Afghanistan, women have been victims of
educational rights violations. After the establishment of a new Taliban government in 2001, a ray
of hope emerged with the enactment of the constitution, specifically mentioning females' right to
education in Article 44. The government was obligated to comply with international treaties,
including the Third Millennium Development Goals 9 and Education for All10, which aimed to
provide all children with access to primary education.
However, in August 2021, the Taliban regained control of Afghanistan, ending 20 years of
relatively democratic governance. The Taliban attempted to present a different image to the
international community in September 2021, asserting changes in their governance approach.
Instead of recognizing women's roles, they removed the Ministry of Women and replaced it with
the Ministry of Amr Bil Maruf11, responsible for religious and moral policing. The Taliban's
education minister questioned the importance of education, stating that advanced degrees are not
valuable today, raising concerns about their stance on academic pursuits.12
As per the Afghanistan Ministry of Education Annual Progress Report in 2014 13, nearly 10
million children are enrolled in schools among them 40% were girls. Number of girls in higher
education increased from around 5,000 in 2001 to around 90,000 in 2018.” Some 16% of schools
took girls only but there was a lack of women to teach in them, especially in rural areas, and
many families wanted their girls to study with female teachers. In 2018, only 36% of secondary
school teachers were female and these tended to be concentrated in urban areas. Only one in five
girls of upper secondary school age successfully transits to upper secondary school. 14As per
UNICEF report16 49 per cent of girls in Afghanistan never entered primary school and only 22
per cent move to upper secondary at the appropriate age, compared to 39 per cent of
boys.15Gender inequality in completing primary school is a relatively great problem. School
drop-out rates for girls were also high (62% in girls between 13 and 15) as a result of

9
https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/38384/1/GenderDialogue13.pdf

10
“Education.” UNICEF Afghanistan, www.unicef.org/afghanistan/education.

11
Gannon, Kathy. “Taliban Replace Ministry for Women With ‘virtue’ Authorities | AP News.” AP News, 18 Sept.
2021, apnews.com/article/middle-east-afghanistan-womens-rights-kabul-taliban-eee5a8c7
https://www.unicef.org/afghanistan/media/2471/file/afg-report-oocs
https://www.unicef.org/afghanistan/media/2471/file/afg-report-oocs2018.pdf%20.pdf 2018.pdf%20.pdf
3dd5d58acfda008582ef77bb.

12
Gannon, Kathy. “Taliban Replace Ministry for Women With ‘virtue’ Authorities | AP News.” AP News, 18 Sept.
2021, https://www.unicef.org/afghanistan/media/2471/file/afg-report-oocs2018.pdf%20.pdf

13
https://moe.gov.af/sites/default/files/2021-04/MoE%20ENGLISH%20Annual%20Progress%20Report1399-
2020.pdf
14
https://www.unicef.org/afghanistan/media/2471/file/afg-report-oocs2018.pdf%20.pdf
conservative attitudes in the population at large and a range of other issues. In addition, a further
300,000 children who currently access primary school are at risk of dropping out. As per
Afghanistan Education Equity Profile for Adolescent Girls. till 2019 the gender gap in school
attendance rates widens from the age of 10 years and crest at age 14, thereby reflecting that
adolescent girls face barrier to education. 16 The ratio of girls to boys in school does continue to
widen as the numbers for both groups shrink from age 10 to 23.

REASONS FOOR DENIAL OF FEMALES RIGHT TO EDUCATION

The women face a number of challenges such as Islamic interpretations in Afghan communities
often blend conservative tribal traditions with Islamic arguments. Legal positions taken by
judges, prosecutors, and defense lawyers may not genuinely align with Afghan or Islamic law.
Incarceration of women running away from home, though not a crime under Afghan law, is
justified using Islamic justifications.17 Those advocating for a more progressive understanding of
women's rights based on Islamic law face accusations of heresy and blasphemy. The prevalent
form of Islamic teaching in Afghanistan is intolerant of dialogue, and individuals engaging in
public debate on interpretations of Islam can face prosecution or assassination. Some rights
advocates fear that engaging with Islamic legal systems or community-based justice mechanisms
may undermine the enforcement of Afghan state law. This objection is based on a state-centric
view of the legal system that does not fully acknowledge legal pluralism in Afghanistan,
including the primacy of Islamic law. Secular-oriented groups worry that relying on Islamic law
rather than Afghan or international law may lead to lower standards for women's rights. Critics
argue that embracing an Islamic approach might limit advocacy for rights not easily supported
under Islamic law. Islamic law resulting in lower standards than Western-influenced Afghan law
are unrealistic, as formal law enforcement is lacking. Even conservative interpretations of
Islamic law may offer more progressive protections for women than current versions of
customary laws. Despite concerns, the majority of the Afghan population, especially in rural
areas, prefers living under Islamic law and views secular laws as alien.Progressive Muslims, both
men and women, demand the invocation of Islamic jurisprudence, and Muslim-feminist
organizations support this approach.

15
Nina. “How Are Children Progressing Through School? An Education Pathway Analysis.”
UNICEF DATA, 23 Nov. 2021, data.unicef.org/resources/how-are-children-progressing-through-
school
16
As accessed from https://www.unicef.org/rosa/media/5491/file/Afghanistan%20%E2%80%93%20Education
%20Equity%20Profile%20for%20Adolescent%20Girls.pdf
17
In Post-Conflict Islamic States: A Focus on Afghanistan, Egypt, and Libya,” The Brookings Project on U.S. Relations with the Islamic World, U.S.-
Islamic World Forum Papers 2013 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, November 2013),
http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2013/11/us%20islamic%20world%20forum%20 publications/womens
%20rightsenglishweb.pdf
i) Family Disapproval- According to the Afghanistan Living Conditions Survey 2016-17girls
were being prevented from getting education or participating in societal activities, owing to
family disapproval.In the 2011 Oxfam Report, more than a quarter of persons interviewed
‘named the lack of a female teacher as a major obstacle to girls’ access to education.O18ther reasons
can be explained in part by a lack of female teachers, especially in rural schools 23. Only 16 per cent of Afghanistan’s
schools are girls-only, and many of them lack proper sanitation facilities, which further hinder attendance 24.

18
Oxfam Joint Briefing Paper (2011). ‘High Stakes: Girls Education in Afghanistan’. Available at:
http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/afghanistan-girls-education-022411.pdf (Accessed 29 October
2012) p. 5