28 PART 1 DC Circuits

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power
in an electric circuit. To actually determine the values of these variables
in a given circuit requires that we understand some fundamental laws that
govern electric circuits. These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s
laws, form the foundation upon which electric circuit analysis is built.
In this chapter, in addition to these laws, we shall discuss some
techniques commonly applied in circuit design and analysis. These tech-
niques include combining resistors in series or parallel, voltage division,
current division, and delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations. The
application of these laws and techniques will be restricted to resistive cir-
cuits in this chapter. We will finally apply the laws and techniques to
real-life problems of electrical lighting and the design of dc meters.

2.2 OHM’S LAW

l
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow
i
of electric charge. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is
known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R. The resistance
+ of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and
v R
−
its length , as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). In mathematical form,
Material with

resistivity r R=ρ (2.1)
Cross-sectional A
area A
where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters. Good
(a) (b)
conductors, such as copper and aluminum, have low resistivities, while
Figure 2.1 (a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol
insulators, such as mica and paper, have high resistivities. Table 2.1
for resistance. presents the values of ρ for some common materials and shows which
materials are used for conductors, insulators, and semiconductors.

TABLE 2.1 Resistivities of common materials.

Material Resistivity (·m) Usage

Silver 1.64 × 10−8 Conductor

Copper 1.72 × 10−8 Conductor
Aluminum 2.8 × 10−8 Conductor
Gold 2.45 × 10−8 Conductor
Carbon 4 × 10−5 Semiconductor
Germanium 47 × 10−2 Semiconductor
Silicon 6.4 × 102 Semiconductor
Paper 1010 Insulator
Mica 5 × 1011 Insulator
Glass 1012 Insulator
Teflon 3 × 1012 Insulator

The circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior of

a material is the resistor. For the purpose of constructing circuits, resistors
are usually made from metallic alloys and carbon compounds. The circuit
30
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.3 Fixed resistors: (a) wire-
wound type, (b) carbon film type.
(Courtesy of Tech America.)
(a) (b)
Figure 2.4 Circuit symbol for: (a) a variable
resistor in general, (b) a potentiometer.
Figure 2.6 Resistors in a thick-film circuit.
(Source: G. Daryanani, Principles of Active
Network Synthesis and Design [New York:
John Wiley, 1976], p. 461c.)
PART 1 DC Circuits
A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.
Similarly, an element with R = ∞ is known as an open circuit, as shown
in Fig. 2.2(b). For an open circuit,
v
i = lim =0 (2.6)
R→∞ R
indicating that the current is zero though the voltage could be anything.
Thus,
An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.
A resistor is either fixed or variable. Most resistors are of the fixed
type, meaning their resistance remains constant. The two common types
of fixed resistors (wirewound and composition) are shown in Fig. 2.3.
The composition resistors are used when large resistance is needed. The
circuit symbol in Fig. 2.1(b) is for a fixed resistor. Variable resistors
have adjustable resistance. The symbol for a variable resistor is shown
in Fig. 2.4(a). A common variable resistor is known as a potentiometer
or pot for short, with the symbol shown in Fig. 2.4(b). The pot is a
three-terminal element with a sliding contact or wiper. By sliding the
wiper, the resistances between the wiper terminal and the fixed terminals
vary. Like fixed resistors, variable resistors can either be of wirewound or
composition type, as shown in Fig. 2.5. Although resistors like those in
Figs. 2.3 and 2.5 are used in circuit designs, today most circuit components
including resistors are either surface mounted or integrated, as typically
shown in Fig. 2.6.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.5 Variable resistors: (a) composition type, (b) slider pot.
(Courtesy of Tech America.)
It should be pointed out that not all resistors obey Ohm’s law. A
resistor that obeys Ohm’s law is known as a linear resistor. It has a con-
stant resistance and thus its current-voltage characteristic is as illustrated
in Fig. 2.7(a): its i-v graph is a straight line passing through the ori-
gin. A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohm’s law. Its resistance varies
with current and its i-v characteristic is typically shown in Fig. 2.7(b).
32 PART 1 DC Circuits

Solution:
From Ohm’s law,
v 120
R= = = 60 
i 2

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.1

The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element (a resistor)
that converts electrical energy to heat energy. How much current is drawn
by a toaster with resistance 12  at 110 V?
Answer: 9.167 A.

E X A M P L E 2 . 2
i In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.8, calculate the current i, the conductance
+ G, and the power p.
30 V +
− 5 kΩ v Solution:
−
The voltage across the resistor is the same as the source voltage (30 V)
because the resistor and the voltage source are connected to the same pair
of terminals. Hence, the current is
Figure 2.8 For Example 2.2.
v 30
i= = = 6 mA
R 5 × 103
The conductance is
1 1
G= = = 0.2 mS
R 5 × 103
We can calculate the power in various ways using either Eqs. (1.7), (2.10),
or (2.11).
p = vi = 30(6 × 10−3 ) = 180 mW
or
p = i 2 R = (6 × 10−3 )2 5 × 103 = 180 mW
or
p = v 2 G = (30)2 0.2 × 10−3 = 180 mW

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.2

i For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.9, calculate the voltage v, the conductance
+ G, and the power p.
2 mA 10 kΩ v Answer: 20 V, 100 µS, 40 mW.
−

Figure 2.9 For Practice Prob. 2.2

34 PART 1 DC Circuits

Figs. 2.10 and 2.11 are identical. However, for the sake of clarity, nodes
b and c are spread out with perfect conductors as in Fig. 2.10.

A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a

set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through
any node more than once. A loop is said to be independent if it contains a
branch which is not in any other loop. Independent loops or paths result
in independent sets of equations.
For example, the closed path abca containing the 2- resistor in
Fig. 2.11 is a loop. Another loop is the closed path bcb containing the
3- resistor and the current source. Although one can identify six loops
in Fig. 2.11, only three of them are independent.
A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will
satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology:

b =l+n−1 (2.12)

As the next two definitions show, circuit topology is of great value

to the study of voltages and currents in an electric circuit.

Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected sequentially
and consequently carry the same current.
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes
and consequently have the same voltage across them.

Elements are in series when they are chain-connected or connected se-

quentially, end to end. For example, two elements are in series if they
share one common node and no other element is connected to that com-
mon node. Elements in parallel are connected to the same pair of termi-
nals. Elements may be connected in a way that they are neither in series
nor in parallel. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.10, the voltage source and
the 5- resistor are in series because the same current will flow through
them. The 2- resistor, the 3- resistor, and the current source are in
parallel because they are connected to the same two nodes (b and c)
and consequently have the same voltage across them. The 5- and 2-
resistors are neither in series nor in parallel with each other.

E X A M P L E 2 . 4
Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit shown in Fig.
2.12. Identify which elements are in series and which are in parallel.
Solution:
Since there are four elements in the circuit, the circuit has four branches:
10 V, 5 , 6 , and 2 A. The circuit has three nodes as identified in
36 PART 1 DC Circuits

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering
a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.

Mathematically, KCL implies that

N
in = 0 (2.13)
n=1

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the

nth current entering (or leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering
a node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node may
be taken as negative or vice versa.
To prove KCL, assume a set of currents ik (t), k = 1, 2, . . . , flow
into a node. The algebraic sum of currents at the node is
iT (t) = i1 (t) + i2 (t) + i3 (t) + · · · (2.14)
i5
i1
Integrating both sides of Eq. (2.14) gives
i4 qT (t) = q1 (t) + q2 (t) + q3 (t) + · · · (2.15)
i2  
i3 where qk (t) = ik (t) dt and qT (t) = iT (t) dt. But the law of conser-
vation of electric charge requires that the algebraic sum of electric charges
at the node must not change; that is, the node stores no net charge. Thus
Figure 2.16 Currents at qT (t) = 0 → iT (t) = 0, confirming the validity of KCL.
a node illustrating KCL. Consider the node in Fig. 2.16. Applying KCL gives
i1 + (−i2 ) + i3 + i4 + (−i5 ) = 0 (2.16)

since currents i1 , i3 , and i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and
i5 are leaving it. By rearranging the terms, we get
Closed boundary i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5 (2.17)

Equation (2.17) is an alternative form of KCL:

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum

of the currents leaving the node.

Note that KCL also applies to a closed boundary. This may be

regarded as a generalized case, because a node may be regarded as a
closed surface shrunk to a point. In two dimensions, a closed boundary
Figure 2.17 Applying KCL to a closed is the same as a closed path. As typically illustrated in the circuit of
boundary. Fig. 2.17, the total current entering the closed surface is equal to the total
current leaving the surface.
A simple application of KCL is combining current sources in par-
allel. The combined current is the algebraic sum of the current supplied
by the individual sources. For example, the current sources shown in Fig.
Two sources (or circuits in general) are said to be 2.18(a) can be combined as in Fig. 2.18(b). The combined or equivalent
equivalent if they have the same i-v relationship current source can be found by applying KCL to node a.
at a pair of terminals. IT + I2 = I1 + I3
38 PART 1 DC Circuits

or
Vab = V1 + V2 − V3 (2.23)

To avoid violating KVL, a circuit cannot contain two different voltages

V1 and V2 in parallel unless V1 = V2 .

a
+
+
− V1

a
Vab + +
− V2

+ V =V +V −V
− Vab − S 1 2 3
+ V3
− −
b b
(a) (b)

Figure 2.20 Voltage sources in series:

(a) original circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.

E X A M P L E 2 . 5
For the circuit in Fig. 2.21(a), find voltages v1 and v2 .

2Ω 2Ω
+ v1 − + v1 −
− −
+ v2 3Ω + v2 3Ω
20 V − +
20 V − i
+

(a) (b)

Figure 2.21 For Example 2.5.

Solution:
To find v1 and v2 , we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Assume that current i flows through the loop as shown in Fig. 2.21(b).
From Ohm’s law,
v1 = 2i, v2 = −3i (2.5.1)

Applying KVL around the loop gives

−20 + v1 − v2 = 0 (2.5.2)

Substituting Eq. (2.5.1) into Eq. (2.5.2), we obtain

−20 + 2i + 3i = 0 or 5i = 20 ⇒ i =4A
Substituting i in Eq. (2.5.1) finally gives
v1 = 8 V, v2 = −12 V
40 PART 1 DC Circuits

E X A M P L E 2 . 7
a Find current io and voltage vo in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.25.
io Solution:
+
Applying KCL to node a, we obtain
0.5io vo 4Ω 3A
− 3 + 0.5io = io ⇒ io = 6 A
For the 4- resistor, Ohm’s law gives
Figure 2.25 For Example 2.7. vo = 4io = 24 V

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.7

io Find vo and io in the circuit of Fig. 2.26.

+
io Answer: 8 V, 4 A.
6A 2Ω 8Ω vo
4 −

Figure 2.26 For Practice Prob. 2.7.

E X A M P L E 2 . 8
Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.27(a).

i1 i3 i1 i3
8Ω a 8Ω a
+ v1 − i2 + v1 − i2
+ + + +
30 V +
−
v2 3Ω v3 6Ω 30 V +
−
Loop 1 v2 3Ω Loop 2 v3 6Ω
− − − −

(a) (b)

Figure 2.27 For Example 2.8.

Solution:
We apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws. By Ohm’s law,
v1 = 8i1 , v2 = 3i2 , v3 = 6i3 (2.8.1)

Since the voltage and current of each resistor are related by Ohm’s
law as shown, we are really looking for three things: (v1 , v2 , v3 ) or
(i1 , i2 , i3 ). At node a, KCL gives
i1 − i2 − i3 = 0 (2.8.2)

Applying KVL to loop 1 as in Fig. 2.27(b),

−30 + v1 + v2 = 0
42 PART 1 DC Circuits

Combining Eqs. (2.24) and (2.25), we get

v = v1 + v2 = i(R1 + R2 ) (2.26)

i Req or
a
v
+ v − i= (2.27)
R1 + R 2
v +
− Notice that Eq. (2.26) can be written as
v = iReq (2.28)
b
implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor
Req ; that is,
Figure 2.30 Equivalent circuit
of the Fig. 2.29 circuit. Req = R1 + R2 (2.29)

Thus, Fig. 2.29 can be replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2.30. The
two circuits in Figs. 2.29 and 2.30 are equivalent because they exhibit the
same voltage-current relationships at the terminals a-b. An equivalent
circuit such as the one in Fig. 2.30 is useful in simplifying the analysis
of a circuit. In general,

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series

is the sum of the individual resistances.

Resistors in series behave as a single resistor For N resistors in series then,

whose resistance is equal to the sum of the re-
sistances of the individual resistors.

N
Req = R1 + R2 + · · · + RN = Rn (2.30)
n=1

To determine the voltage across each resistor in Fig. 2.29, we sub-

stitute Eq. (2.26) into Eq. (2.24) and obtain

R1 R2
v1 = v, v2 = v (2.31)
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2

Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct
proportion to their resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the
voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division, and the
circuit in Fig. 2.29 is called a voltage divider. In general, if a voltage
divider has N resistors (R1 , R2 , . . . , RN ) in series with the source voltage
v, the nth resistor (Rn ) will have a voltage drop of
Rn
vn = v (2.32)
R1 + R 2 + · · · + R N

2.6 PARALLEL RESISTORS AND CURRENT DIVISION

Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.31, where two resistors are connected in
parallel and therefore have the same voltage across them. From Ohm’s
law,
v = i1 R1 = i2 R2
44 PART 1 DC Circuits

The equivalent conductance of resistors connected in parallel is the sum

of their individual conductances.

This means that we may replace the circuit in Fig. 2.31 with that in
i a Fig. 2.32. Notice the similarity between Eqs. (2.30) and (2.40). The
equivalent conductance of parallel resistors is obtained the same way
as the equivalent resistance of series resistors. In the same manner, the
v + v equivalent conductance of resistors in series is obtained just the same way
− Req or Geq
as the resistance of resistors in parallel. Thus the equivalent conductance
Geq of N resistors in series (such as shown in Fig. 2.29) is
b
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ··· + (2.41)
Figure 2.32 Equivalent circuit to Geq G1 G2 G3 GN
Fig. 2.31.
Given the total current i entering node a in Fig. 2.31, how do we
obtain current i1 and i2 ? We know that the equivalent resistor has the
same voltage, or
iR1 R2
v = iReq = (2.42)
R1 + R 2
Combining Eqs. (2.33) and (2.42) results in

R2 i R1 i
i1 = , i2 = (2.43)
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2

which shows that the total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse
proportion to their resistances. This is known as the principle of current
division, and the circuit in Fig. 2.31 is known as a current divider. Notice
that the larger current flows through the smaller resistance.
As an extreme case, suppose one of the resistors in Fig. 2.31 is zero,
i say R2 = 0; that is, R2 is a short circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.33(a). From
Eq. (2.43), R2 = 0 implies that i1 = 0, i2 = i. This means that the
i2 = i
i1 = 0 entire current i bypasses R1 and flows through the short circuit R2 = 0,
R1 R2 = 0
the path of least resistance. Thus when a circuit is short circuited, as
shown in Fig. 2.33(a), two things should be kept in mind:
1. The equivalent resistance Req = 0. [See what happens when
R2 = 0 in Eq. (2.37).]
(a)
2. The entire current flows through the short circuit.
i As another extreme case, suppose R2 = ∞, that is, R2 is an open
circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.33(b). The current still flows through the path
i2 = 0
i1 = i of least resistance, R1 . By taking the limit of Eq. (2.37) as R2 → ∞, we
R1 R2 = ∞ obtain Req = R1 in this case.
If we divide both the numerator and denominator by R1 R2 , Eq.
(2.43) becomes
G1
(b) i1 = i (2.44a)
G1 + G 2
Figure 2.33 (a) A shorted circuit, G2
(b) an open circuit. i2 = i (2.44b)
G1 + G 2
46 PART 1 DC Circuits

E X A M P L E 2 . 1 0
Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit in Fig. 2.37.

10 Ω c 1Ω d 1Ω
a
6Ω
Rab
3Ω 4Ω 5Ω

12 Ω
b
b b

Figure 2.37 For Example 2.10.

Solution:
The 3- and 6- resistors are in parallel because they are connected to
the same two nodes c and b. Their combined resistance is
3×6
10 Ω 3 6= =2 (2.10.1)
c 1Ω d 3+6
a
Similarly, the 12- and 4- resistors are in parallel since they are con-
2Ω 3Ω 6Ω
nected to the same two nodes d and b. Hence
12 × 4
12  4  = =3 (2.10.2)
b 12 + 4
b b b Also the 1- and 5- resistors are in series; hence, their equivalent
(a) resistance is
1+5=6 (2.10.3)
10 Ω c
a With these three combinations, we can replace the circuit in Fig. 2.37 with
that in Fig. 2.38(a). In Fig. 2.38(a), 3- in parallel with 6- gives 2-, as
2Ω 3Ω calculated in Eq. (2.10.1). This 2- equivalent resistance is now in series
with the 1- resistance to give a combined resistance of 1 +2  = 3 .
b
b b Thus, we replace the circuit in Fig. 2.38(a) with that in Fig. 2.38(b). In
(b)
Fig. 2.38(b), we combine the 2- and 3- resistors in parallel to get
2×3
2 3= = 1.2 
Figure 2.38 Equivalent circuits for 2+3
Example 2.10.
This 1.2- resistor is in series with the 10- resistor, so that
Rab = 10 + 1.2 = 11.2 
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.10
20 Ω Find Rab for the circuit in Fig. 2.39.
Answer: 11 .
8Ω 5Ω
a

Rab 18 Ω 20 Ω
1Ω
9Ω
2Ω
b

Figure 2.39 For Practice Prob. 2.10.

48 PART 1 DC Circuits

i 4Ω io Thus our circuit reduces to that shown in Fig. 2.42(b). Notice that vo is
a
not affected by the combination of the resistors because the resistors are
+ in parallel and therefore have the same voltage vo . From Fig. 2.42(b), we
12 V +
− 6Ω vo 3Ω can obtain vo in two ways. One way is to apply Ohm’s law to get
−
12
i= =2A
b 4+2
(a) and hence, vo = 2i = 2 × 2 = 4 V. Another way is to apply voltage
division, since the 12 V in Fig. 2.42(b) is divided between the 4- and
i 4Ω 2- resistors. Hence,
a
2
+ vo = (12 V) = 4 V
12 V + vo 2Ω 2+4
−
− Similarly, io can be obtained in two ways. One approach is to apply
Ohm’s law to the 3- resistor in Fig. 2.42(a) now that we know vo ; thus,
b
4
(b) vo = 3io = 4 ⇒ io = A
3
Figure 2.42 For Example 2.12: (a) original Another approach is to apply current division to the circuit in Fig. 2.42(a)
circuit, (b) its equivalent circuit. now that we know i, by writing
6 2 4
io = i = (2 A) = A
6+3 3 3
The power dissipated in the 3- resistor is
 
4
po = vo io = 4 = 5.333 W
3

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.12

i1 12 Ω Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.43. Also calculate i1 and i2
and the power dissipated in the 12- and 40- resistors.
+ v1 −
Answer: v1 = 5 V, i1 = 416.7 mA, p1 = 2.083 W, v2 = 10 V,
6Ω
i2 = 250 mA, p2 = 2.5 W.
i2
+
15 V +
− 10 Ω v2 40 Ω
−

Figure 2.43 For Practice Prob. 2.12.

E X A M P L E 2 . 1 3
For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.44(a), determine: (a) the voltage vo , (b)
the power supplied by the current source, (c) the power absorbed by each
resistor.
Solution:
(a) The 6-k and 12-k resistors are in series so that their combined
value is 6 + 12 = 18 k. Thus the circuit in Fig. 2.44(a) reduces to that
50 PART 1 DC Circuits

† 2.7 WYE-DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS

R1 Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in
parallel nor in series. For example, consider the bridge circuit in Fig.
2.46. How do we combine resistors R1 through R6 when the resistors
R2 R3 are neither in series nor in parallel? Many circuits of the type shown in
R4 Fig. 2.46 can be simplified by using three-terminal equivalent networks.
vs +
− These are the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in Fig. 2.47 and the
delta (") or pi (#) network shown in Fig. 2.48. These networks occur by
R5 R6 themselves or as part of a larger network. They are used in three-phase
networks, electrical filters, and matching networks. Our main interest
Figure 2.46 The bridge network.
here is in how to identify them when they occur as part of a network and
how to apply wye-delta transformation in the analysis of that network.

1 3
R1 R2
R1 R2 1 3

R3 R3

2 4 2 4
(a) (b)

Figure 2.47 Two forms of the same network: (a) Y, (b) T.

Delta to Wye Conversion

Rc
1 3
Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in a place
where the circuit contains a delta configuration. We superimpose a wye
Rb Ra network on the existing delta network and find the equivalent resistances
in the wye network. To obtain the equivalent resistances in the wye
network, we compare the two networks and make sure that the resistance
2 4 between each pair of nodes in the " (or #) network is the same as the
(a) resistance between the same pair of nodes in the Y (or T) network. For
terminals 1 and 2 in Figs. 2.47 and 2.48, for example,
Rc
1 3 R12 (Y) = R1 + R3
(2.46)
R12 (") = Rb (Ra + Rc )
Rb Ra Setting R12 (Y)= R12 (") gives
Rb (Ra + Rc )
2 4 R12 = R1 + R3 = (2.47a)
Ra + R b + R c
(b)
Similarly,
Figure 2.48 Two forms of the Rc (Ra + Rb )
same network: (a) ", (b) #. R13 = R1 + R2 = (2.47b)
Ra + R b + R c
Ra (Rb + Rc )
R34 = R2 + R3 = (2.47c)
Ra + R b + R c
Subtracting Eq. (2.47c) from Eq. (2.47a), we get
Rc (Rb − Ra )
R 1 − R2 = (2.48)
Ra + R b + R c
52 PART 1 DC Circuits

Each resistor in the " network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors
taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.

The Y and " networks are said to be balanced when

R1 = R2 = R3 = RY , Ra = Rb = Rc = R" (2.56)

Under these conditions, conversion formulas become

R"
RY = or R" = 3RY (2.57)
3

One may wonder why RY is less than R" . Well, we notice that the Y-
connection is like a “series” connection while the "-connection is like a
“parallel” connection.
Note that in making the transformation, we do not take anything out
of the circuit or put in anything new. We are merely substituting different
but mathematically equivalent three-terminal network patterns to create
a circuit in which resistors are either in series or in parallel, allowing us
to calculate Req if necessary.

E X A M P L E 2 . 1 4
Convert the " network in Fig. 2.50(a) to an equivalent Y network.

a b

5Ω 7.5 Ω
Rc R1 R2
a b
25 Ω

10 Ω 15 Ω
Rb Ra R3 3Ω

c c

(a) (b)

Figure 2.50 For Example 2.14: (a) original " network, (b) Y equivalent network.

Solution:
Using Eqs. (2.49) to (2.51), we obtain
54 PART 1 DC Circuits

70 × 30
70 30 = = 21 
70 + 30
12.5 × 17.5
12.5 17.5 = = 7.2917 
12.5 + 17.5
15 × 35
15 35 = = 10.5 
15 + 35
so that the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.53(b). Hence, we find
17.792 × 21
Rab = (7.292 + 10.5) 21 = = 9.632 
17.792 + 21
Then
vs 120
i= = = 12.458 A
Rab 9.632

12.5 Ω
17.5 Ω a
70 Ω 30 Ω 7.292 Ω
35 Ω 21 Ω
15 Ω
10.5 Ω
b b
(a) (b)

Figure 2.53 Equivalent circuits to Fig. 2.52, with the voltage removed.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.15

i
a 13 Ω
For the bridge network in Fig. 2.54, find Rab and i.
Answer: 40 , 2.5 A.
24 Ω 10 Ω
20 Ω
100 V +
−

30 Ω 50 Ω

Figure 2.54 For Practice Prob. 2.15.

† 2.8 APPLICATIONS
Resistors are often used to model devices that convert electrical energy
into heat or other forms of energy. Such devices include conducting
wire, lightbulbs, electric heaters, stoves, ovens, and loudspeakers. In this
56 PART 1 DC Circuits

Solution:
(a) The total power supplied by the battery is equal to the total power
absorbed by the bulbs, that is,
p = 15 + 10 + 20 = 45 W
Since p = V I , then the total current supplied by the battery is
p 45
I= = =5A
V 9
(b) The bulbs can be modeled as resistors as shown in Fig. 2.56(b). Since
R1 (20-W bulb) is in parallel with the battery as well as the series com-
bination of R2 and R3 ,
V1 = V2 + V3 = 9 V
The current through R1 is
p1 20
I1 = = = 2.222 A
V1 9
By KCL, the current through the series combination of R2 and R3
is
I2 = I − I1 = 5 − 2.222 = 2.778 A
(c) Since p = I 2 R,
p1 20
R1 =
2
= 2
= 4.05 
I1 2.222
p2 15
R2 = 2 = = 1.945 
I2 2.7772
p3 10
R3 = 2 = = 1.297 
I3 2.7772
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.16
Refer to Fig. 2.55 and assume there are 10 lightbulbs, each with a power
rating of 40 W. If the voltage at the plug is 110 V for the parallel and
series connections, calculate the current through each bulb for both cases.
Answer: 0.364 A (parallel), 3.64 A (series).

2.8.2 Design of DC Meters

By their nature, resistors are used to control the flow of current. We take
a
advantage of this property in several applications, such as in a poten-
Max tiometer (Fig. 2.57). The word potentiometer, derived from the words
b
potential and meter, implies that potential can be metered out. The po-
Vin +
− tentiometer (or pot for short) is a three-terminal device that operates on
+
Vout
the principle of voltage division. It is essentially an adjustable voltage
Min − divider. As a voltage regulator, it is used as a volume or level control on
c radios, TVs, and other devices. In Fig. 2.57,
Rbc
Figure 2.57 The potentiometer Vout = Vbc = Vin (2.58)
controlling potential levels. Rac
where Rac = Rab + Rbc . Thus, Vout decreases or increases as the sliding
contact of the pot moves toward c or a, respectively.
58 PART 1 DC Circuits

Multiplier Meter
Rn

+ Im Rm
Probes V
−

(a)

R1
1V Meter
R2 10 V Switch
+ Im Rm
100 V
Probes V R3
−

(b)

Figure 2.60 Voltmeters: (a) single-range type, (b) multiple-range type.

In Rn

Meter internal resistance Rm ,

Im
Vfs = Ifs (Rn + Rm ) (2.59)
Rm
I From this, we obtain
Probes Vfs
Rn = − Rm (2.60)
(a) Ifs

R1 Similarly, the ammeter measures the current through the load and
is connected in series with it. As shown in Fig. 2.61(a), the ammeter con-
10 mA sists of a d’Arsonval movement in parallel with a resistor whose resistance
R2 100 mA Switch Rm is deliberately made very small (theoretically, zero) to minimize the
voltage drop across it. To allow multiple range, shunt resistors are often
1A connected in parallel with Rm as shown in Fig. 2.61(b). The shunt resis-
R3
tors allow the meter to measure in the range 0–10 mA, 0–100 mA, or
Meter 0–1 A, depending on whether the switch is connected to R1 , R2 , or
R3 , respectively.
Im
Now our objective is to obtain the multiplier shunt Rn for the single-
Rm range ammeter in Fig. 2.61(a), or Rn = R1 , R2 , or R3 for the multiple-
I
range ammeter in Fig. 2.61(b). We notice that Rm and Rn are in parallel
and that at full-scale reading I = Ifs = Im + In , where In is the current
Probes through the shunt resistor Rn . Applying the current division principle
(b) yields

Figure 2.61 Ammeters: (a) single-range type, Rn

Im = Ifs
(b) multiple-range type. Rn + R m
60 PART 1 DC Circuits

(b) For range 0–5 V,

5
R2 = − 2000 = 50,000 − 2000 = 48 k
100 × 10−6
(c) For range 0–50 V,
50
R3 = − 2000 = 500,000 − 2000 = 498 k
100 × 10−6
(d) For range 0–100 V,
100 V
R4 = − 2000 = 1,000,000 − 2000 = 998 k
100 × 10−6
Note that the ratio of the total resistance (Rn +Rm ) to the full-scale voltage
Vfs is constant and equal to 1/Ifs for the four ranges. This ratio (given in
ohms per volt, or /V) is known as the sensitivity of the voltmeter. The
larger the sensitivity, the better the voltmeter.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.17

Following the ammeter setup of Fig. 2.61, design an ammeter for the fol-
lowing multiple ranges:
(a) 0–1 A (b) 0–100 mA (c) 0–10 mA
Take the full-scale meter current as Im = 1 mA and the internal resistance
of the ammeter as Rm = 50 .
Answer: Shunt resistors: 0.05 , 0.505 , 5.556 .

2.9 SUMMARY
1. A resistor is a passive element in which the voltage v across it is
directly proportional to the current i through it. That is, a resistor is
a device that obeys Ohm’s law,

v = iR

where R is the resistance of the resistor.

2. A short circuit is a resistor (a perfectly conducting wire) with zero
resistance (R = 0). An open circuit is a resistor with infinite resis-
tance (R = ∞).
3. The conductance G of a resistor is the reciprocal of its resistance:
1
G=
R
4. A branch is a single two-terminal element in an electric circuit. A
node is the point of connection between two or more branches. A
loop is a closed path in a circuit. The number of branches b, the
number of nodes n, and the number of independent loops l in a
network are related as

b =l+n−1
62 PART 1 DC Circuits

2.3 The voltage drop across a 1.5-kW toaster that draws 2.9 Which of the circuits in Fig. 2.66 will give you
12 A of current is: Vab = 7 V?
(a) 18 kV (b) 125 V
(c) 120 V (d) 10.42 V
2.4 The maximum current that a 2W, 80 k resistor can 5V 5V
safely conduct is: +− a −+ a
(a) 160 kA (b) 40 kA
(c) 5 mA (d) 25 µA
3V +
− 3V +
−
2.5 A network has 12 branches and 8 independent loops.
How many nodes are there in the network?
(a) 19 (b) 17 (c) 5 (d) 4 +− b +− b
2.6 The current I in the circuit in Fig. 2.63 is: 1V 1V
(a) −0.8 A (b) −0.2 A (a) (b)
(c) 0.2 A (d) 0.8 A
5V 5V
4Ω I +− a −+ a

3V +
−
+
− 5V 3V +
− 3V +
−
6Ω
−+ b −+ b
Figure 2.63 For Review Question 2.6. 1V 1V
(c) (d)
2.7 The current Io in Fig. 2.64 is:
(a) −4 A (b) −2 A (c) 4 A (d) 16 A Figure 2.66 For Review Question 2.9.

10 A
2.10 The equivalent resistance of the circuit in Fig. 2.67
is:
2A 4A
(a) 4 k (b) 5 k (c) 8 k (d) 14 k

2 kΩ 3 kΩ
Io
Req
6 kΩ 3 kΩ
Figure 2.64 For Review Question 2.7.

2.8 In the circuit in Fig. 2.65, V is:

(a) 30 V (b) 14 V (c) 10 V (d) 6 V Figure 2.67 For Review Question 2.10.
10 V
+ −

Answers: 2.1c, 2.2c, 2.3b, 2.4c, 2.5c, 2.6b, 2.7a, 2.8d, 2.9d, 2.10a.
12 V +
−
+
− 8V

+ −
V

Figure 2.65 For Review Question 2.8.

64 PART 1 DC Circuits

2.10 Determine i1 and i2 in the circuit in Fig. 2.74. 2.13 Find v1 and v2 in the circuit in Fig. 2.77.
+ v1 −

+
6V + v1
−
4A –2 A 12 V 10 V −

i2 +− +−

i1

+ v2 −
3A
Figure 2.77 For Prob. 2.13.

Figure 2.74 For Prob. 2.10. 2.14 Obtain v1 through v3 in the circuit of Fig. 2.78.

+ v1 −
2.11 Determine v1 through v4 in the circuit in Fig. 2.75.

v2 − +
24 V + v3 + 10 V
− + −
−

− −+
− v2
v1 +
12 V
+ 12 V +
−
Figure 2.78 For Prob. 2.14.
+ 8V − − 6V +
2.15 Find I and Vab in the circuit of Fig. 2.79.

− 3Ω
10 V
a 5Ω
+ − +−
10 V
v4 v3 I
− + + +
30 V + Vab + 8V
− −
−

b
Figure 2.75 For Prob. 2.11.

Figure 2.79 For Prob. 2.15.

2.12 In the circuit in Fig. 2.76, obtain v1 , v2 , and v3 .
2.16 From the circuit in Fig. 2.80, find I , the power
dissipated by the resistor, and the power supplied by
each source.
15 V
+ − 10 V
+−
I
25 V 10 V
− + + − + v2 −
12 V + 3Ω
−
+ + +
20 V v1 v3
+−
− − −
−8 V

Figure 2.76 For Prob. 2.12. Figure 2.80 For Prob. 2.16.
66 PART 1 DC Circuits

2.26 Find i, v, and the power dissipated in the 6- 2.30 Determine i1 , i2 , v1 , and v2 in the ladder network in
resistor in Fig. 2.90. Fig. 2.94. Calculate the power dissipated in the 2-
resistor.

8Ω
i1 8Ω 6Ω 4Ω i2 2Ω
i
+
9A 6Ω v 4Ω
+ +
−
28 V +
−
v1 12 Ω 15 Ω 10 Ω v2 13 Ω
− −

Figure 2.90 For Prob. 2.26.

Figure 2.94 For Prob. 2.30.

2.27 In the circuit in Fig. 2.91, find v, i, and the power

2.31 Calculate Vo and Io in the circuit of Fig. 2.95.
absorbed by the 4- resistor.

5Ω 4Ω
i 70 Ω 30 Ω
Io
+
+
20 V +
− v 10 Ω 6Ω 50 V − +
−
20 Ω Vo 5Ω
−

Figure 2.91 For Prob. 2.27.

Figure 2.95 For Prob. 2.31.

2.28 Find i1 through i4 in the circuit in Fig. 2.92. 2.32 Find Vo and Io in the circuit of Fig. 2.96.

10 Ω i4 i2 20 Ω
8Ω

Io 1Ω
40 Ω i3 i1 30 Ω
+
20 A
4V + 3Ω 6Ω Vo
−
2Ω
−

Figure 2.92 For Prob. 2.28. Figure 2.96 For Prob. 2.32.

2.29 Obtain v and i in the circuit in Fig. 2.93. 2.33 In the circuit of Fig. 2.97, find R if Vo = 4V .

i 4S 6S 16 Ω

+ +
9A v 1S 2S 3S 20 V +
− 6Ω R Vo
− −

Figure 2.93 For Prob. 2.29. Figure 2.97 For Prob. 2.33.
68 PART 1 DC Circuits

2.40 Obtain the equivalent resistance at the terminals a-b 2.42 Find the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit of
for each of the circuits in Fig. 2.104. Fig. 2.106.
a

10 Ω
60 Ω 30 Ω c
b
5Ω 6Ω
20 Ω

10 Ω 8Ω
d a b e
(a)

5Ω 6Ω 8Ω 9Ω
a 20 Ω 3Ω

5Ω f
15 Ω 10 Ω 4Ω 11 Ω
20 Ω
4Ω
b Figure 2.106 For Prob. 2.42.
(b)

Figure 2.104 For Prob. 2.40.

Section 2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations
2.41 Find Req at terminals a-b for each of the circuits in
Fig. 2.105. 2.43 Convert the circuits in Fig. 2.107 from Y to ".

70 Ω
10 Ω 10 Ω 30 Ω 20 Ω
a a a
b b
30 Ω
40 Ω 10 Ω 50 Ω
60 Ω

b c c
(a) (b)
20 Ω
(a) Figure 2.107 For Prob. 2.43.

30 Ω 40 Ω
2.44 Transform the circuits in Fig. 2.108 from " to Y.
8Ω
a

20 Ω 60 Ω 12 Ω 60 Ω
a b a b
6Ω
10 Ω 50 Ω
4Ω 12 Ω 12 Ω 30 Ω 10 Ω
b

70 Ω 80 Ω
c c
(b) (a) (b)

Figure 2.105 For Prob. 2.41. Figure 2.108 For Prob. 2.44.
 70 PART 1 DC Circuits

2.50 Determine V in the circuit of Fig. 2.114. 30 W 40 W 50 W

I

30 Ω +
100 V −

16 Ω 15 Ω 10 Ω

+
100 V +
− V 35 Ω 12 Ω 20 Ω Figure 2.117 For Prob. 2.53.
−
2.54 If the three bulbs of Prob. 2.53 are connected in
parallel to the 100-V battery, calculate the current
Figure 2.114 For Prob. 2.50. through each bulb.
2.55 As a design engineer, you are asked to design a
∗
2.51 Find Req and I in the circuit of Fig. 2.115. lighting system consisting of a 70-W power supply
and two lightbulbs as shown in Fig. 2.118. You must
select the two bulbs from the following three
available bulbs.
I 4Ω 2Ω R1 = 80 , cost = $0.60 (standard size)
R2 = 90 , cost = $0.90 (standard size)
R3 = 100 , cost = $0.75 (nonstandard size)
6Ω 1Ω The system should be designed for minimum cost
12 Ω such that I = 1.2 A ± 5 percent.
I
+ 8Ω 2Ω
20 V − +
4Ω
70 W
Power Rx Ry
Supply
10 Ω 3Ω
−
5Ω

Req Figure 2.118 For Prob. 2.55.

Figure 2.115 For Prob. 2.51. 2.56 If an ammeter with an internal resistance of 100 
and a current capacity of 2 mA is to measure 5 A,
determine the value of the resistance needed.
Section 2.8 Applications Calculate the power dissipated in the shunt resistor.
2.52 The lightbulb in Fig. 2.116 is rated 120 V, 0.75 A. 2.57 The potentiometer (adjustable resistor) Rx in Fig.
Calculate Vs to make the lightbulb operate at the 2.119 is to be designed to adjust current ix from 1 A
rated conditions. to 10 A. Calculate the values of R and Rx to achieve
this.
ix R
40 Ω

Rx
+ 110 V +
−
Vs − Bulb 80 Ω ix

Figure 2.116 For Prob. 2.52. Figure 2.119 For Prob. 2.57.

2.58 A d’Arsonval meter with an internal resistance of 1

2.53 Three lightbulbs are connected in series to a 100-V k requires 10 mA to produce full-scale deflection.
battery as shown in Fig. 2.117. Find the current I Calculate the value of a series resistance needed to
through the bulbs. measure 50 V of full scale.
72 PART 1 DC Circuits

and 1 A when the switch is at high, medium, and
low positions, respectively. The motor can be
modeled as a load resistance of 20 m. Determine
the series dropping resistances R1 , R2 , and R3 .
Low
R1
10-A, 0.01-Ω fuse
2.65 An ohmmeter is constructed with a 2-V battery and
0.1-mA (full-scale) meter with 100- internal
resistance.
(a) Calculate the resistance of the (variable) resistor
required to be in series with the meter and the
battery.
(b) Determine the unknown resistance across the
terminals of the ohmmeter that will cause the
meter to deflect half scale.

Medium

High R2

6V

R3

Motor

Figure 2.124 For Prob. 2.64.

COMPREHENSIVE PROBLEMS
2.66 An electric heater connected to a 120-V source 2.69 An electric pencil sharpener rated 240 mW, 6 V is
consists of two identical 0.4- elements made of connected to a 9-V battery as shown in Fig. 2.126.
Nichrome wire. The elements provide low heat Calculate the value of the series-dropping resistor
when connected in series and high heat when Rx needed to power the sharpener.
connected in parallel. Find the power at low and
high heat settings. Rx
Switch
2.67 Suppose your circuit laboratory has the following
standard commercially available resistors in large
quantities: 9V
1.8  20  300  24 k 56 k
Using series and parallel combinations and a
minimum number of available resistors, how would Figure 2.126 For Prob. 2.69.
you obtain the following resistances for an
electronic circuit design?
2.70 A loudspeaker is connected to an amplifier as shown
(a) 5  (b) 311.8  in Fig. 2.127. If a 10- loudspeaker draws the
(c) 40 k (d) 52.32 k maximum power of 12 W from the amplifier,
determine the maximum power a 4- loudspeaker
2.68 In the circuit in Fig. 2.125, the wiper divides the will draw.
potentiometer resistance between αR and (1 − α)R,
0 ≤ α ≤ 1. Find vo /vs .

R Amplifier
+
Loudspeaker
vs + vo
− R
aR Figure 2.127 For Prob. 2.70.
−
2.71 In a certain application, the circuit in Fig. 2.128
must be designed to meet these two criteria:
Figure 2.125 For Prob. 2.68. (a) Vo /Vs = 0.05 (b) Req = 40 k