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V. Garga, MSc
OUTLINE
Descriptive Inferential
1. Why statistics is important? 7. Linear regression
2. Types of data and sample size 8. Pearson correlation coefficient
3. Analysis of the mean, range and distribution 9. Spearman rank correlation index
4. Standard deviation and standard error 10. T-test
11. ANOVA
5. Significant figures and outliers
12. Post-HOC analysis
6. Types of graphs
13. Chi-squared analysis
14. Choosing the appropriate statistics for the biology IA
Statistics
Descriptive Inferential
Is used to describe the data. Is used to extend the conclusions from a
small sample to a wider population or
For example: the range, average and another sample.
spread of data.
For example: t-test, ANOVA and Chi-
squared.
1. WHY STATISTICS IS IMPORTANT?
•We cannot survey every individual organism in the population, so we take a sample, analyse it and
extrapolate the tendencies to the whole population.
•Or an experiment with 5 repeats, and limited resources (money and time constraints), how do we know
whether the difference we see is significant statistically or not?
•So we need some kind of a minimal sample to work with.
•In biology, if we do not do the analysis of statistical significance (if the student just does average and range)
then we should NOT state anything about the significance of the results. We then should talk only about
TENDENCIES in the data, but specify why statistics were not applied to show significance (for example, not
enough time to collect the minimum required sample size etc)
•Biostatistics is a subfield of applied statistics. It is used in public health, medicine and biology. It includes
common conventions used by all researchers when reporting the data.
•Biostatisticians report data with 95% confidence in the result, with 5% chance of mistake.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Q6_LRZwZrc
ADVICE FROM IB
•Statistical analysis is expected.
•Percentages, means, standard deviations or other statistics at the end of the column or
row of data they represent will be sufficient.
•For more complex processing using spreadsheets, screenshots are acceptable.
•For other less orthodox processing, a worked example may be necessary.
•The questions that the teacher should be asking are:
• Is the processing appropriate?
• Can the processing be followed?
• Is the processing correct?
• Are conclusions in line with the degree of the data processing?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Q6_LRZwZrc
When collecting data we make measurements
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Q6_LRZwZrc
NOMINAL
When collecting data we make measurements
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Q6_LRZwZrc
ORDINAL
When collecting data we make measurements
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Q6_LRZwZrc
INTERVAL SCALE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Q6_LRZwZrc
RATIO SCALE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Q6_LRZwZrc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Q6_LRZwZrc 28 min
SAMPLE SIZE
• Sample size depends on the type of data and can be designed with the statistical approach in mind.
• Students will have 10 hours to collect data. So online investigations will require a much larger sample size
than physical investigations.
• If less than a minimum (5) measurements are taken then results will be inconclusive, but still can be
described and evaluated.
• In order to do standard deviation, we need at least 5 measurements.
• 5-14 measurements, therefore, is a minimum for biology IA experiments and is called a very small sample
size.
• 15-30 is a small sample.
• >30 is considered a large sample
• Students need to discuss the limitations of their sample size.
n: 7
X: 4.71 ≈ 5
Range: 7
Crashcourse statistics #3
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kn83BA7cRNM&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtNM_Y-bUAhblSAdWRnmBUcr&index=4
The mean is always distorted by outliers. Therefore it is
important for students to discuss this in their report.
During this discussion, students may indicate what is the
mode of the data.
Mode is the value which appears the most in the set.
There could be more than one mode.
Range: 7
Mode: 3
Crashcourse statistics #3
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kn83BA7cRNM&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtNM_Y-bUAhblSAdWRnmBUcr&index=4
Normal distribution of the data is
important for calculating the mean,
standard deviation and t-test.
https://sciences.usca.edu/biology/zelmer/305/norm/stanorm.jpg
To test for normal distribution:
Frequency
show visually the bell-shaped curve distribution
https://towardsdatascience.com/6-ways-to-test-for-a-normal-distribution-which-one-to-use-9dcf47d8fa93
SHAPIRO WILK TEST
Shapiro Wilk test Reporting results
If the p- value of the Shapiro-Wilk Test is larger Figure 1. Screenshot of the input data Figure 2. Screenshot of the analysis results
than 0.05, we assume a normal distribution.
If the p- value of the Shapiro-Wilk Test is smaller
than 0.05, we do not assume a normal distribution.
Online calculator:
https://scistatcalc.blogspot.com/2013/10/shapiro-wilk- According to Shapiro Wilk test of normality, W=0.981889, p>0.05, therefore the
test-calculator.html experimental data set is normally distributed.
https://towardsdatascience.com/6-ways-to-test-for-a-normal-distribution-which-one-to-use-9dcf47d8fa93
4. STANDARD DEVIATION AND STANDARD ERROR
•Standard deviation (SD) or standard error of the mean (SEM) can be useful assuming there
is a sufficient number of replicates to be able to calculate one, otherwise, range bars are
acceptable for max-min values.
•SEM requires usually a larger sample size.
•SD can be done on a sample as small as 5.
•SD describes the characteristics of the data set you collected.
•SEM describes how far is your collected sample mean from the larger population mean.
Basically, it talks about how well your data may represent the population.
•Thus, students explain the appropriate meaning of the value based on what they used SD
or SEM.
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/statistics-definitions/what-is-the-standard-error-of-a-sample/
SD
https://cdn.scribbr.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/standard-deviation-in-normal-distributions.png
https://assets.ltkcontent.com/images/83660/calculating-standard-deviation_0066f46bde.jpg
• SD shows how far from the mean most of the data is.
• It is conventional to report +/-1 SD as the error bars around the mean on the graphs.
• 68% of all data observed under a normal distribution will fall within one standard deviation of the mean. Similarly,
95% falls within two standard deviations, and 99.7% within three.
Penn State. "STAT 500 Applied Statistics: The Empirical Rule." https://online.stat.psu.edu/stat500/lesson/3/3.3/3.3.4 Accessed Jan. 17, 2022
SEM
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/standard-error/
Altman, Douglas G, and J Martin Bland. “Standard deviations and standard errors.” BMJ (Clinical research ed.) vol.
331,7521 (2005): 903. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7521.903. Accessed Jan. 17, 2022.
https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/042415/what-difference-between-standard-error-means-and-standard-deviation.asp
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/statistics-definitions/what-is-the-standard-error-of-a-sample/
5. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND OUTLIERS
•Decimal places in the recorded data should be consistent with degrees of precision.
•Decimal places in the Mean should be the same as in the raw data.
•Uncertainties should appear in the column headings along with the units.
•Uncertainties for counts (±1) are not necessary.
However, data derived from these counts may possess a degree of precision (e.g. percentage
germination of a sample of 25 seeds will have an error margin of ±4% or a heart rate after a 15 s palpation ±4
beats per min). Error propagation is not needed, but it is good if a student shows awareness of this in the
evaluation.
•For other calculated values, two numbers after the decimal point are acceptable when
reporting in high-school sciences.
OUTLIERS
• Outliers should not be excluded from processing just because
they do not “fit well” in the general trend of the data. Example:
Measuring heights in 13 year old boys.
• Outliers can be identified mathematically. One of the boys is clearly much taller
than others.
• Exclusion requires a justification. Is he an outlier? Mathematically yes, but
it is not a mistake and therefore should
• Outliers can only be excluded if there is evidence of a mistake not be excluded. Instead report should
in the data collection. address the possibility of results
affected by age of onset of puberty
• If data was accurately collected, then an outlier actually can and what it means for their choice of
be new insight into the new trend or discovery. dependent and independent variables.
https://www.dummies.com/wp-content/uploads/361059.image0.jpg http://www.biostathandbook.com/pix/graph4.gif
https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/__data/assets/image/0018
https://media.cheggcdn.com/study/59c/59c9da3a-e277-
/533601/Biology_4.2_line_graphs.jpg
49b9-b4b5-df3549ef4af7/13469-21-1IEFA1.png
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HMkllhBI91Y&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtNM_Y-bUAhblSAdWRnmBUcr&index=7
•A bar chart represents two or more categories
and measurements within those categories.
Bar charts
•Technically it is categorical (IV) and quantitative
(DV) data combined in one chart.
•Therefore, this type of chart is suitable for testing
different conditions or locations, where the
question is which condition/location is the best.
http://www.biostathandbook.com/pix/graph4.gif
Pie charts •The pie chart is used only when one category is
applied.
•In Biology IA we insist on 2-5 categories, therefore
this type of chart is not recommended.
•Also, there is no way to express error bars on this
type of chart.
https://media.cheggcdn.com/study/59c/59c9da3a-e277-49b9-b4b5-
df3549ef4af7/13469-21-1IEFA1.png
•Scatterplots are the most versatile graph to present
in biology reports.
Scatterplots •Usually, it presents all individual data points against
two measurements.
•Because of this, this is the best graph to represent in
database analyses and in any correlation studies.
•It is possible to just present the averages and SD
from the single condition on the x-axis.
http://www.saburchill.com/IBbiology/graphs/images/039.jpg
Line graphs •The line graph is used to show changes over one
continuous range, for example, over time.
•They can be useful for displaying data where other
than a linear relationship is expected between two
variables.
•Most often point represent the averages and SD from
the single condition on the x-axis.
•Line graphs are acceptable in DP biology, but not in
https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/__data/assets/image/0018 physics or chemistry.
/533601/Biology_4.2_line_graphs.jpg
MAKING CUSTOM ERROR BARS ON GRAPHS IN EXCEL
•Note: many students just choose SD suggested by Excel for error
bars. That is incorrect; because Excel will calculate SD between
averages presented in the graph for that option.
•Instead, choose “More error bars options…” and enter the custom
values.
•See the video for reference on how to make error bars:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JeqCl_aD_8Y
REPORTING GRAPHS
•Graphs can be made using Excel or any other program.
•Each graph should have a title.
Example: Graph 1. Mean heights of the seedlings after 8 days of exposure to various salt
concentrations. Error bars represent the SD.
•Error bars, if used on the graphs, should be identified in the title of the graph
(range/SEM/SD).
•Both, y and x axes need to be labelled, with units and uncertainty indicated.
•x is the IV, y is DV.
•The graph should be referenced in the text of the report and appear as close to the
paragraph mentioning it as possible.
OUTLINE
Descriptive Inferential
1. Why statistics is important? 7. Linear regression
2. Types of data and sample size 8. Pearson correlation index
3. Analysis of the mean, range and distribution 9. Spearman rank correlation index
4. Standard deviation and standard error 10. T-test
11. ANOVA
5. Significant figures and outliers
12. Post-HOC analysis
6. Types of graphs
13. Chi-squared analysis
14. Choosing the appropriate statistics for the biology IA
7. LINEAR REGRESSION
Pearson
•Used to predict the values when the line of
best fit is extended. For example – osmolarity
experiments.
http://www.biosci.global/customer-stories-en/pearson-correlation-vs-simple-linear-regression/
REPORTING
•Regression analysis will be reported as an equation that fits the data in the scatterplot.
•We can use the resulting equation (there is an option to calculate equation in the Excel) to estimate the
unknown values.
https://www.colby.edu/bio/statistics-and-scientific-writing/regression-analysis/
R SQUARED
R2 – describes how well the data fits the trend, on a 0-100% scale.
It can be applied when calculating regression or correlation.
•0% represents a model that does not explain any of the variations in the response variable around its
mean. The mean of the dependent variable predicts the dependent variable as well as the regression
model.
•100% represents a model that explains all the variations in the response variable around its mean.
•R2 calculation is usually done by online calculator or Excel
https://statisticsbyjim.com/regression/how-high-r-squared/
https://www.theseattledataguy.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/squared-error-r2.png
8. PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
•Important to note that ANY correlation, even if
statistically significant does NOT mean causation.
Students have to be very careful when writing about
this.
•The Pearson coefficient is a measure of the strength
of the linear association
•In order for this test to be valid, all data needs to be
quantitative
Requirements for Pearson's correlation coefficient
• Scale of measurement should be interval or ratio
• Variables should be approximately normally distributed
• The association should be linear
• There should be no outliers in the data
https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/pearson-correlation-coefficient-statistical-guide.php
R CALCULATIONS
r – is abbreviation for the correlation coefficient
https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/pearson-correlation-coefficient-statistical-guide.php https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/pearson-correlation-coefficient-statistical-guide.php
https://www.gstatic.com/education/formulas2/397133473/en/correlation_coefficient_formula.svg http://faculty.washington.edu/ddbrewer/s231/s231regr.htm
REPORTING
Reporting results
• Students do not need to know how to calculate the Person
correlation. They can simply use the online calculator.
• For example
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/pearson/default2. Figure 2. Screenshot of the analysis results
aspx
• When reporting results, the test should be properly
referenced and screenshots of the input and output data
can be included.
• Reporting of the results should always be accompanied
by the graph made by the student (scatter plot with a Figure 1. Screenshot of the input
data
line of best fit).
REPORTING SIGNIFICANCE
•It is possible to calculate the p-value for Pearson correlation r.
•In this case, N is the number of pairs in your sample. (3 is minimum.)
https://www.webassign.net/bbunderstat9/10-table-06.gif
a>0.05 a<0.01
REPORTING SIGNIFICANCE
p=0.058
Reporting results
Note: students can just report the data as shown in Fig 1-3.
The table of significance above is shown here just for
facilitating our understanding of the values.
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/pearson/default2.aspx
https://www.webassign.net/bbunderstat9/10-table-06.gif
9. SPEARMAN RANK CORRELATION
•Spearman rank correlation is the nonparametric version
of the Pearson correlation.
•Requirements
Scale of measurement must be ordinal for at least one parameter
Data must be in the form of matched pairs
The association must be monotonic (i.e., variables increase in value together, or
one increases while the other decreases)
https://www.gstatic.com/education/formulas2/397133473/en/spearman_s_ra
nk_correlation_coefficient.svg
It can be used when requirements for Pearson test are not met.
https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/spearmans-rank-order-correlation-statistical-guide.php
Reporting results
•If you want to compare differences in both directions (positive and negative) then it is a two-tailed test.
•For DP biology reports almost always students should use a two-tailed test.
• A one-tailed test is only justified if you have a specific prediction about the direction of the difference (e.g., Group
A scoring higher than Group B), and you are completely uninterested in the possibility that the opposite outcome
could be true.
https://www.statisticssolutions.com/should-you-use-a-one-tailed-test-or-a-two-tailed-test-for-your-data-analysis/
https://keydifferences.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/one-tailed-vs-two-tailed-test.jpg
T-TEST TYPES
https://datatab.net/assets/tutorial/one_Sample_t-Test.png
ONE SAMPLE T-TEST
Requirements
1. The data is normally distributed
2. Quantitative data
3. A randomized sample from a defined population
It is used to compare data set recorded from a population to the mean reported in the
literature. We use it when we want to know if a sample and do not have the full population.
We want to know if this particular sample came from a particular suggested population.
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/tsinglesample/default2.aspx
https://www.machinelearningplus.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/t-table-one-sample-t-test-min.png
INDEPENDENT SAMPLES T-TEST
Requirements
1. The data is normally distributed https://www.statstest.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Screen-Shot-2020-02-03-at-9.39.36-PM-1024x497.png
2. Quantitative data
3. Two independent samples
4. The two samples should have the same variance
It is used to compare two populations and estimate if the values are different or overlap significantly.
Students may use the online calculator:
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/studentttest/default.aspx
INDEPENDENT SAMPLES T-TEST - REPORTING Reporting results
other.
DF=N1 + N2 – 2
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/studentttest/default2.aspx
https://www.machinelearningplus.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/t-table-one-sample-t-test-min.png
PAIRED T-TEST
Requirements
1. The data is normally distributed
2. Quantitative data
3. The two sets of scores are paired or matched in some way
It is used to compare data set recorded from a population to the data from the same
population later on (for example, before and after the treatment)
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/ttestdependent/default2.aspx
11. ANOVA
•ANOVA compares the sets of three or
more data simultaneously.
•It is done because repeated t-tests would
give too much cumulative error.
•Data sets should be independent of each other, meaning not the repeat measurements of the
same population (that would be repeated measurement ANOVA).
•There could be one way or two way ANOVA. One way ANOVA is used when only one factor
was measure from all groups; two way ANOVA is used when two factors were measured in all
groups.
•For high school biology most often used is one way ANOVA for independent measurements.
https://www.tibco.com/sites/tibco/files/media_entity/2020-09/anova-diagram.svg
ONE WAY ANOVA REQUIREMENTS
1. The data should be normally distributed.
2. Samples must be independent.
3. Groups must have equal sample size.
• A one-way ANOVA will tell you that at least two groups were different from each other.
But it won’t tell you which groups were different.
• Students will always have to run post-hoc analysis to say exactly which group is
significantly different from others.
• Students don’t need to know how to perform the test, they can just use the online
calculator.
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/anova/default2.aspx
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/hypothesis-testing/anova/
Reporting results
ANOVA- REPORTING
Significance table for your reference
Because there are so many variables in the H1: there is a difference in sample
ANOVA test, instead of single table there are means
separate tables calculated for each level of
significance (a).
https://www.dummies.com/article/business-careers-
money/business/accounting/calculation-analysis/how-to-find-the-critical-values-for-
an-anova-hypothesis-using-the-f-table-146050 https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/anova/default2.aspx
12. POST-HOC ANALYSIS
•Post hoc (Latin, meaning “after this”) means to analyze the results of your experimental data
after some previous analysis already conducted.
•The only situation when students are expected to do this in high school biology is a statistically
significant ANOVA result.
•Students don’t need to know how to perform the test, they can just use the online calculator.
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/anova/default2.aspx
•There are many post-hoc tests, but for ANOVA Tukey HSD is recommended.
•Tukey's HSD (honestly significant difference) procedure facilitates pairwise comparisons within
ANOVA data.
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/statistics-definitions/post-hoc/
Reporting results
REPORTING POST-HOC RESULTS
Significance table for your reference Each significant paired Q result (p<0.05) means
that the two sets are statistically significantly
For a = 0.05 different from one another.
Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test
indicated that the mean score for the sand condition
(M4 = 6.14) was significantly different from all
other conditions. Also, compost (M3 = 35.57) was
significantly different from hydroponic medium
(M5 = 64.14). However, the compost was not
different from garden soil (M2 = 54.14), or
vermicast (M1 = 57.14). The hydroponic medium
k= Number of Treatments. was not different from garden soil, or vermicast.
Df = SE
•Note that expected values should be calculated by students based on the observed amount of
data points and then expressed as expected frequencies or ratios.
•Expected value calculations should be reported in the IA and EE.
REPORTING CHI-SQUARED GOODNESS OF FIT TEST Reporting results
df = (number of categories – 1)
https://passel2.unl.edu/image.php?uuid=f744d18faf02&extension=PNG&display=
MEDIUM&v=1644531499 https://www.socscistatistics.com/tutorials/chisquare/default.aspx
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/goodnessoffit/default2.aspx
CHI-SQUARE TEST OF INDEPENDENCE
The Chi-square test for independence looks for an association between two categorical variables.
Requirements
Random sample
Observations must be independent of each other (so, for example, no matched pairs)
•While students do learn how to calculate this test by hand in DP Biology syllabus, in the IA and EE it is not
expected for them to do so. They are encouraged to use the online calculator.
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/chisquare/default2.aspx
•Note that expected values should be calculated by students based on the observed amount of data points and
then expressed as expected frequencies or ratios.
•We expect here that the distribution of data in different data table cells is equal (note – data is adjusted for
the total sample, see the formula below)
•Expected value calculations should be reported in the IA and EE.
Row total * Column total / Sample Size = Expected value for one table cell
df = (r-1)(c-1)
https://www.statisticssolutions.com/free-resources/directory-of-statistical-
analyses/chi- https://www.socscistatistics.com/tutorials/chisquare/default.aspx
square/#:~:text=The%20degrees%20of%20freedom%20for,null%20hypothesis https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests/chisquare/default2.aspx
%20can%20be%20rejected.
SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT STATISTICAL TESTS
Test Used for Type of data Null hypothesis Get CV from a Conclusion if p<0.05 Conclusion if p>0.05
(unbiased (significance) of 0.05 (Null hypothesis is true)
expectation)
T-test Significance of Two groups Two populations are DF=n1+n2-1 There is significant difference There is no significant difference
differences (populations) with the same between two populations between two populations
between two the same variable
groups measured
Chi- Differences of Two or more No difference DF= number of categories There is a difference between There is no difference between
squared data from categories between expected -1 observed and expected data observed and expected data
expectations Frequencies and observed data
Pearson Correlation Group of data Two measurements DF is number of sample Significant correlation No significant correlation
between two points measured are not correlated data pairs
variables against two between each other
variables
ANOVA Significance of Several groups No significant DF= number of groups -1 There are differences between the There is no difference between the
differences (populations) with overlap between the groups groups
between three or the same variable populations
more groups measured
Alternative
For normal distribution
For not normal distribution
THANK YOU FOR ATTENTION J
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