CARIBBEAN STUDIES

SUMMARY NOTES FOR MODULE 1

Society and Culture Key Terms

Creolization

The process of creolization means that the initial art form undergoes a change and
becomes different in essence. As such, the creolized form, while sometimes similar in
appearance, is different in nature and context from the original.

Caribbean art forms

Caribbean art forms: for example, music, dance, painting, culinary practices, and
festivals. The art forms have changed/adapted from their original form in the former
geographical location and adapted to the requirements of the new area i.e. the
Caribbean.

Acculturation

Sometimes used interchangeably with the term ‘enculturation’; however, some

Caribbean theorists have used the term to distinguish between the transmission of
Creole cultural traits (enculturation) as opposed to the transmission of aspects of
foreign cultural traits (acculturation) into the Creole society. Acculturation is therefore a
necessary part of the Creolization process as it allows for the inclusion/creation of a
new, unique ‘mix’ of cultural elements that define the Caribbean.

Cultural assimilation

Cultural assimilation is a process of acceptance that allows the varying ways of life and
world views of different ethnic groups to be merged together into one dominant cultural
expression. It involves usually the acceptance (and active participation) by different
cultural groups towards acceptance of the dominant
cultural expression that defines all. The process of cultural assimilation, while
allowing for the creation of a diverse dominant cultural expression, seeks to
eliminate minor cultural trends that isolate groups of individuals.

Cultural hybridization

The Caribbean consists not only of one diasporic group but in fact, many. Each of these
groups brings its own world view and cultural continuities into the region. As a result
when these diasporic groups mix, aspects of their daily lives (which include their
traditional arts and culture), combine to create a new popular culture. Students must
note that these new expressions portray cultural and personal identities of the new
Caribbean diaspora and are different from existing ones in the homeland.

Problems associated with hybridization

● Hybridization may lead to two or more cultures trying to claim cultural,

economic or political space.
● Some races may assume a sense of superiority over races, based on the old
plantation system and social stratification.

Enculturation

Enculturation is a social process that leads to the absorption by an individual of the

cultural specifics of the culture within which he or she is immersed. The process
ensures that the individual acquires values and behaviours that are appropriate or
necessary in that culture. In this context, the Caribbean is viewed as a unique cultural
area possessing its own cultural specifics that are disseminated to its inhabitants.
Popular culture

Popular culture refers to the culture that is accepted and practised by the majority of
people in a given area. This culture is usually popularized through the media and may, in
time, be used to define the particular group. Popular culture may be viewed as a
stereotypical expression of the people and, in some cases may come to define them for
example, Trinbagonian ‘Carnival’ culture.

Syncretism

The merging of separate traditions (e.g. religious) to create a more accommodating

form accepted by a larger Caribbean society.
 Impact of Historical Processes on Caribbean Society and Culture

Impact of Emigration

Negative impact:

● Emigration results in a brain drain from the Caribbean countries

● The country very often suffers from the loss of many professionals and many
skilled personnel to the big countries.
● The country also loses investment after training a number of persons who
leave at the end of the training (for example, nurses and teachers)
● Often it is the young and able-bodied who emigrate leaving the relatively less able
to develop the Caribbean country

Positive impact:
● The country benefits economically through the remittance of funds to the home
country by the migrants

● The festivals staged by the new or newly adopted countries aid the Caribbean as
Caribbean artistes often have to be imported for these festivals

● Less population pressure in the Caribbean, for example, less competition for jobs
and other resources

● Recognition of Caribbean people and their potential through the

achievements of the Caribbean diaspora

Migratory Movements in the Caribbean

Indigenous Peoples

● The indigenous peoples came from the Orinoco north to the Lesser Antilles; from
Florida into Cuba, Bahamas; from Central America to Jamaica.
 ● By 1490s large populations of Tainos resided in the Greater Antilles, other groups
in the Bahamas; Kalinagos in the Lesser Antilles as well as other groups of earlier
waves of migration.

● Their skills in sailing (pirogues), handicraft, fishing (methods), and agriculture

survive as examples of material culture. Many examples of cultural items and
practices that are known of today have their roots in the language of the
indigenous peoples: such as ‘hurricane’, ‘cassava’, ‘hammock’ and
‘pepperpot’.

● The Kalinagoes, who mainly occupied the Lesser Antilles, were able to survive,
though many were killed by the Europeans. However, many were sent by
Europeans to British Honduras. Some live today and form part of Caribbean
culture and society — for example, St. Vincent and Dominica. The mainland
territories of Guyana, Belize and Surname have even larger numbers of
indigenous peoples.

Culinary practices influenced by the indigenous peoples:

● Making of cassava flour, bread, cakes, pone, pudding, cassava hats,

● Making of cassareep — the preservative from the cassava which is used in the
preparation of pepperpot which remains a key dish in Caribbean cooking Ÿ The
concept of barbequing
● The art of cooking wild meat
● Curing of meat
● Metate - the practice of squeezing juice from cassava
● Making of bami and fried fish
● Making beer from cassava
● Dishes with maize

The Europeans

● The coming of the Europeans was the next major migration via voyages of
conquest and adventure — the Spanish first, then the British interlopers, Dutch
and French (buccaneers, privateers, pirates, traders and settlers). These
Europeans became owners of the plantations as they developed plantation
society as a highly stratified entity.
 ● The Spanish remained dominant in Cuba, Santo Domingo and Puerto Rico
through the genocide of the Tainos.

● Some English, Irish, Welsh and other Europeans were brought to work as
indentured servants. One popular term was “Barbadoesed”. As
indentured/bonded servants they worked on small plantations such as
tobacco. Debates still ensue over whether these indentured servants can be
classified as enslaved, i.e. that they experienced a form of slavery.
Arguments exist both for and against this proposition.

● The unions (forced and with consent) of Amerindians, Europeans and Africans
formed racial admixtures and a society of different skin colours and physical
features. For example, dougla, mulatto, mestizo.

The Africans

● Forced migration (institution of African slavery) brought over 20 million Africans via
the Middle Passage and the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Migrants came mainly
from West Africa and went to every Caribbean country.

● Enslaved Africans, and their descendants, became the mainstay of the labour
force for the sugar industry. The slave trade brought enslaved Africans into the
region for the Spanish colonies and then the other Europeans for over 200 years.
Africans came mainly from the West of Africa though several other regions were
tapped on by the traders.

● Greatly impacted Caribbean society and culture — demography, plantation society,

beliefs, religions, arts, cuisine, for example, Syncretised religions evolved, creole
languages, cultures and African-Caribbean cultural practices.

● Another example of the impact — the several instances of revolts and resistance
during slavery. The Haitian Revolution proved to be the most successful revolt as
it resulted in the complete transformation of the economy, society, culture and
political status of St. Domingue, which was renamed Haiti.
 Culinary practices influenced by the African-Caribbean peoples:

● The use of plantain and sweet potatoes as a main food or side dish
● The use of yam as an integral part of a meal or the main dish
● The concept of ground provisions, or blue food, continues today Ÿ The use of
salt fish as a main food of the enslaved peoples is prevalent today -
steam salt fish, swizzle salt fish, fish cakes, acra, ackee and salt fish

● Practice by the former enslaved of cooking coo coo/’tun corn meal’ foo foo

● Use of okra, or okro as key ingredient in coo coo, callaloo

● Wrapping foods in banana leaves — conkie, dukanna

● Use of gunga peas/pigeon peas as a main food by the enslaved Ÿ

Inclusion of guinea corn as an integral part of many foods —dumplings,
festival, coo coo

Asian Indentureship

Asian indentureship began as a solution to the perceived loss of labour for the key
British territories, namely British Guiana, Trinidad and Jamaica. It provided for the
importation of thousands from India, China and Java until the beginning of the 20th
century.

Conditions of contracts

● Contracts were for a period of five years.

● Contracts could be renewed for another five years.
● Indentured labourers could return home after the first or second
● five-year term.
● In lieu of return passage, indentured labourers would receive a sum of
money or a piece of land and tools
● They were allowed Saturday and Sunday off
Groups of Indentured Workers

● Javanese labourers were imported by the Dutch for their colonies in Aruba,
Bonaire, Curacao and Suriname. The largest numbers went to Suriname. One
major impact of this form of Javanese migration is that today, Suriname has the
largest population of Muslim communities in the Western Hemisphere.
Miscegenation in former Dutch colonies is different from other colonies because
of the inclusion of Javanese, Chinese and Indian along with African, Creole and
Indigenous individuals. Note, however, that in many ways, Suriname can be
described as a plural society.

● Indian indentureship formed the backbone of the migrant labour force in British
Guiana and Trinidad. The sugar industry needed their labour to enable expansion
into, for example, the vast untouched Crown lands of these two territories. The
Indian indentured labourers also engineered the rice industry and introduced new
foods into the region; for example, curry and spices. New festivals and new
religions and celebrations from among the Hindus and Muslims were also
introduced.

● Chinese labourers also migrated to the Caribbean to work on sugar plantations.

However, many removed themselves from plantation labour to
set up businesses in the communities. Again, new festivals and cultural practices
were introduced, such as language, music and clothing.

Culinary practices influenced by the Indo-Caribbean peoples:

Ÿ The introduction of mangoes into the region

Ÿ The introduction of curry into the region — the spice which has become a main
ingredient in Caribbean cooking
Ÿ Making of dishes with curry: curry goat
Ÿ Use of spices including turmeric and masala
Ÿ Making of doubles a popular breakfast food, or snack
Ÿ Making of roti and dhal, for example, as central in Caribbean dishes Ÿ Making
of foods like pelouri/pholourie; chutney; peppermint sauce Ÿ Indo-Caribbean
Muslims’ practice of using halal meat, with its particular process of preparation
Contributions of Indo-Caribbean peoples to Caribbean culture

The concept ‘Indo-Caribbean’ applies to those individuals who were indentured

and/or came to the Caribbean from India, China and Java, especially after the
abolition of slavery in 1834.

The contribution of the Indo-Caribbean people to the labour force of principally

British Guiana and Trinidad, but also of Jamaica, in the immediate
post-emancipation period

● They became the backbone of the sugar industry of especially British Guiana and
Trinidad in the post-emancipation period
● They contributed to the cultural and spiritual landscape of the Caribbean with
their Temples and Mosques
● They also introduced festivals such as Hosay and Phagwa and celebrations
such as Eid
● key Caribbean intellectuals are Indo-Caribbean such as Vidia Naipaul, who was
awarded the Nobel prize for Literature and Professor Patricia Mohammed who
writes on gender and cultural issues
● Central Caribbean foods, such as curry and roti which are part of the
Indo-Caribbean heritage as well as the music form known as chutney.

The impact of Caribbean migrants on the UK and North America

Labour: UK: Caribbean migration to the United Kingdom increased in the early 1950s in
response to post-WWII demand for labour. Migrants, especially male migrants, took
jobs in the transport industry as conductors, bus drivers, and train drivers. Female
migrants trained to be nurses and worked in hospitals in the UK and also at places
such as Lyons Tea House. In later periods, migrants also worked as teachers.

- Impact: filled in vacuum left by the loss of able-bodied men and women as a
result of the war. Essential services were staffed by West Indian migrants which
were vital to the economy and society.

Labour: North America: Caribbean migrant labour to North America - seasonal labour in
1950s and to Florida etc to pick oranges and other fruit. Also, post-1950s migration to
work in US - as domestics, nurses, and artisans. Skilled workers also migrated to
Canada and the US, especially in the 1960s period and beyond.

- Impact: persons needed to work these jobs - filled in the labour vacuum in key
 states where such labour was needed, such as New York.

Social change: in the UK racial tensions occurred in some areas where migrants
settled. For example, the Notting Hill district. iots and the speeches of Enoch Powell
serve to highlight racetensions in the UK.

- Impact: brought racial tension to the fore which occurred in a series of laws passed to
regulate race relations in the United Kingdom. However, it can be argued that racism is
still rife in the UK despite legislation and social change. Caribbean 1st and 2nd
generations have leaders in the UK and North American societies in areas such as
trade unions, media, writers, artists, and politics. For example in the UK Bernie Grant of
Guyana and Diane Abbott of Jamaica were the first two Caribbean persons to be
elected as Members of Parliament in 1987. Bill Morrison of Jamaica is the leader of the
Trade Union Movement. In North America, second-generation Shirley Chisholm was the
first Black woman to run for
Congress. Also, second-generation Jamaican Colin Powell was the US Secretary of
State.

- Impact: provides a visible presence of the Caribbean migrant, especially in the

UK and to a lesser extent, North America. However, it can be argued that the
impact is superficial: real power still lies in the hands of the white majority
population.

Festivals in the UK such as Notting Hill Carnival, Bristol Carnival and Leeds
Carnival are significant events on the UK national calendar. The carnivals are
based on traditions within the Caribbean like the Trinidad carnival and St Kitts
masquerade. Notting Hill attracts over one million participants each year. Also
Festivals such as Caribana (Toronto), Labour Day (New York), and Carnival in
Miami and Boston. Also, Hindu celebrations in North America - though not as vast.

- Impact: brings revenue to London and other cities with visitors from other parts of
England, and overseas. It can be argued that it is only for one day or seasonal.
Caribana is a major money earner for Toronto for that one weekend. Tourism benefits;
foreign exchange; hotels filled; services benefit (transport -air and land). However, it can
be argued that the festivals and carnivals are seasonal and so have limited impact.
Cuban-U.S. relations from the 19th century with Jose Marti to 20th-century migration
especially post-Cuban Revolution. Cuban migrants work in both skilled and unskilled
jobs in the US society. Migrants also travel from Puerto Rico to the U.S.

- Impact: Cuban - U.S. relations have become a U.S. national concern. States
like Miami have been transformed into Little Havana. Cuban and Puerto Rico
artists and music have become part of US culture. Spanish is acknowledged as
 the second language of the U.S.

‘Boat people’ of Haiti and Dominican Republic-thousands of people from these

countries leave and risk sea journeys to the U.S.

- Impact: US navy patrols the area and these migrants have become a priority
in US domestic and foreign policy. Some migrants do succeed and become
part of the labour force.

Peasantry in the Caribbean

Reasons why the peasantry was able to acquire large plots of land after 1838:

Ÿ Collective purchasing of estates: large groups of formerly enslaved peoples

joined together to buy entire estates and then subdivided the land. Ÿ Encumbered
estates: in debt, especially after 1842 and 1848, were sold at a percentage of their
market value,
Ÿ Associations comprising missionary and church groups assisted with the
purchase of land and establishment of villages
Ÿ Determination of the formerly enslaved to acquire land. This caused them to
pursue all possibilities to do so.
Ÿ Squatting on Crown lands

Measures taken by the planters to prevent the growth of the peasantry:

Ÿ Charged high rents for lands

Ÿ Frequently evicted the formerly enslaved to prevent them from having a base to
accumulate funds
Ÿ Refused outright to sell land to the peasants
Ÿ Blocked their efforts to seek credit facilities.
Ÿ Influence the passage of laws as members of the legislature (Vagrancy Act)

Ways in which the peasantry contributed to Caribbean society and culture:

● The free peasantry became involved in growing food and cash crops such as
bananas, cocoa, coffee, cotton, arrowroot, ginger, pimento, citrus ● Their crops
supported the economies and in some cases became the mainstay of the economy.
 ● Their act of diversifying the economies encouraged the movement away from
sugar cane and reliance on one crop/monoculture.
● The peasantry led to and encouraged the development of Black
consciousness and the development of nationalist sentiments which were
also strategies of resistance.
● The peasantry contributed to working-class labour movements bent on
improving living and working conditions for the poor.
● The peasantry also contributed to the development of trade unions and
political parties seeking independence from Europe.
● Influenced the creation of schools for peasant children
● Evolution of various food festivals from peasant activities(yam festivals, jerk
festivals, curry festivals etc.)

Impact of Geographical Phenomena on Caribbean Society and Culture

CORAL REEFS

● Coral reefs are living things made of coral polyps. Coral reefs are large
strips of wave-resistant coral rocks built up by carbonate
organisms lying close to the surface of the sea and even sometimes
rising above sea level. In the Caribbean, there are generally three
types of coral reefs:
● Barrier reefs are to be found parallel to the coast and are usually
separated by a shallow but wide area of water called a lagoon. Belize
has one of the second-largest barrier reefs.
● Fringing reefs are low platforms of corals, 0.5 km. to 2.5 km. Wide, lying
close to the shore of an island or continental shelf, but separated by
narrow lagoons; its outer edge descends sharply into the sea. These are
most common in the Caribbean.
● Atoll reefs tend to form a horseshoe. They are usually linked to a
sunken volcanic cone.

BENEFITS OF CORAL REEFS

Coral reefs are very much part of the Caribbean culture and we have learned to use
them to enhance our economic well-being through fishing and tourism, and have
become conscious of their value in sustaining the physical environment.
Coral reefs are natural tourist attractions. The Bahamas and Jamaica are well
known for their beautiful coral. They are also attractions in most Caribbean islands.

● Coral reefs are breeding grounds for fish.

● They are a food supply as well as a habitat for flora and fauna.
● They add to biodiversity which is important. Flora and fauna for example flora
and fauna have medicinal ad economic value. Some have been known to
secrete substances to protect themselves from predators and these chemicals
have been found to be medicinally useful to humans.
● They provide a barrier to destructive waves or breaking waves and reduce the
effect of storm surges. This allows wetland ecosystems such as mangroves and
swamps to survive and grow. Mangroves provide valuable fisheries, ecotourism
attractions and ecological benefits to man.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF CORAL REEFS TO CARIBBEAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Biodiversity

- They are ecosystems which support a wide variety of marine life (flora and
fauna). This aids with tourism as well as fishing.

Medicine

- Ingredients of some medicines include chemicals found in sponges found on

Caribbean reefs. This has both positive economic and social effects.
- Potential sunscreens

Tourism

o Adventure tourism

o Reproduces sand which provides us with the beautiful shorelines

many tourists find very attractive.

Fisheries

o Employment for many

o Diet
 Coastal protection

o Coral reefs help to prevent coastal erosion by reducing the effect of the
waves and wind;

o They also aid in the preservation of mangroves and other wetlands

*which also add to the diversity in flora and fauna).

Culture and identity

o Influencing both economic and recreational activities

THREATS TO CORAL REEFS

Natural Threats

● Weather systems such as ESNO

● Global warming (results in warm temperatures which kills algae living in
the polyps)
● Dust from the Sahara introduces soil fungi which destroy some species
of reefs
● Droughts and desertification
● Bleaching events
● Dangers are posed by the environment in the form of hurricanes that
deposit tons of sand on reefs as well as destroy reefs by ripping them
from the ocean floor.

Human Threats

● Pollution, in the form of detergents and other chemicals, stimulates algal

growth which develops over living corals and kills them (eutrophication).

● Increased silting and sedimentation which prevents algae growth

within polyps

● Building of hotels which drain wetlands and change the contours of the
coast. Coastal development in the form of hotels and marinas involves
construction, quarrying and dredging, the waste of which drains out to
sea to provide turgid waters that choke coral growth.
 ● Harvesting of corals for buildings
● Overgrowth of algae

o Sewage

o Agricultural and industrial waste such as fertilizers

● Warming of temperatures due to hot water emissions from power

plants and other industrial activities;
● Overfishing and destructive methods of fishing
● Tourism

o Reefs are destroyed by the anchors of ships

o Reefs are destroyed by the fuel from boats

o Tourists and craftsmen break off the reefs

o Tourists walking on corals

● Dangers posed by agricultural land use and practices (small and large farmers) in
the form of deforestation that leads to erosion and heavy siltation in rivers that
deposit soil on the reefs;
● Dangers posed by cruise and other ships such as oil spills, that can reduce the
oxygen supply for organisms that create coral reefs; disposal of garbage from
such ships that pollute and damage reefs;

MEASURES FOR PROTECTING CORAL REEFS

Educating individuals and groups such as fishermen, farmers, hoteliers and even
tourists would be part of the effort to increase awareness about the importance of reefs
and to encourage all to protect them.

Governments have established and should continue to establish marine-protected

zones around important coastal regions inhabited by coral species and fish as the
official stance or policy in the fight to guard the reefs. Declaring marine protected areas
encompassing critical coastal regions that have a wide variety of fish and coral species
to minimize and regulate the use and access;

Legislation reform and law enforcement that minimize the potential for pollution and
damage from external and internal forces such as cruise ship operators or large fishery
companies, for example, that use trawling as a method for fishing that significantly
changes the reef ecosystem. For example, the use of marine protection officers may be
helpful;

A regional environmental response by Caribbean governments could take the form of a

combination of legislation and institutions to promote all of the above adopting the policy
of eco-tourism which emphasizes the preservation of the environment and sustainable
development.

Establishing parks and reserves

Environment Impact Assessment for development and commercial projects.

Impact of Geographical Phenomena, Factors Influencing Caribbean

Development

Harmful environmental practices that hinder Caribbean development

● The ‘slash and burn’ method decreases productivity and in some cases
results in erosion
● The use of agricultural land for projects such as housing reduces the
production of some crops resulting in a negative impact on the economy ●
Construction of highways through agricultural land not only results in the loss of
land for production but the highways sometimes have a negative effect on the
remaining land
● Deforestation resulting in the denuding of the land
● Ploughing practices, especially of land on slopes

Ways in which flooding impacted human settlements

● Spread of disease from contaminated water

● Loss of lives
● Destruction of properties - housing, educational and
● recreational facilities

Case 1 - Flooding in Guyana or Suriname

(a) Reasons for the prevalence of flooding

 ● Changing weather systems caused by El Niño/La Niña resulting in flash
flooding
● Low-lying coastal plains Improper sea defences
● Lack of maintenance of sea defences
● Clogged irrigation canals
● Vandalism-destruction to sea defences
● Removal of mangroves from seashores
● Location of villages along rivers and creeks
● Hydrological factors – an abundance of creeks and rivers makes flooding
easier

Suriname

● In May 2006, flooding affected many villages along rivers in ● the

country’s interior.
● Like Guyana, Suriname experienced one of its worst floods ●
after two weeks of torrential rainfall.
● Approximately 25,000-30,000 sq. km were underwater, and these were
mostly interior settlements.

Impact of flooding on farming and the economy

● Destruction of agricultural lands

● Destruction of crops, rice lands/fields and vegetable farms
● Loss of jobs
● Increase in cost of vegetables and cash crops
● A decline in farming activities and a reduction in yields
● Increase in spending for local authorities and Central government

Measures taken by the government to minimise impact of flooding.

The government of Guyana took the following measures

● Passed supplementary budgets to repair kokers, sluices and the main

conservancy dams.
● Revetment and reinforcement of sea defences, for example, the Sea Wall in
Georgetown
● Set up drainage and irrigation authority to monitor flooding
● Established a task force to deal with flood-related issues
● Provided disaster relief assistance in areas of health, water and sanitation
 ● The government of Suriname took the following measures
● Established National coordination centres
● Developed education programmes and awareness campaign
● Provided disaster relief assistance in areas of health, water and sanitation

Social Institutions in the Caribbean

Contributions of Religion to Caribbean Society and Culture

● Religion influences people’s behaviour and shapes their values.

● Religion is/was used as a means of retaining ancestral links.

● Religion is a divisive element in multi-religious societies, for example,

Trinidad and Guyana (Christian, Hindu and Muslim).

● Religion was a major factor in the expansion of education in Caribbean

territories. In the aftermath of emancipation, many primary schools were opened
by missionaries and religious organizations and today they continue to work.

● Religion offered a source of comfort or a source of empowerment while

experiencing violence, oppression and genocide.

Challenges to the legal justice system in the Caribbean

● Increase in violent crime against women, examples to be noted are rape,

incest and other forms of physical abuse.
● Increase in narcotics, trafficking and drug-related violence.
● The increase in poverty, amidst the apparent need to acquire the means of
social capital such as brand-name wear, has led many young persons, most of
them ‘dropouts’ from the education system, into a life of crime.
● Deportation of convicted criminals, from Europe and North America to the
Caribbean, has led to an increase in crime. There is also an increase in crime
involving the use of weapons.
● There are also alleged cases of policemen and judges accepting bribes. ● The
Pratt and Morgan ruling has imposed a time frame on the resolution of serious
crimes brought before the court.

● Archaic laws - Many of the laws need revision to deal with the types of
crimes in the Caribbean.

Note to students: Remember to do your reading in your textbooks