Basic Theory

Knowledge Is Power SM
Apparatus Maintenance and Power Management
for Energy Delivery

Basic Insulation
&
Power Factor Theory

Scope
Prevention of Apparatus Failure and
Power System Interruptions due to
Insulation Failure
;Enhance System Reliability
;Minimize Damage to Apparatus
;Enhances Safety to Personnel
;Minimize Loss of Revenue

Benefit
)Extension of Apparatus Life
Degradation of Insulation, if detected before failure,
can generally be restored to its original condition
Defer replacement costs
)Better Utilization of Resources
Inspection interval may be safety extended or
scheduled to utilize resources efficiently and effectively
)Variation of new apparatus
Verify that new apparatus meets purchased
specification and agrees with factory test reports
Assures proper field Assembly

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Basic Theory

Definition

What is a Power Factor/ Dissipation

Factor/Tangent Delta Test?…
The underlying principle of this test is to
measure the fundamental AC electrical
characteristics of insulation.

Definition

Insulation
IEEE Defines Insulation as:“Material or
a combination of suitable non-
conducting material that provides
electrical isolation of two parts at
different voltages.”

Clarification

Insulation vs. Dielectric

Insulation relates to a medium’s ability to
prevent the flow of current, I.e. poor
conductor
Dielectric implies that the medium or material
has specific measurable properties such as:
Dielectric Strength, Dielectric Constant,
Dielectric Loss and Power Factor.

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Basic Theory

Insulation

Insulation is basically two plates separated by one or

more dielectrics. One plate is at a high potential
and the other at a lower or ground potential.

dielectric insulation Current generated by polar contaminants in the

dielectric shows up as Watts.

Heat/Watts

Examples of Material With

Insulating Properties

Gaseous Liquid Solid

High Vacuum Hydrocarbon- Cellulose

Based Oil
Air Silicone Oil Porcelain

Sulfur Hexafluoride Distilled Water Phenolics

(SF6)

Doble Test Parameters

Basic Insulation Characteristics
• Capacitance (Total Charging Current)
• Dielectric Loss
• Power Factor
• Power Factor Change With Test Voltage (Tip-up)
Other Characteristics (transformers)
• Transformer Excitation Current
• Transformer Voltage Ratio (TTR)
• Leakage Reactance
• Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)

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Basic Theory

Simplified Equivalent Circuits of an

Insulation Specimen

CP RP

Parallel Circuit

The Capacitor

Plates d
A

Dielectric

Two conducting plates with area “A” separated by a dielectric

with a thickness of “d” and dielectric constant ε

Capacitance

Aε
C= 4πd A
d

C = Capacitance
ε = dielectric constant
d = Distance between plates

All the variables are Physical parameters

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Basic Theory

Dielectric Constant
•In1836, Michael Faraday (the father of the Capacitance --
Just look at his name) discovered that when the plates
between a capacitor were filled with another insulating
material, the capacitance would change.
•This factor is the dielectric constant ε
•By definition the dielectric constant of a Vacuum is 1.0. All
other dielectric constants are referenced to this standard.
Oil ε=2.2
Vacuum

Cvacuum=10 pF Coil = ε x CVacuum = 22 pF

Dielectric Constants

Material Constant
Vacuum 1.0
Air 1.000549
Mica 5.4
Paper 2
Porcelain 7
Oil 2.2
Silicone Fluid 2.75
Water (20o C) 80

Typical Insulation System

High-Voltage Test Cable

Current & Loss

Meter

Guard Test Test-Set Ground

Ground Lead
Test Mode-GST
Ground
Oil ∈ = 2.1
Porcelain ∈ = 7.0
Paper ∈ = 2.0

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Basic Theory

Example: Oil leaking from an Insulation System

Oil = 2.1
Porcelain = 7.0 Given three dielectrics in series the
Paper = 2.0 dielectric constant ε is:
Air = 1.0
2.1 x 7.0 x 2.0
εbefore = = 2.65
2.1 + 7.0 + 2.0

If the Oil leaks out and is replaced by air...

1 x 7.0 x 2.0
εafter = = 1.4
1 + 7.0 + 2.0

C => It

Dielectric Loss

Dielectric Loss is the time rate at which electric energy is

transformed into heat in a dielectric when it is subjected to an
electric field. The heat generated is given in terms of Watts.

iR ≈ Watts (from vector diagram)

Watts = E IR (from dielectric model circuit, parallel R/C network)

Watts = Contamination + Deterioration

Contamination = Water + Carbon + Dirt
Deterioration = Carbon + Corona

Watts:
•Is the current created by polar contaminants in a
dielectric that are influenced by electrical stress.

•Is the energy expended on these contaminants in the

form of HEAT

•Is a function of Volume. The more insulation the more

area there is to dissipate watts (from contamination,
deterioration, and normal losses).

•To analyze Watts-Loss your need to be able to compare

the dimension of the insulation tested -- difficult.

•If you had perfect insulation the testing current would be

purely capacitive

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Basic Theory

The Perfect Capacitor

The perfect capacitor

zpasses no DC current
zcurrent leads the
voltage by 90 degrees
Perfect
zhas a Power Factor of Capacitor
0% by definition % PF = 0%

IT = IC

The Perfect Resistor

The perfect resistor

zcurrent is always in
phase with the voltage
zhas a Power Factor of Perfect
Resistor
100% by definition % PF = 100%

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Basic Theory

The Term Power Factor

Describes:
• The phase angle relationship between the applied
voltage across and the current through a specimen

• The ratio of the real or average power to the apparent

power

• The efficiency of a power system in terms of real and

reactive power flows

The Perfect Resistor

IT
E

Basic Equation

V
IT

Power = Voltage x Current x

Cosine(θ)
CP RP
P= VI Cos(θ)

Parallel Circuit

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Basic Theory

Typical Insulation System

IT

IC IR ~ 0

Good Insulation:
Has a very low
RP
power factor CP

• IR<<IC for most insulation

systems, IC ~ IT

Basic Power Factor

IT=Total Current IC=Capacitive Current

IR=Resistive Current E=Applied Voltage
0% PF θ =Power Factor Angle IT
IC IT
IC IR

E CP RP

O
100% PF
IR E

What Is Power Factor (PF)?

Watts = E x IR
Watts = E × I × Cosine θ T

Watts
PF = Cosine θ =
E×I T

E×I I
= = R R

E×I IT T

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Basic Theory

Power Factor Is:

•Independent of specimen size

Useful for tabulations and comparisons

•Temperature sensitive
Needs to be corrected for liquid-filled apparatus

•Performed at or near apparatus frequency

Similar to normal operation

Dielectric Loss and Power Factor:

What are they good for...

The Dielectric Loss and Power Factor are sensitive to soluble polar,
ionic or colloidal materials:

Moisture (free, in cellulose, with particles in oil)

Products of Oxidation or mineral oil

Carbon (with moisture)

Metal Soaps

At Higher voltage:

Ionization in solid insulation

Basic Principals of Testing:

Always test the smallest piece possible
• Power factor testing measure the average
Insulation
condition of an insulation system
Test contamination
• Contamination would affect the total
insulation system, but not to a large degree

Always break an insulation system into the Smallest

possible part in order to detect insulation faults.

The contamination becomes a “bigger piece” of

Test the insulation and is easier to see

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Basic Theory

Power Factor & Dissipation Factor

IC IT
I
Power Factor = COS Θ = R

I
δ T

I
Dissipation Factor = TAN δ = R

Θ I C

IR E

Θ° % PF (% COS Θ) δ° % DF (% TAN Δ)
90 0 0 0
89.71 .500 .29 .500
84.26 10.00 5.74 10.05
0 100.00 90 INFINITY

Dissipation Factor = Power Factor*

*Comparison of Percent Power Factor With Percent

Dissipation Factor for Various Phase Angles of Θ
and δ
% %
θ % PF (% cos) δ % DF (% tan)
90 0 0 0
89.71 .50 .29 .50
87.13 5.00 2.87 5.00
84.26 10.00 5.74 10.05
81.37 15.00 8.63 15.18
53.13 60.00 36.87 75.00
45.00 70.71 45.00 100.00
0 100 90 infinity

Voids and the Power Factor Tip-Up Test

When we closely examine insulation, very small gaps

or “voids” exist. These voids develop an electrostatic
potential on their surfaces. These small gaps become
ionized: Partial Discharge/Corona.
Voids

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Basic Theory

Power Factor Vs. Voltage

As test voltage is increased, the power factor will increase depending

on the void density.

Tip-Up = Power Factor at Line-to-ground voltage -

Power Factor at 25% Line-to-ground voltage

%PF

%PF @ L-G
%PF @ 25% L-G

E
25% L-G L-G

Tip-up occurs in dry-type or insulation specimens such as Dry Type

Transformer, generators, etc.….

Insulation System

Insulation Systems can be modeled as a Series of dielectrics...

C1 C2 C3 C4

C1

C2
Or as parallel dielectrics...
C3

or a combination of the two.

DC Testing on Series Insulation

BAD
DC Test Voltage Test Results: Good
Insulation System: Bad
Stop
• If the first dielectric is good. The DC Test will indicate good; any
remaining dielectrics will not be tested.

BAD
DC Test Voltage Test Results: Good
Short Insulation System: Bad
Stop
• For a DC test to be good, only one dielectric needs to be in good condition

During an AC Test the power factor will change as each dielectric fails.

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Basic Theory

DC Testing on Series Insulation Cont.

DC Test Voltage
Short Short

Test Results: Bad

Insulation System: Bad

For a DC Test to indicate an unsatisfactory result, all dielectrics must

be in poor condition.

DC Testing on Parallel Insulation

DC Test Voltage

• If one dielectric fails in a parallel dielectric, the test will fail.

• There is no way to tell if the other dielectrics are good or bad.

During an AC Test the power factor will change as each dielectric fails.

Advantage of AC vs. DC Tests

)The AC test has a common denominator in the form of a

ratio (% Power Factor), which is independent of the
amount of insulation.
)The AC test is not hindered by a layer of “good” insulation
in series with a “bad” insulation, since it merely requires a
capacitance coupling.
)The AC test provides a direct measure of dielectric loss
and capacitance, both of which are useful in the diagnosis
of the deterioration of many forms of insulation.
)The DC test measurement depends on the length of time
the voltage is applied. (PI)

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Basic Theory

Limitation of the AC Dielectric-Loss

)The ability to detect localized defects decreases as

the inherently normal dielectric-loss and
capacitance of the insulation systems increases.

)Defects which are voltage dependent may not be

detected if the initiation voltage of the defect is
greater than the test voltage.

Any Questions?

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