Principles of Photogrammetry

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC CONCEPTS ..................
1
1.1 Definitions .............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Sources of Photogrammetric Information ................................................................... 2
1.3 Types and Uses of Photogrammetry .......................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Aerial vs Terrestrial (Close-range) .................................................................................. 2
1.3.2 Metric vs Non-metric (Semantic) .................................................................................... 3
1.3.3 Analog vs Analytical vs Digital – not included in the syllabus ........................................... 4
1.3.4 Stereo vs Single Image (Monoscopic) – not included in the syllabus................................. 4
1.4 Platform for Photogrammetric Sensing Systems.......................................................... 4
1.5 History and Developments in the field of Photogrammetry .......................................... 5
1.6 Differences between Traditional and Digital Photogrammetry ...................................... 6
ELEMENTARY PHOTOGRAMMETRY ............. 2-1

2.1 Perspective Projection ........................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Scale and Coverage .............................................................................................. 2-2
2.2.1 Scale ........................................................................................................................ 2-2
2.2.2 Coverage .................................................................................................................. 2-6
2.3 Vanishing Points ................................................................................................... 2-7
2.4 Image Coordinate System ................................................................................... 2-11
2.5 Relief Displacement ............................................................................................ 2-13
2.5.1 Causes of Displacement ........................................................................................... 2-14
2.5.2 Effects of Displacement ............................................................................................ 2-14
2.5.3 Distortion vs. Displacement ...................................................................................... 2-15
2.6 Parallax ............................................................................................................. 2-15
2.6.1 Parallax Equations ................................................................................................... 2-16
2.6.2 Differential Parallax.................................................................................................. 2-18
2.6.3 Y-Parallax................................................................................................................ 2-19
Parallax Measurement ........................................................................................................ 2-20
2.7 Stereoscopy ....................................................................................................... 2-20
2.7.1 Stereo (Stereoscopic) Vision ..................................................................................... 2-20
2.7.2 Vertical Exaggeration ............................................................................................... 2-21
2.7.3 Stereo Image Separation ......................................................................................... 2-23
2.7.4 Image Overlap ........................................................................................................ 2-23
2.7.5 Epipolar Geometry ................................................................................................... 2-26
MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS ....................... 3-1

3.1 Coordinate Reference Systems............................................................................... 3-1
3.1.1 Image Space Coordinate System (Photo Coordinate System) ........................................ 3-1
3.1.2 Object Space Coordinate System (Ground Coordinate System) ..................................... 3-2
3.1.3 Pixel Coordinate System ............................................................................................. 3-3
3.2 Photogrammetric Transformations ......................................................................... 3-3
3.2.1 2D Conformal Transformation..................................................................................... 3-4
3.2.2 2D Affine Transformation ........................................................................................... 3-6
3.2.3 2D Projective Transformation ................................................................................... 3-10
3.2.4 3D Conformal Transformation................................................................................... 3-10
3.3 Mathematical Relationship between Image and Ground Coordinates ....................... 3-10
3.3.1 Theory of Orientation ............................................................................................... 3-10
3.3.2 Interior Orientation (IO) ........................................................................................... 3-10
3.3.3 Exterior Orientation (EO) .......................................................................................... 3-11
3.3.4 Relative Orientation (RO) ......................................................................................... 3-12
3.3.5 Absolute Orientation (AO) ........................................................................................ 3-13
3.4 Classification of Points used in Orientation ............................................................ 3-14
3.5 Photogrammetric Conditions: Collinearity and Coplanarity Equations ....................... 3-16
3.5.1 Collinearity Condition and Collinearity Equation ......................................................... 3-16
3.5.2 Coplanarity Condition and Coplanarity Equation ......................................................... 3-17
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC TRIANGULATION ....... 4-1

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Methods of Aero-triangulation ................................................................................ 4-2
4.3 Analog Triangulation ............................................................................................. 4-3
4.4 Semi-analytical or Independent Model (Streo-)Triangulation ..................................... 4-4
4.5 Analytical Triangulation ......................................................................................... 4-6
4.5.1 Polynomial Strip Adjustment ....................................................................................... 4-8
4.5.2 Independent Model Method ........................................................................................ 4-8
4.5.3 Block Adjustment of Independent Models (BAIM) ........................................................ 4-9
4.5.4 Bundle Block Adjustment.......................................................................................... 4-10
4.5.5 Block Adjustment with Added Parameters (Self-Calibration) ....................................... 4-11
4.6 Advantages and Disadvantages............................................................................ 4-12
4.7 Statistical Evaluation: Precision, Accuracy and Reliability ........................................ 4-12
DIRECT VERSUS INDIRECT ORIENTATION .. 5-1

5.1 Direct vs Indirect Orientation ................................................................................. 5-1
5.1.1 Direct Orientation ...................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.2 Indirect Orientation ................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Integrated Orientation .......................................................................................... 5-2
5.3 Flight Planning ..................................................................................................... 5-3
5.3.1 Flight Map ................................................................................................................. 5-6
5.3.2 Specifications ............................................................................................................ 5-6
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY..................... 6-1

6.1 Digital Imagery..................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 Data Sources ........................................................................................................ 6-3
6.3 Digital Image Processing ....................................................................................... 6-3
6.4 Digital Image Resampling ...................................................................................... 6-4
6.4.1 Nearest Neighbour ..................................................................................................... 6-5
6.4.2 Bilinear Interpolation ................................................................................................. 6-6
6.4.3 Bicubic Interpolation (Cubic Convolution) .................................................................... 6-6
6.5 Digital Image Compression .................................................................................... 6-7
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PRODUCTS............... 7-1

7.1 Hardcopy Products................................................................................................ 7-1
7.1.1 Contour Maps ............................................................................................................ 7-1
7.1.2 Planimetric Maps ....................................................................................................... 7-2
7.1.3 Rectified Images ........................................................................................................ 7-2
7.1.4 Photo Mosaics ........................................................................................................... 7-3
7.2 Digital Products .................................................................................................... 7-3
7.2.1 Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) ................................................................................. 7-3
7.2.2 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) .......................................................................... 7-4
7.2.3 Digital Vector Data ................................................................................................... 7-5
7.2.4 Orthoimagery ............................................................................................................ 7-6
7.2.5 Point Products ........................................................................................................... 7-7
7.3 Concept of DEM, DSM, nDSM and DTM................................................................... 7-7
7.4 DEM Representation and Generation .................................................................... 7-10
Digital Elevation Models ...................................................................................................... 7-10
7.5 Orthophoto Production ........................................................................................ 7-10
APPLICATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS .. 8-1

8.1 Use of Aerial Photographs in Topographic Mapping an Cadastral Survey .................... 8-1
8.2 Use of Aerial Photographs in Highways, Transmission Lines and Canals ..................... 8-2
8.3 Use of Aerial Photographs in Land and Natural Resource Survey ............................... 8-2
REFERENCES .................................................................. 3
Lecture Notes (14 Feb. 2019) Chapter 1 Photogrammetric Concepts
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC CONCEPTS
Contents of this chapter
1 Introductory Concepts: [2 hrs]
1.1 Definitions
1.2 Sources of Photogrammetric Information
1.3 Types and uses of Photogrammetry – aerial and terrestrial, metric and non-
metric
1.4 Platform for photogrammetric sensing systems
1.5 History and developments in the field of Photogrammetry
1.6 Differences between traditional and digital photogrammetry
1.1 Definitions
There is no universally accepted definition of photogrammetry. The definition given below
captures the most important notion of photogrammetry (Schenk, 2005).
“Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining reliable information about the properties of

surfaces and objects without physical contact with the objects, and of measuring and
interpreting this information.”
The name “photogrammetry" is derived from the three Greek words photos which means
light, gramma which means letter or something drawn, and metron, to measure (Bhatta,
2011). The most important feature of photogrammetry is the fact that the objects are
measured without being touched (Bhatta, 2011).
Photogrammetry is the science behind the creation of almost every topographic map made
since the 1930s. The human ability to perceive depth is the basis for the science and
technology of photogrammetry. This ability to see in three dimensions is due to the offset
in perspective centers between the left and the right eyes. Photographs taken to mimic
this perspective shift are referred to as stereoscopic or stereo (meaning two). A stereo
pair (or series) of images is taken from consecutive positions and overlap each other by
at least 60%. Through the use of photogrammetry, highly detailed three-dimensional data
can be derived from the two-dimensional photographs of a stereo pair (Matthews , 2008).
It is also defined as the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about
physical objects, and the environment, through processes of recording, measuring, and
interpreting images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant energy and other phenomena
(McGlone, 1980).
Photogrammetry can be defined as the science and art of determining qualitative and
quantitative characteristics of objects from the images recorded on photographic
emulsions. Objects are identified and qualitatively described by observing photographic
image characteristics such as shape, pattern, tone, and texture. Identification of deciduous
versus coniferous trees, delineation of geologic landforms, and inventories of existing land
use are examples of qualitative observations obtained from photography. The quantitative
characteristics of objects such as size, orientation, and position are determined from
measured image positions in the image plane of the camera taking the photography. Tree
heights, stockpile volumes, topographic maps, and horizontal and vertical coordinates of
unknown points are examples of quantitative measurements obtained from photography
(US Army Corps of Engineers, 1993).
Compiled by: Bikash Sherchan

1
1.2 Sources of Photogrammetric Information

Data acquisition in photogrammetry is concerned with obtaining reliable information about
the properties of surfaces and objects. This is accomplished without physical contact with
the objects which is, in essence, the most obvious difference to surveying. The remotely
received information can be grouped into four categories (Schenk, 2005).
Geometric information involves the spatial position and the shape of objects. It is the
most important information source in photogrammetry.
Physical information refers to properties of electromagnetic radiation, e.g., radiant

energy, wavelength, and polarization.
Semantic information is related to the meaning of an image. It is usually obtained by

interpreting the recorded data.
Temporal information is related to the change of an object in time, usually obtained by

comparing several images which were recorded at different times.
As indicated in Table 1-1 the remotely sensed objects may range from planets to portions
of the earth’s surface, to industrial parts, historical buildings or human bodies. The generic
name for data acquisition devices is sensor, consisting of an optical and detector system.
The sensor is mounted on a platform. The most typical sensors are cameras where
photographic material serves as detectors. They are mounted on airplanes as the most
common platforms. Table 1-1 summarizes the different objects and platforms and
associates them to different applications of photogrammetry (Schenk, 2005).
Table 1-1: Areas of Specialization of Photogrammetry (Schenk, 2005)
Object Sensor Platform Specialization

Planet Space Vehicle Space Photogrammetry
Earth’s Surface Airplane, Space Vehicle Aerial Photogrammetry
Industrial Part Tripod Industrial Photogrammetry
Historical Building Tripod Architectural Photogrammetry
Human Body Tripod Biostereometrics
1.3 Types and Uses of Photogrammetry

There are several types of photogrammetry such as aerial or terrestrial, analog/analytical
or digital, monoscopic or stereo, metric or non-metric, etc., depending on the distinct
categories of users, data acquisition, evaluation method, data handling and so on. One
has to decide which type to use based on available resources, technology and the purpose.
Different types of photogrammetry and their uses are discussed here.
1.3.1 Aerial vs Terrestrial (Close-range)

In aerial photogrammetry, series of photographs of an area of terrain are captured in
sequence using a precision camera. Aerial photogrammetry uses near-vertical photo-
graphic images that are exposed from a moving platform at a distant point in the sky
(aircraft ‘aerial image’: 500 m to 3000 m, 15 km max., satellite ‘satellite image’: 300 km
to 1000 km). This procedure is employed to develop planimetric detail and/or topographic
configuration. Aerial photogrammetry is also employed for numerous aerial photo analysis
purposes.

2
Terrestrial photogrammetry refers to applications where the camera is supported on the

surface of the earth. Typically the camera is mounted on a tripod and the camera axis is
oriented in or near the horizontal plane. When the distance to the object is less than
approximately 300 m, the method is often referred to as close-range photogrammetry (US
Army Corps of Engineers, 1993).
Terrestrial photogrammetry techniques can be applied to measuring and mapping large

vertical surfaces. These applications include topographic mapping of rugged terrain and
vertical cliffs, deformation measurement of structures, and architectural mapping of
buildings. Close-range applications include measuring and calibrating irregular surfaces
such as antenna reflectors and industrial assembly jigs, and three-dimensional mapping
of industrial installations and construction sites (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1993).
1.3.2 Metric vs Non-metric (Semantic)

Metric photogrammetry deals with obtaining measurements from photos from which
ground positions, elevations, distances, areas, and volumes can be computed and
topographic or planimetric maps can be made. In contrast to metric photogrammetry non-
metric (semantic or interpretative) photogrammetry deals with evaluation of existing
features in a qualitative manner such as vegetation cover, water pollution, soil erosion,
geological formations, crop identification, military intelligence, etc. In the later type
semantic information is acquired which is related to the meaning of an image. It is usually
obtained by interpreting the recorded data (Schenk, 2005). Key semantic elements include
size, shape, tone, texture, pattern, site/location, shadows, stereoscopic appearance,
association, etc.
The most common applications of metric photogrammetry are: (a) production of

topographic maps, (b) extraction of digital elevation model, (c) extraction of 3D
information from planimetric details, (d) production of orthophotos, etc. Key interpretative
elements are:
Primary: Size, Shape, Tone, Texture, Pattern
Additional: Site / Location, Association, Shadows, Stereoscopic Appearance
Shape: General form, configuration or outline of individual objects, eg. regular,

irregular, linear, curved, rounded, triangular, etc., e.g. House, Round About
Size: The physical extent or dimension of a feature. May be comparative

(relative) (eg. a big bird is still small compared to an elephant).
Comparable: Large, small, massive, tiny
Magnitude: kms, metres, microscopic, macroscopic
Tone: Relative brightness or colour of a feature
Gray scale:very dark tone, dark tone, dark gray, mid tone, light tone, white
Colour: Blue, Green, Red, etc.
Pattern: Relates to the spatial arrangement of objects. Repetition of form or spectral

response (tone) eg. gridded, regular (plantation), linear, irregular, ordered (hierarchal),
symmetric, geometric, etc., e.g., Agriculture, Orchard, Forest
Texture: Frequency of tonal change of the object, eg.; smooth, coarse, speckled,
fine, fuzzy, soft, e.g., water appears as smooth while forest as coarse

3
Site/Location: physical position of object feature (topographic or geographic), hill slopes,

ocean, land, mountains, etc.
Monoscopic (easier and quicker, flat area) versus Stereoscopic (number of photos, cost,
purpose)
Shadow: Used to determine 3D information from a 2D image, shape and height of object
via shadow
Shadows can enable objects to be "seen" when the natural conditions may not be
favourable, eg., power poles (small planimetric extent, can only be identified by shadow),
sand dunes (shadows result in contrast, can see topographic outline)
Appearance: How the surface appears in 3D, generally related to surface consistency and
change in height, eg., Object (Tall, spherical) and Area (Undulating, flat, rugged)
1.3.3 Analog vs Analytical vs Digital – not included in the syllabus

A pair of photographs (hardcopies) are used for visual measurement of interpretation in
analog photogrammetry. A mechanical or optical device that is used in this
photogrammetry is called a stereoplotter. An operator physically adjusts the orientations
of the photographs to match the exposure situation. Detail and heights are traced on a
plotting table by a direct mechanical linkage.
With analytical photogrammetry single or pairs of photographs are placed in an X-Y

measuring stage which digitally records image coordinates. Mono or stereo comparators
are manually driven whilst analytical plotters are semi-automated. Recorded
measurements are computer processed and the information registered in a CAD database.
Digital (also called softcopy) photogrammetry is rapidly emerging as a new discipline in

photogrammetry. In contrast to all other phases, digital images are used instead of aerial
photographs. With the availability of storage devices which permit rapid access to digital
imagery, and special microprocessor chips, digital photogrammetry began in earnest only
a few years ago. The field is still in its infancy and has not yet made its way into the
photogrammetric practice (Schenk, 2005). Each picture element (pixel) has its known
position and measured intensity value (one for grayscale images, several for color or
multispectral images).
1.3.4 Stereo vs Single Image (Monoscopic) – not included in the syllabus

Depending on data handling it is divided into stereo photogrammetry and single image
photogrammetry. Stereo photogrammetry uses two or more overlapping images to
reconstruct 3D structure of objects. It is the main advantage of photogrammetry – from
registered images that are 2D to obtain 3D information. Stereo photogrammetry uses
stereo plotting methods for restoration of object space information. Single image
photogrammetry which is also called monoscopic photogrammetry uses mono-plotting
methods for presentation of information for the objects. Monoscopic photogrammetry is
easier and quicker and applicable for flat area whereas stereoscopic photogrammetry
needs number of photos and are therefore costly.
1.4 Platform for Photogrammetric Sensing Systems

a) analogue (film based) photographic cameras have following characteristics:
 size of an image;
 focal length of the camera;
 panchromatic (black/white) and color;
 flying height (image scale);
4
 auxiliary sensors (GPS).

b) digital line scanning sensors (airborne) are developed for photogrammetric
applications to compete with analogue film based systems.
Strength of the new airborne systems: record stereo images (panchromatic) and
multispectral images simultaneously.
c) laser scanning (airborne) and imaging radar (airborne, satellite) offer alternatives e.g.
to generate surface models, but also to other Earth surface phenomena, active sensor
like some other active RS sensors, recorded are the reflected signals, range
measurement principle characterized by frequency, scan rate, scanning distance.
Advantage of lasers: - penetrate forest (to a certain extend),
Advantage of radar: - almost no problems with clouds.
d) new commercial Earth observation satellites.
e) UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)
1.5 History and Developments in the field of Photogrammetry

Although photogrammetry employs photographs (or digital imagery today) for
measurements, the concepts go back to the period of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1492, he
began working on perspective and central projections (Gruner, 1977). The principles of
perspective and projective geometry form the basis from which photogrammetric theory
is developed. Other scientists continued this work on projective geometry mathematically.
One of the most important figures in the early development of photogrammetry is Aimé
Laussedat. In 1849, Aimé Laussedat pioneered some of the initial photogrammetry
techniques and methods for terrestrial and aerial mapping. He started with kite
photography then moved to balloon photography to make topographic maps. Because of
his extensive contribution in this field, he is referred to as the “father of photogrammetry”.
Many of his methods and techniques are still in use today.
The developments in photogrammetry, from around 1850, have followed four

development cycles (Konecny, 1985). Each of these periods extended about fifty years.
These cycles include:
 Plane table photogrammetry, from about 1850 to 1900;

 Analog photogrammetry, from about 1900 to 1960;
 Analytical photogrammetry, from about 1960 to present; and
 Digital photogrammetry, which is just beginning to be a presence in the photogra-
mmetric industry.
Plane Table Photogrammetry: Photogrammetry has gone through several evolutionary

periods. Plane table photogrammetry was prevalent from 1850 to 1900. In this era, people
took images of objects and drew perspective lines to try to calculate information such as
distance and other data.
Analog Photogrammetry: From 1900 to 1960 the world saw rapid developments in
aviation, mostly as the result of two world wars that occurred during that period. These
developments impacted aerial photogrammetry. Growth in other areas of technology also
occurred during this time, particularly with film cameras. Film allowed people to compare
images to one another, which eventually lead to the development of analytical
photogrammetry.
Analytical Photogrammetry: Much of the basic principles upon which modern

analytical photogrammetry are based can be attributed to early photogrammetric pioneers.
In 1947, Ralph O. Anderson, developed a semi-analytical approach for analytical control.

5
In the early 1950s, Everett Merritt published works on analytical photogrammetry. He

“developed a series of analytical solutions for camera calibration, space resection, interior
and exterior orientation, relative and absolute orientation of stereo airs, and finally
analytical control extension” (Doyle, 1964). The invention of the computer (by Zure in
Germany in 1941 and independently by Aitken in the US in 1943) made significant
advances to photogrammetric developments after 1950 (Konecny, 1985). In 1953, Dr.
Hellmut Schmid, developed the principles of modern multi-station analytical
photogrammetry using matrix notation.
Digital Photogrammetry: One of the pioneers in digital photogrammetry was Gilbert

Louis Hobrough (Anon, 2003). Uki Helava also played a central role in the development of
digital photogrammetry. He helped develop digital photogrammetric workstations for the
Defense Mapping Agency (now called NIMA).
1.6 Differences between Traditional and Digital Photogrammetry

Traditional Photogrammetry (Plane Table Photogrammetry, Analog Photogrammetry,
Analytical Photogrammetry) vs Digital Photogrammetry
Photogrammetric analysis procedures range from obtaining distances, area, elevations

using hardcopy (analog) photographic products, equipment and simple geometric
concepts to generating precise digital elevation models (DEMs), orthophotos, thematic
data and other derived products/information through the use of digital images and
analytical techniques.
Digital or soft copy photogrammetry refers to any photogrammetric operation involving

the use of digital raster photographic image.
There have been very rapid technological changes in the field of photogrammetry mainly
due to tremendous advancement in information technology and the general development
of science and engineering. Looking back over the last few decades one can distinguish
great developments in several facets of photogrammetry. The general development, in
particular electronics and computer technology, undoubtedly has opened up new advances
in photogrammetry in the areas of instrumentation, methodology, and integration.
Analog photogrammetry: It lasted about 40 years. Aerial survey techniques became a

standard procedure in mapping. There was no automation involved in any modern sense.
Measurement and drafting were done manually. Classical analog stereo plotters have
disappeared from the market and are not being manufactured anymore.
Analytical Photogrammetry: This second phase of development began in the 1950’s due
to the advent of computers. Many analytical techniques were developed and computer-
aided- photogrammetry and mapping were designed. The first operational photo
triangulation program became available in the late sixties (Ackermann, Brown, Schut, to
name a few). Another area of development in this period was the generation of DEM and
manual feature extraction. These were also the result of consistent application of computer
technology. In these applications, the operator handles the task of measurement with very
few computer-assisted operations. It is the data processing that has made photo
triangulation, DEM generation, and feature extraction very efficient and reliable
techniques.
Perhaps the most important development in this period was the invention of the analytical
stereo plotter by Helava (1957). The analytical stereo plotter is essentially an instrument
with a built-in digital computer as its main component, which handles the physical and

6
mathematical relationship between object (ground) space and image space. The analytical
plotters were introduced into the market during 1976 International Society of
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS) Congress. Intergraph’s InterMap Analytic
(IMA), a flexible photogrammetric workstation that combines interactive graphics and an
advanced stereo plotter, was introduced in 1986.
Computer-assisted Photogrammetry: The third phase of development, known as

computer-assisted photogrammetry, began in the early seventies when electronic plotting
tables became available. Computer-assisted photogrammetry has undergone great
development by making use of computer technology and graphical data processing. The
early systems were mainframe based and were created on mini computers characterized
by unstructured formats and internal proprietary formats. The next stage brought
computer assisted design (CAD), workstation based systems. These systems had graphic
displays that provided on-line graphics for reviewing and editing digitized data.
Database technology began to emerge in digital mapping systems. Interactive graphical

workstations were the result of advances in this period which changed the process of map
compilation drastically in terms of flexibility and efficiency in the final output products.
Softcopy or digital photogrammetry: The new phase of transition is known as “softcopy”

or digital photogrammetry. By digital photogrammetry, we mean input data are digital
images or scanned photographs. Digital photogrammetry has its root in the late sixties
when Hobrough (1968) began experimenting with correlation, even though the solutions
were analog in nature. For almost 20 years, correlation techniques remained the only
noticeable activity in digital photogrammetry. Research efforts in digital photogrammetry
have increased tremendously in recent years due to the availability of digital cameras,
satellite imagery, high quality scanners, increased computing power, and image processing
tools. A digital photogrammetric system should perform not only all the functionalities that
as analytical stereo plotter does, but should also automate some processes that are usually
performed by operators. Two digital photogrammetric workstations were introduced
during the XVI ISPRS Congress in Kyoto, 1988.

7
Lecture Notes (14 Feb. 2019) Chapter 2 Elementary Photogrammetry
ELEMENTARY PHOTOGRAMMETRY
2 Elementary Photogrammetry: [5 hrs]
2.1 Perspective Projection
2.2 Scale and Coverage
2.3 Vanishing Points
2.4 Image Coordinate System
2.5 Relief Displacement
2.6 Parallax
2.7 Stereo
2.7.1 Stereo Vision
2.7.2 Vertical Exaggeration
2.7.3 Stereo Image Separation Technique
2.7.4 Epipolar Planes and Lines
2.1 Perspective Projection

The most important difference between a map and a photograph is that the map is an
orthographic projection while the photograph is a central projection or central perspective
as shown in Figure 2-1 (Derenyi, 1982).
Orthographic projection means that the object is projected onto a plane in a certain
uniform scale by rays perpendicular to that plane. The plane in question is usually parallel
to a predetermined reference or datum plane. In case of a central projection all rays pass
through a common point called the projection or perspective centre. Central projections
are independent of datum planes. They may be horizontal, vertical or tilted (Derenyi,
1982).
Figure 2-1: (a) Orthographic vs (b) Perspective Projections (Derenyi, 1982)
Consequently, a central projection (photograph) has the same geometric characteristics

as a map only if the object is a plane (two dimensional) and if the image plane and the
plane of the object are parallel to each other. If the object is three dimensional then height
Compiled by: Bikash Sherchan 2-1

(relief) displacements occur Figure 2-2. If the image plane and the object plane are not
parallel then tilt displacements occur. In both cases the scale of the image will not be
uniform but variable. The main task of photogrammetry is to produce maps from
photographs or in other words to transform the central projection into an orthographic
projection. The geometry of the central projection inside the camera is defined by the
interior orientation elements. Interior orientation establishes the relationship between the
interior projection or perspective centre and the image plane as shown in Figure 2-2
(Derenyi, 1982).
Figure 2-2: Idealized Objects in (a) Orthographic and (b) Perspective Projections
(Derenyi, 1982)
2.2 Scale and Coverage

2.2.1 Scale
The scale of an aerial photograph can be defined as the ratio between an image distance
on the photograph and the corresponding horizontal ground distance. Map or photo scale
can be stated either by representative fraction or engineers’ scale as applied to aerial
mapping.
Representative Fraction (RF)

Representative fraction is expressed as a ratio in the form of 1:25,000, where one unit on
the photo or map represents 25,000 similar units on the ground (Falkner and Morgan,
2002). For example:
1 cm on the map/photo = 25,000 cm on the ground

1 ft on the map/photo = 25,000 ft on the ground
Engineers’ Scale
Engineers’ scale is expressed as a ratio in the form of 1 cm = 100 m, where one unit on
the photo or map represents a number of different units on the ground (Falkner and
Morgan, 2002).
Although expressions are different, fundamentally they implies the same thing and can be
converted from one form to the other. In order to convert RF of 1:500 to Engineer’s Scale,
assume that both are in centimetre. Then 500 cm divided by 100 cm equals 5 m, so the
resultant engineers’ scale is 1 cm = 5 m. On the photo or map, 1 cm is equal to 5 m on
the ground.

Conversely, to convert from an engineers’ scale of 1 cm = 25 m, multiply 25 m by 100

cm. This simple arithmetic exercise equates 1 cm on the map or photograph to 2500 cm
(2.5 km) on the ground. The resultant representative fraction (RF) would be 1:2500.
Photographic scale
Note that if a correct photographic scale ratio is to be computed using this definition, the
image distance and the ground distance must be measured in parallel horizontal planes.
This condition rarely occurs in practice
since the photograph is likely to be tilted
and the ground surface is seldom a flat
horizontal plane. Consequently, scale
will vary throughout the format of a
photograph, and photographic scale can
be defined only at a point (US Army
Corps of Engineers, 1993). Therefore,
photographic scale at a point is defined
as a ratio the focal length of the camera
used and the height above terrain at
which the photograph was taken. The
focal length is the distance from the
optical centre of the lens to the plane of
focus of the light passing through the
lens.
f
S= Figure 2-3: Photographic Scale
H−h
where
f = focal length or principal distance;
H = the flying height above a datum, usually sea level;
h = the height of a terrain point above datum.
Example 2.1 A wide angle camera is used to capture vertical photographs. If the flying
height is 4350 m amsl and the terrain elevation is 550 m, what is the scale of the
photographs?
Solution:
Wide angle, f = 152 mm = 0.152 m

𝑓 0.152 1
Scale, 𝑆= = = = 1: 25000
𝐻−ℎ 4350−550 25000
With the exception of flat terrain, h is variable, hence the scale will also be variable. When
have is taken as average height of the terrain, (H-have) becomes the average flying height
above terrain and the average scale of the photograph is obtained (Derenyi, 1982).
In some instances, such as flight planning calculations, approximate scaled distances are
adequate. If all ground points are assumed to lie at an average elevation, an average
photographic scale can be adopted for direct measurements of ground distances. Average
scale is calculated by (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1993):

f
S𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
H − h𝑎𝑣𝑒
where
have = the average height of a terrain point above datum
Figure 2-4 Scale of a vertical photograph over variable terrain (Derenyi, 1982)
Since, the focal length and the flying height remains constant for a project, the photo scale
can be regarded as the function of the terrain elevations. If the terrain is level, the
photograph has a constant scale. However, if the terrain has varying elevation, it will
exhibit continuous range of scale over the terrain. Likewise tilted and oblique photographs
also have non-uniform scale. Furthermore, Earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction
impair the scale distortion.
Representative fractions (RF) are numerical statements of the map (air photo) to ground
distance. These scale statements may be an actual fraction (one map/air photo unit in the
numerator, and the equivalent number of units of ground distance in the denominator) or
it may be a ratio (one map/air photo unit: equivalent number of ground units). See the
Figure 2-5 for comparisons of different representative fractions.

Figure 2-5: Comparisons among Different Scales
A verbal scale is a written statement of the map to ground relationship (i.e., “one inch on
the map is equal to 63,360 inches on the ground” or “one centimetre on the map is equal
to one kilometre on the ground” or “an inch to a mile”).
Graphic or bar scales use a series of boxes and/or lines marked off in units of distance
measure. Use of a bar scale is somewhat analogous to using a ruler to measure the
distance between two points. Keep in mind that any map or air photo that is enlarged or
reduced through some type of photocopying will result in a change in scale. Bar scales will
change proportionally, but an RF or verbal scale statement will not.
Example 2.2 While taking a vertical photographs a wide angle camera is used and the
flying height is 4500 m above mean sea level. (a) What is the scale of photographs at
points A and B which are lying at elevations of 700 m and 1460 m respectively. (b) What
ground distance corresponds to 20.1 mm image distance measurement of each of these
elevations?
Solution:
(a) Scale
f 0.152 1
SA = = = = 1: 25000
H − hA 4500 − 700 25000
f 0.152 1
SB = = = = 1: 20000
H − hB 4500 − 1460 20000
(b) Distance Measurement
d = 20.1 mm = 0.0201 m
DA = 0.0201m × 25000 = 502 m
DB = 0.0201m × 20000 = 402 m
Example 2.3 An agricultural land measures 12.9 cm long and 8.7 cm wide on a vertical
photograph having a scale of 1:25,000. What is the area of the field at the ground level?
Solution:
1
Ground Length, L = l × S = 0.129 m × 25000 = 3225 m
1
Ground Width, B = b × S = 0.087 m × 25000 = 2175 m
Ground Coverage, A = L × B = 3225 m × 2175 m = 701 ha

2.2.2 Coverage
By coverage we think about ground coverage, spectral coverage and temporal coverage.
Ground coverage implies the size of the area covered by one photograph. It depends
basically on focal length of the camera and the flying height. Therefore, ground coverage
of an aerial photograph changes either by changing the focal length or the flying height.
Depending on the ground coverage of a photograph, scale of the photograph can be
expressed either by large scale or small scale (jointly known as relative scale). Relative
scale is used as a measure of viewable detail. Large scale implies relatively more detail is
visible, and small scale implies relatively small detail is visible. A map’s scale determines
how a feature will be represented. For example, on a large-scale map, a river might be
represented as a polygon rather than a line or a city’s extent is so large that it can only
be accurately represented as a polygon rather than a point.
The focal length together with the flying height determine the photo scale and ground
coverage. The focal length also determines the angle of view (AOV) of camera. The longer
the focal length, the narrower the angle of view. Camera lenses are available in standard
focal lengths ranging from 610 mm (narrow angle) to 88 mm (super-wide angle). Focal
length of 152 mm lens is the most commonly used lens (Tempfli et al., 2009).
Figure 2-6: Effect of Focal Length on Ground Coverage (Tempfli et al., 2009)
Super-wide angle lens have a focal length of 88 mm (3.5”). The other extreme is narrow
angle lens with a focal length of 610 mm (24”). Between these two extremes are wide
angle, intermediate angle and normal angle lens with focal length of 153 mm (6”), 213
mm (8.25”) and 3.3 mm (12”) respectively. Since the film format does not change, the
angle of view (AoV) or the ground coverage changes as well as the scale. Table 2-1 depicts
the most relevant data with different lens configurations (Schenk, 2005).
Table 2-1: Aerial Camera Lenses and Data with Different Lens Assembly (Schenk, 2005)
Super-wide Wide Intermediate Normal Narrow

Focal Length (mm) 88 153 210 305 610
Angle of View (°) 119 82 64 46 24
Super-wide angle lens are suitable for medium to small scale applications because the
flying height is much lower compared to a normal angle lens (same photo scale assumed).

Thus, the atmospheric effects, such as clouds and haze, are much less a problem. Normal
angle lens are preferred for large scale applications of urban areas. Here, a super-wide
angle lens would generate much more occlude areas, particularly in built-up areas with
tall buildings (Schenk, 2005). The wide angle camera is the one most commonly used.
The others are used for special purposes e.g., narrow and normal angles for urban areas;
super-wide angle for mapping large areas at small scale (Derenyi, 1982).
The total area of a project contained within neat models is commonly called stereo
coverage, or more precisely stereoscopic coverage. The area in which mapping can be
performed using photogrammetric methods is limited to the area of stereo coverage.
Features existing on only one photograph cannot be mapped. This should be taken into
account when planning a photography mission.
The spectral coverage is the total range of the spectrum that is covered by the channels
of the sensor. Hyperspectral scanners usually have a coherent coverage (no gaps between
the spectral bands) while multispectral sensors often have gaps in their spectral coverage.
The temporal coverage is the span of time over which images are recorded and stored in
image archives (Tempfli et al., 2009).
Scale, the ratio of ground distances to map (or air photo) distances, is often described
very simply as being either large or small. Large-scale maps or images show a small portion
of the Earth’s surface in good detail, while small-scale maps or images show a larger
portion of the Earth’s surface in less detail. Naturally, the larger the scale of the air photo,
the more details you can resolve, and the greater the potential for detailed image
interpretation. Keep in mind, however, that large-scale air photos are not always desirable
for regional to global scale studies, where a small-scale image might be more useful.
2.3 Vanishing Points

A vanishing point is defined as the convergence point of a set of lines in the image plane
that is produced by the projection of parallel lines in real space, under the assumption of
perspective projection, e.g. with a pin-hole camera. Vanishing points of an image contain
important information for camera calibration.
Depth estimation from monocular images can be retrieved from the perspective distortion.
One major effect of this distortion is that a set of parallel lines in the real world converges
into a single point in the image plane.
Figure 2-7 Three vanishing points and vanishing lines of a Cube. (Rother, 2000)

The analysis of vanishing points provides strong cues for inferring information about the
3D structure of a scene. With the assumption of perfect projection, e.g. with a pin-hole
camera, a set of parallel lines in the scene is projected onto a set of lines in the image
that meet in a common point. This point of intersection, perhaps at infinity, is called the
vanishing point. Vanishing points, which lie on the same plane in the scene, define a line
in the image, so-called the vanishing line. Figure 2-7 shows the three vanishing points and
vanishing lines of a cube, where a finite vanishing point is defined by a point on the image
plane and a vanishing point at infinity is defined by a direction on the image plane. When
the camera geometry is known, each vanishing point corresponds to an orientation in the
scene and vice versa (Rother, 2000).
The understanding and interpretation of man-made environments can be greatly simplified

by the detection of vanishing points. This has been done e.g.; in the field of navigation of
robots and autonomous vehicles (Straforini, Coelho and Campani, 1993), in the field of
object reconstruction (Criminisi, Reid and Zisserman, September 1999) or for the
calibration of cameras (Caprile and Torre, 1990) (Liebowitz and Zisserman, September
1999) (Svedberg and Carlsson, 1999). A man-made environment has two characteristic
properties: A lot of lines in the scene are parallel and a lot of edges in the scene are
orthogonal. In an indoor environment this is true for example; shelfs, doors, windows and
corridor boundaries. In an outdoor environment e.g. streets, buildings and pavements
satisfy this assumption. On the basis of these properties the task of detecting the three
mutual orthogonal directions of a man-made environment has raised a lot of interest
(Coughlan and Yuille, September 1999) (van den Heuvel, 1998) (Straforini, Coelho and
Campani, 1993).
The realization that we see lines known to be parallel in space as lines that appear to
converge in a corresponding vanishing point has led to techniques employed by artists
since at least the renaissance to render a credible impression of perspective.
Parallel edges or lines found in the three-dimensional real world will, when captured on a
two-dimensional image, meet at a definable point termed a vanishing point. For example
the rails of a railway track appear to converge or meet as they head into the distance (See
Figure 2-8). Additionally the edge of a platform parallel with the track would, if extended,
also meet at the same vanishing point. The lines used to determine the location of
vanishing points are called perspective lines (HOSDB September 2007).

Figure 2-8:
Determining the position of vanishing points most accurately can be best achieved with a
thorough scene survey and a suitable software package. Whilst it is possible to calculate
these points manually, this can be a lengthy process. It should be noted that locating
vanishing points may require lines in the image to be extended, and that they often lie
beyond the borders of an image (See Figure 2-9).

Figure 2-9:
The vanishing points associated with a given plane all lie on the same line, termed a
vanishing line. (See Figure 2-10). This is in effect the horizon for the plane in question.
Some photogrammetric techniques require the vanishing line associated with the ground
plane to be identified, usually through the location of two vanishing points (HOSDB
September 2007).

Figure 2-10: Vanishing Points and lines
2.4 Image Coordinate System

Fiducial marks are index marks rigidly connected to the focal plane frame either at the
midpoint along the side, or in the corners. The images of these marks appear on the
photographs (Derenyi, 1982). Lines joining opposite fiducial also provide a rectangular
coordinate system, referred to as image or photo coordinate system, for defining the
position of image points. Fiducial marks define the fiducial centre (Schenk, 2005).
Figure 2-11: Fiducial Marks in a Framed Imagery

Figure 2-12 Photo and Image Coordinate System

Measurements of photo coordinates may be obtained using any one of many measurement
devices. These devices vary in their accuracy, cost, and availability. For rudimentary
photogrammetric problems – where low orders of measurement accuracy are acceptable
– a triangular engineer’s scale or metric scale may be used. When using these scales,
measurement accuracy is generally improved by taking average of several repeated
measurements. Measurements are also generally more accurate when made with the aid
of a magnifying lens (Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman, 2014).
Photo coordinates can also be measured using a coordinate digitizer. Such devices
continuously display the x, y positions of a spatial reference mark as it is positioned
anywhere on the photograph. Another option for photo coordinate measurement is the
use of a precision instrument called comparator. A mono-comparator can be used to
measure very accurate coordinates on one photograph at a time; a stereo-comparator can
be used for making measurements on stereo pairs (Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman, 2014).
Irrespective of what approach is used to measure photo coordinates, these measurements

contain errors of varying sources and magnitudes. These errors stem from sources such
as camera lens distortions, atmospheric refraction, earth curvature, failure of the fiducial
asses to intersect at the principal point, and shrinkage or expansion of the photographic
material on which measurements are made. Sophisticated photogrammetric analyses
include corrections for all these errors. For simple measurements made on paper prints,
such corrections are usually not employed because errors introduced by slight tilt in the
photography will outweigh the effect of the other distortions (Lillesand, Kiefer and
Chipman, 2014).
An image coordinate system or an image plane coordinate system is usually defined as a

2D coordinate system occurring on the image plane with its origin at the image centre.
The origin of the image coordinate system is also referred to as the principal point. On
aerial photographs, the principal point is defined as the intersection of opposite fiducial
marks as illustrated by axes x and y as in Figure 3-2. Image coordinates are used to
describe positions on the film plane. Image coordinate units are usually millimetres or
microns (ERDAS, Inc., 2010).

2.5 Relief Displacement

Relief displacement is the shift in the position of an image point on the photograph caused
by the elevation of the object above or below a selected datum. The displacement occurs
radially outward from the principal point for objects situated above the datum and inward
for objects below the datum. The magnitude of relief displacement is given by the
following equation (Derenyi, 1982):
rh
d=
H
where
d = relief displacement;
h = height of the object with respect to the selected datum;
r = radial distance on the photograph measured from the principal point to the
displaced image and
H = flying height above the datum
Figure 2-13: Relief Displacement due to Elevation
The relief displacement equation can be rearranged to calculate vertical heights of objects,
whereby (Derenyi, 1982)

𝑑𝐻
ℎ= (1)
𝑟
This equation is useful for determining the height of objects above ground. The answer is
only approximate because of the effect of tilt and because the exact value of H is usually
not known (Derenyi, 1982). In order to determine height of an object, it is necessary that
both the top and bottom of the objects shall be visible in the image so that the magnitude
to d can be measured in the image. Photo interpreter is often interested to know the
relative heights of objects rather than the absolute elevations (Wolf, 1974).
Example 2.4 While taking a vertical photographs an aircraft took a flight from height
of 4500 m above a datum. Aerial image captured two points A and B which are 700 m
above and 1460 m below the datum respectively. If the radial distances in the image
to point A and B are respectively 72 mm and 86 mm, find the corresponding relief
distances?
Solution:
𝑟𝐴 ℎ𝐴 72 𝑚𝑚×700 𝑚
Relief Displacement at A, 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐻
= 4500𝑚
= 11.20 mm (outward)
𝑟𝐵 ℎ𝐵 86 𝑚𝑚×1460 𝑚
Relief Displacement at B, 𝑑𝐵 = 𝐻
= 4500𝑚
= 27.90 mm (inward)
Example 2.5 Relief displacement for a tower is measured as 5 mm and its radial
distance from the centre of the photo to the top of the tower is measured as 110 mm.
Find the height of the tower if the flying height is 850 m above the base of the tower.
Solution:
𝑑𝐻 5𝑚𝑚×850𝑚
Height of the tower, ℎ = 𝑟
= 110𝑚𝑚
= 38.64 𝑚
2.5.1 Causes of Displacement

Camera tilt, earth curvature, and terrain relief all contribute to shifting photo image
features away from true geographic location. Camera tilt is greatly reduced or perhaps
eliminated by gyroscopically-controlled cameras (Falkner and Morgan, 2002).
Earth curvature is of little consequence on large-scale photography. The relatively small

amount of lateral distance covered by the exposure frame introduces only a minimal
amount of curvature, if any (Falkner and Morgan, 2002).
Topographic relief can have a great effect on displacing image features. The amount of
image displacement increases on high-degree slopes. Feature displacement also increases
radially away from the photo centre (Falkner and Morgan, 2002).
2.5.2 Effects of Displacement

An aerial photograph is a three-dimensional scene transferred onto a two-dimensional
plane. Hence, the photographic process literally squashes a three-dimensional feature onto
a plane that lacks a vertical dimension, and image features above or below mean ground
level are displaced from their true horizontal location. Figure 2-13 illustrates this pheno-
menon. Assuming that the tower rises straight into the air from the ground, both the top
and the base possess the same horizontal (XY) placement. This diagram belies that fact,
because the base and the top are in displaced positions (labeled “d” in Figure 2-13) on

the negatives. This separation will not be of the same magnitude on successive photos
(Falkner and Morgan, 2002).
2.5.3 Distortion vs. Displacement

Often, the term distortion is considered to be synonymous with displacement. Distortion
implies aberration. It is caused by discrepancies in the photographic, processing, and
reproduction systems. This condition is not correctable in the compilation of a stereo
model. Displacement is a normal inherent condition. Since mapping instruments work with
a three-dimensional spatial image formed by a pair of overlapping two-dimensional photos,
predictable displacement can be compensated for in the mapping process. Rather than
being a fault in the image structure, displacement is the means by which it is possible to
extract spatial information from photographs (Falkner and Morgan, 2002).
Relief displacement is the apparent leaning of objects within a photograph away from the
photo center or principle point. Vertical aerial photographs are good examples of point
projections where only the center image is correctly represented in its true position. From
the center point outward, all objects are warped (radially displaced) away from the center
point. Also, the displacement becomes greater the farther it is away from the center.
Examples of relief displacement can be most easily understood when viewing man-made
objects. The graphic below depicts how a tall factory smokestack would appear in an aerial
photograph and how it would be represented on an orthographic map projection.
 Relief displacement is due to differences in the relative elevations of objects. All

objects that extend above or below a specified ground datum plane will have their
images displaced.
 The taller the object, the greater the relief displacement
2.6 Parallax
Parallax is defined as the apparent shift in the position of an object, caused by a shift in
the position of the viewer. Alternately closing one eye and then the other will demonstrate
the concept of parallax, as near objects appear to shift, whereas far objects will appear
stationary. This effect is the primary mechanism by which we achieve binocular depth
perception, or stereo vision. This effect is exploited in photogrammetry when two
overlapping photographs are taken. Within the overlap area, objects are imaged from two
different exposure positions and parallax1 is evidenced in the resulting images. Parallax
measurements can be used for approximate height computations in the following way
using the geometry in Figure 2-14. Two vertical overlapping photographs are taken at the
same altitude, and an image coordinate system is set up within each image with the x axis
parallel to the flight line, and with origin at the principal point in each image. For a given
point, the parallax is defined as (Bethel, 2003)
𝑝 = 𝑥𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 − 𝑥𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
where
𝑝 = stereoscopic parallax of object point
𝑥𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = measured photo coordinate of a point on the left image
𝑥𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = measured photo coordinate of the same point on the right image
The photo coordinates are not measured with respect to the fiducial axis system. Rather,
they are measured with respect to the axis along the line of flight.
1
Also called stereoscopic parallax or x-parallax or simply parallax.

Parallax displacements occur only parallel to the line of flight. In theory, the direction of
flight correspond precisely to the fiducial x-axis. In reality, however, unavoidable changes
in the aircraft orientation will usually slightly offset the fiducial axis from the flight axis
(Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman, 2014). The true flight line axis may be found by first
locating on a photograph the points that correspond to the image centres of the preceding
and succeeding photographs. These points are called the conjugate principal points. A line
drawn through the principal points and the conjugate principal points defines the flight
axis. The line of flight for any given stereo-pair defines a photo-coordinate x-axis for use
in parallax measurement. Lines drawn perpendicular to the flight line and passing through
the principal point of each photo form the photographic y-axis for parallax measurement
(Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman, 2014).
Figure 2-14: Parallax Geometry (Bethel, 2003)

2.6.1 Parallax Equations
Figure 2-15 shows overlapping vertical photographs of a terrain point, A. Using parallax
measurements, it is possible to determine the elevation of point A and its ground
coordinates. The distance between the exposure stations, B is called the air base. Referring
to the superimposed triangle in the Figure 2-15, parallax, pa for point A is computed from
equation 2. From similar triangles La’xax and LAxL’
𝑝𝑎 𝐵
=
𝑓 𝐻 − ℎ𝐴
𝐵𝑓
or, ℎ𝐴 = 𝐻 − 𝑝
𝑎
Also from LOAAx and Loax,

𝑋𝐴 𝑥𝑎
𝐻−ℎ𝐴
= 𝑓
𝑥𝑎 (𝐻−ℎ𝐴 )
or, 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑓
𝑥
or, 𝑋𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑝𝑎
𝑎
Similarly,

𝑦
𝑌𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑝𝑎
𝑎
All these set of equations, that defines position of the point A are called parallax equations.
B L’
f a
O LL’
xa f
O’
xa’ f
pa
A
Superimposed Triangles
hA H
XA
Ax
YA
hA
O’
Figure 2-15: Parallax Relationships on Overlapping Vertical Photographs and
Superimposed Triangles (Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman, 2014)
In many applications, the difference in elevation between two points is of more immediate
interest than is the actual value of elevation of either point. In such cases, the change in
elevation between two points can be found from the following equation (Lillesand, Kiefer
and Chipman, 2014):
∆𝑝𝐻′
∆ℎ =
𝑝𝑎
where
∆ℎ = difference in elevation between two points whose parallax difference is ∆𝑝
𝐻′ = flying height above the lower point
𝑝𝑎 = parallax of the higher point

Example 2.6 In a stereo-pair comprising of images ‘a’ and ‘b’, length of a line, and
difference in elevation between the points are to be determined. Throughout the flying
mission, the average flying height was 1460 m, the distance between successive
exposures are 600 m and the camera used is a wide angle camera (f = 152 mm). The
photo coordinates of the points A and B along the line of flight are xa=56.14 mm,
xb=76.89 mm, ya=58.20 mm, yb=-20.45 mm, xa’=-49.54 mm, and xb’=-29.37 mm. Find
the length of line AB, elevations of points A and B, and difference in elevation between
the two points.
Solution:
(a) Length of line AB:

𝑝𝑎 = 𝑥𝑎 − 𝑥𝑎′ = 56.14 − (−49.54) = 105.68 𝑚𝑚
𝑝𝑏 = 𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥𝑏′ = 76.89 − (−29.37) = 106.26 𝑚𝑚
𝑥𝑎 600 × 56.14
𝑋𝐴 = 𝐵 = = 318.74 𝑚
𝑝𝑎 105.68
𝑥𝑏 600 × 76.89
𝑋𝐵 = 𝐵 = = 434.16 𝑚
𝑝𝑏 106.26
𝑦𝑎 600 × 58.20
𝑌𝐴 = 𝐵 = = 330.43 𝑚
𝑝𝑎 105.68
𝑦𝑏 600 × −20.45
𝑌𝐵 = 𝐵 = = −115.47 𝑚
𝑝𝑏 106.26
𝐷 = √(𝑋𝐵 − 𝑋𝐴 )2 + (𝑌𝐵 − 𝑌𝐴 )2 = √(438.16 − 318.74)2 + (−115.47 − 330.43)2
𝐷 = 460.60 𝑚
(b) Ground Elevations
𝐵𝑓 600 × 152
ℎ𝐴 = 𝐻 − = 1460 − = 597.02 𝑚
𝑝𝑎 105.68
𝐵𝑓 600 × 152
ℎ𝐵 = 𝐻 − = 1460 − = 601.73 𝑚
𝑝𝑏 106.26
(c) Difference in Elevation
∆ℎ = ℎ𝐵 − ℎ𝐴 = 601.73 − 597.02 = 4.71 𝑚
∆𝑝𝐻′ (106.26−105.68)×(1460−597.02)
Or ∆ℎ = 𝑝𝑎
= 106.26
= 4.71 𝑚
2.6.2 Differential Parallax

Difference in the absolute stereoscopic parallax at the top and the base of the object is
known as differential parallax. Referring to the Figure 2-16, difference between parallaxes
of the tree at the bottom and top is the differential parallax. It is used to determine the
height of the object using the following equation called parallax height equation:
(𝐻 − ℎ)𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
ℎ𝑜 = = 𝐻′
𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝
where
ℎ𝑜 = height of the object
𝐻 = flying height above specified datum
𝐻 ′ = flying height above the ground lebel

ℎ = elevation at the base of the object

𝑝 = average photo base length (average distance between PP and CPP)
𝑑𝑝 = differential parallax
Refer to (Bhatta, 2011: 254)
Example 2.7 In a stereo-pair an elevated water tank at 860 m above the sea level is
captured. Throughout the flying mission, the average flying height was 1460 m. Photo
measurement reveals that the average photo base (distance between principal point and
conjugate principal point) is 75 mm and the differential parallax at the base and top of
the water tank is 5 mm. Find the height of the tank above the ground.
Solution:
Height of the overhead tank (parallax height equation):

(𝐻 − ℎ)∆𝑝 (1460 − 860) × 5
ℎ𝑜 = = = 37.5 𝑚
𝑝 + ∆𝑝 75 + 5
Figure 2-16: Differential Parallax

2.6.3 Y-Parallax
The difference in position of a common ground point appearing on two overlapping
images, which is caused by differences in camera position and rotation between two
images. Y-parallax is measured perpendicular to the x-parallax.
For clear and comfortable stereoscopic viewing, an essential condition is that the lines
joining the corresponding images be parallel with the direction of flight. When this
condition is failed to achieve, y-parallax is said to exist. Any slight amount of y-parallax
causes eyestrain, and excessive amounts prevents stereoscopic viewing altogether (Wolf,
1974).
The change in position of the impressions of an object from one photograph/image to the
next, perpendicular to the flight line is referred to as y-parallax. Due to the presence of y-
parallax, viewing and measuring of a DSM may be difficult. Unlike x-parallax, y-parallax is
an error which needs to be removed or reduced. The following factors may introduce y-
parallax (Bhatta, 2011: 255):

 Unequal flying height between adjacent exposures. This effect causes a difference in
scale between the left and right images. As a result, y-parallax introduces and the 3D
stereo view becomes distorted.
 Flight line misalignment during image collection. This results in large differences in
image orientation between two overlapping images. As a result, we experience eye
strain and discomfort while viewing the DSM.
 Erroneous sensor model information. Inaccurate sensor model information creates
large differences in y-parallax between two images comprising a DSM.
As a result of these factors, the DSMs contain y-parallax, y-parallax introduces discomfort
during stereo viewing.
To minimize y-parallax, we are required to scale, translate, and rotate the images until a
clear and comfortable stereo view is available. While using DSMs created from sensor
model information, photogrammetric software automatically rotates, scales, and translates
the imagery to continually provide an optimum stereo view throughout the stereo model.
Thus y-parallax is automatically accounted for. The process of automatically creating a
clear stereo view is referred to as epi-polar resampling on the fly. As we roam throughout
the DSM, many software account and adjust for y-parallax automatically (Bhatta, 2011:
255)
Parallax Measurement
– refer to (Wolf, 1974), (Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman, 2014: 159), (Bhatta, 2011)
2.7 Stereoscopy
Stereoscopy is the science of producing 3D visual model using 2D images. It has been the
basis for 3D measurement in photogrammetry. Not any two images can be viewed
stereoscopically, rather they must be stereo pair and shall fulfil several conditions. The
basic requirements for two images to be stereo pair are that the images of the same
objects or scene are taken from different positions, but not too far apart and at a very
similar scale. The 3D visual impression is called the stereo model or stereoscopic model.
In order to obtain a systematic coverage of an area by stereo images with airborne frame
camera, stripes of vertical images shall be overlapped by at least 60% (Tempfli et al.,
2009).
2.7.1 Stereo (Stereoscopic) Vision

From a single photograph one can only determine the relative position of points which lie
in the same plane and therefore have a common scale. However, by viewing two
photographs of the same object, and aided by stereoscopic vision, it becomes possible to
determine all three dimensions. Stereoscopic vision is the ability to perceive objects in all
three dimensions. It is only possible by using both eyes simultaneously (binocular vision).
It is true that one can judge distance with one eye (monocular vision), but this is done by
comparing distances and is based on experience (Derenyi, 1982).
While viewing an object with both eyes, each eye sees this object from a slightly different
angle and transmits a slightly different impulse to the brain, where a three dimensional
view is formed. This is natural or direct stereo vision (Derenyi, 1982).
Indirect stereoscopic vision occurs when photographs of an object taken from two different
stations are viewed. The conditions for such stereoscopic vision are the following:
1. Both photography must be viewed simultaneously;

2. Each eye must view only one of the photographs; and

3. The photographs must be aligned so that the extension of viewing rays associated
with corresponding image points will intersect in space.
There are no problems with satisfying the first condition. Condition 2 is, however, difficult
to satisfy since the two photos must be viewed with nearly parallel eye axes and, at the
same time, the eyes must focus at a short distance. Fortunately, there are several
instrumental aids available such as pocket stereoscope, mirror stereoscope, anaglyph
viewing system, polonization filters, stereo-image alternator, etc., (Derenyi, 1982).
When a person with normal two-eyed vision looks simultaneously at two photographs
which have been taken of the same scene from different viewpoints, using one eye for
each photograph, he can visualize the scene in three dimensions. This phenomenon is
called stereoscopic vision (Moffitt, 1962).
Since the distance between a person's eyes is fixed, natural stereoscopic vision is possible
only at distances ranging from about 10” to about 2000’. The perception of depth can be
obtained at a distance of less than 10” by the use of lenses. In order to be able to perceive
depth at a distance greater than 9000’, a person must, in effect, increase the distance
between his eyes. He may use a pair of binoculars or a range finder. Or a pair of
photographs may be taken with cameras located at widely separated points, and these
photographs may be viewed at the same time in a suitable manner. The simultaneous
viewing of two such photographs is known as stereoscopy (Moffitt, 1962).
Stereoscopic vision determines the distance to an object by intersecting two lines of sight.
In the human vision system, the brain senses the parallactic angle between the converging
lines of sight and unconsciously associates the angle with a distance. Overlapping aerial
photographs can be viewed stereoscopically with the aid of a stereoscope. The
stereoscope forces the left eye to view the left photograph and the right eye to view the
right photograph. Since the right photograph images the same terrain as the left
photograph, but from a different exposure station, the brain perceives a parallactic angle
when the two images are fused into one. As the viewer scans the entire overlap area of
the two photographs, a continuous stereo-model of the ground surface can be seen. The
stereo-model can be measured in three dimensions, yielding the elevation and horizontal
position of unknown points. The limitation that elevation cannot be determined in a single
photograph solution is overcome by the use of stereo-photography (US Army Corps of
Engineers, 1993).
2.7.2 Vertical Exaggeration

If two photographs of the same subject are taken from two different perspectives or
camera stations, the left print viewed with the left eye and simultaneously the right print
seen with the right eye, a mental impression of a three-dimensional model results. In
normal stereoscopic viewing (not using photos), the eye base gives a true impression of
parallactic angles. While looking at aerial photographs stereoscopically, the exposure
station spacing simulates an eye base so the viewer actually sees parallactic angles
comparable with having one eye at each of the two exposure stations. This creates a
condition called vertical exaggeration, which causes the vertical scale of the three-
dimensional model to appear greater than its horizontal scale; that is, objects are
perceived to be too tall. The condition is of concern to photo interpreters who often
estimate heights of objects and slopes of surfaces when viewing air photos
stereoscopically. The amount of vertical exaggeration varies with percent endlap and the
camera's format dimensions and focal length. A factor of about 4 results if endlap is 60%
and the camera has a 9-in. (23-cm) format with 6-in. (152-mm) focal length (Ghilani and
Wolf , 2012: 817).

When a person examines stereoscopically a pair of overlapping vertical photographs that

have been taken with a lens having a 6”, principal distance and that include about 60
percent overlap, he senses a certain amount of relief exaggeration in the stereoscopic
image. That is, he is conscious of a disparity between the horizontal scale and the vertical
scale, even though he is not at all familiar with the terrain depicted in the image. The
viewer perceives depth in the image because of the differences in parallactic angles at the
various points, and these differences in parallactic angles are a direct result of the
differences in parallax at the various points. Vertical exaggeration is caused by real or
apparent changes in the parallax differences between points on the photographs (Moffitt,
1962).
Figure 2-17: Real Terrain Model (left) vs Perceptual Terrain Model (right)
The primary factor contributing to vertical exaggeration in the stereoscopic image is the
ratio of the ground distance between exposure stations to the flying height above the
average elevation of the terrain. All other factors remaining constant, an increase in this
ratio will cause a corresponding increase in vertical exaggeration. The apparent distortion
in the horizontal and vertical scales does not have any effect on the determination of
elevations from parallax measurements (Moffitt, 1962).
Although there are many causes of vertical exaggeration to exist, the primary cause is the
lack of equivalence between photographic base-height ratio (as seen in real terrain model)
and the corresponding base-height ratios in stereo-viewing (as seen in perceptual model).
The ratio of these two base-height ratios gives an approximate value of vertical
exaggeration (Wolf, 1974). Therefore, referring to the Figure 2-17, vertical exaggeration
is:
𝐵⁄
𝐵 ℎ
𝐸𝑣 = 𝐻′ = ( ) ( )
𝑏𝑒⁄ 𝐻′ 𝑏𝑒
ℎ
where
𝐸𝑣 = vertical exaggeration
𝐵 = air base, i.e., distance between successive exposures
𝐻′ = flying height above average ground level
ℎ = distance from the eyes at which the stereo-model is perceived
𝑏𝑒 = eye base, i.e., distance between the eyes
The average adult eye base is about 2.6”, repeated tests revealed that average value of
h about 17”. Using these two average values, the approximate stereo base-height ratio is
approximately 0.15 (Wolf, 1974). One of the unique and advantageous outcomes of stereo

photogrammetry is that the vertical scale is exaggerated when viewed by the observer.
This allows for accurate determination of height by the photogrammetrist. Increasing the
flying height will decrease the amount of vertical exaggeration.
2.7.3 Stereo Image Separation

This separation is accomplished in different ways; for example, spatially, spectrally, or
temporally (Table 2-2).
One may argue that the simplest way to achieve stereoscopic viewing is by displaying the
two images of a stereo-pair on two separate monitors. Viewing is achieved by means of
optical trains, e.g. a stereoscope, or by polarization. Matra adopted this principle by
arranging the two monitors at right angles, with horizontal and vertical polarization sheets
in front of them (Schenk, 2005).
Table 2-2: Separation of images for Stereoscope Viewing
Separation Implementation
Spatial 2 monitors + stereoscope
1 monitor + stereoscope (split screen)
2 monitors + polarization
Spectral Anaglyphic
Polarization
Temporal Alternate display of left and right image
Synchronized by polarization
The most popular realization of spectral separation is by anaglyphs. The restriction to
monochromatic imagery and the reduced resolution outweigh the advantage of simplicity
and low cost. Most systems today use temporal separation in conjunction with polarized
light. The left and right image is displayed in quick succession on the same screen. In
order to achieve a flicker-free display, the images must be refreshed at a rate of 60 Hz
per image, requiring a 120 Hz monitor (Schenk, 2005).
2.7.4 Image Overlap

Aerial photo projects for all mapping and most image analyses require that a series of
exposures be made along each of the multiple flight lines. To guarantee stereoscopic
coverage throughout the site, the photographs must overlap in two directions: in the line
of flight and between adjacent flights (Falkner and Morgan, 2002).
End lap, also known as forward overlap, is the common image area on consecutive
photographs along a flight strip. This overlapping portion of two successive aerial photos,
which creates the three-dimensional effect necessary for mapping, is known as a stereo
model or more commonly as a “model.”

shows the end lap area on a single pair of consecutive photos in a flight line
Figure 2-18
Practically all projects require more than a single pair of photographs. Usually, the aircraft
follows a predetermined flight line as the camera exposes successive overlapping images
If stereoscopic coverage of an area is required, the absolute minimum end lap is 50 %.

However in order to prevent gaps from occurring in the stereoscopic coverage due to crab,
tilt, flying height variations and terrain variations, end laps greater than 50 % are used
(Wolf, 1974). Normally, end lap ranges between 55 and 65% of the length of a photo,
with a nominal average of 60% for most mapping projects (Falkner and Morgan, 2002).
The amount of end lap of a stereo-pair can be determined with the following equation
(Wolf, 1974):
𝐺−𝐵
𝐸=( ) × 100 %
𝐺
where
𝐸 = end lap in percentage
𝐵 = air base, i.e., distance between successive exposures
𝐺 = ground coverage

Figure 2-18: Overlap in Aerial Frame Images: End lap (left) and Side lap (right)
If a project is too large to cover in a single flight line, additional flights will be made to
assure stereo coverage. These are normally parallel to the first. Side lap between the two
flight lines must again be planned to assure continuous coverage between flights of the
project area.
Side lap, sometimes called side overlap, encompasses the overlapping areas of
photographs between adjacent flight lines. It is designed so that there are no gaps in the
three-dimensional coverage of a multiline project. Figure 2-18 shows the relative head-on
position of the aircraft in adjacent flight lines and the resultant area of exposure coverage
(Falkner and Morgan, 2002). Side lap is essential in aerial photography to prevent gaps
from occurring between flight strips as a result of drift, crab, tilt, flying height variations,
and terrain variations. The amount of end lap of a stereo-pair can be determined with the
following equation (Wolf, 1974):
𝐺−𝑊
𝑆=( ) × 100 %
𝐺
where
𝑆 = side lap in percentage
𝑊 = distance between adjacent flight lines
𝐺 = ground coverage
A designed 20% side lap is desirable for most mapping projects. This normally assures
coverage considering flight line deviations, ground relief, and ground control requirements.
Taking 30 % side lap eliminates the need to use extreme edges of the photography, where
the imagery is of poorer quality. Photography for mosaic work is sometimes taken with
greater than 30 % side lap (Wolf, 1974). It is noted however, that in mountainous terrain
these percentages may need to be increased to allow for terrain changes and excessive
relief displacement.
In some cases where aerial photography is to be used for very precise photogrammetric
control extension, it may be taken with 60 % side lap as well as 60 % end lap (Wolf,
1974).

2.7.5 Epipolar Geometry

The epipolar geometry is the intrinsic projective geometry between two views. It is
independent of scene structure, and only depends on the cameras’ internal parameters
and relative pose (Hartley and Zisserman, 2004).
The epipolar geometry between two views is essentially the geometry of the intersection
of the image planes with the pencil of planes having the baseline as axis (the baseline is
the line joining the camera centres). This geometry is usually motivated by considering
the search for corresponding points in stereo matching (Hartley and Zisserman, 2004).
Epipoles are the points at which the line through the centers of projection intersects the
image planes. Let el and er be the left and right epipoles respectively. It is by construction
that the left epipole is the image of the projection center of the right camera and vice
versa as can be seen in figure above.
A special point to consider is if the line through the centers of projection, called baseline,
is parallel to one of the image planes, then the corresponding epipole is the point at infinity
of that line.
Epipolar plane is the plane containing the baseline and the corresponding points P, pl and
pr. There is a one-parameter family of epipolar planes.
Epipolar line is the intersection of an epipolar plane with one image plane. All epipolar
lines intersect at the epipole. An epipolar plane intersects the left and right image planes
in epipolar lines, and defines the correspondence between the lines.

Lecture Notes (14 Feb. 2019) Chapter 3 Mathematical Concepts
MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
3 Mathematical Concepts in Photogrammetry: [10 hrs]
3.1 Photogrammetric Transformations
3.2 Coordinate Reference System
3.2.1 Image Space Coordinate System
3.2.2 Object Space Coordinate System
3.2.3 Camera Coordinate System
3.3 Mathematical Relationship between image and ground coordinates
3.3.1 Theory of orientation
3.3.2 Interior orientation (IO)
3.3.3 Exterior Orientation (EO)
3.3.4 Relative Orientation (RO)
3.3.5 Absolute Orientation (AO)
3.3.6 Classification of Points used in Orientation
3.3.7 Photogrammetric Conditions: Collinearity and coplanarity equations
3.1 Coordinate Reference Systems

Conceptually, photogrammetry involves establishing the relationship between the camera
or sensor used to capture the imagery, the imagery itself, and the ground. In order to
understand and define this relationship, each of the three variables associated with the
relationship must be defined with respect to a coordinate space and coordinate system
(ERDAS, Inc., 2010).
Coordinates are linear or angular quantities, which designate the position that a point
occupies in a given reference frame or system. The coordinate system is based on
mathematical rules and used to measure distances and/or angles in order to identify the
location of points by means of unique sets of numerical values. A coordinate system
requires the definition of its origin, the orientation axes, and the units of measurements.
Plane rectangular coordinates describe the position of points with respect to a defined
origin by means of two distances perpendicular to each other; the two references lines at
right angles to each other and passing through the origin are called axes (Tempfli et al.,
2009). There are various coordinate systems available to represent the location of any
point. However, all of them fall into two broad categories – curvilinear and rectangular.
Curvilinear system uses angular measurements from the origin to describe one’s position
(e.g., geographic coordinate system), whereas rectangular coordinate system uses
distance measurements from the origin (e.g., Cartesian coordinate system) (Bhatta,
2011).
3.1.1 Image Space Coordinate System (Photo Coordinate System)
Photo coordinate system serves as the reference for expressing spatial positions and
relations of the image space. It is a 3D Cartesian coordinate system with the origin at the
perspective centre.
Image space coordinate system is identical to image coordinate system except that it adds
a third axis – z. The origin of the image space coordinate system is defined at the
perspective centre. The perspective centre is commonly the lens of the camera as it existed
when the photograph was captured. Its x- and y-axis are parallel to the x- and y-axis in
the image coordinate system. The z-axis is the optical axis; therefore, the z-value of an

3-1
image point in an image space coordinate system is usually equal to the focal length of
the camera. Image space coordinates are used to describe positions inside the camera,
and therefore, it is also known as the camera coordinate system (Bhatta, 2011).
An image space coordinate system (Figure 3-1) is identical to image coordinates, except
that it adds a third axis (z). The origin of the image space coordinate system is defined at
the perspective centre S as shown in Figure 3-1. The perspective centre is commonly the
lens of the camera as it existed when the photograph was captured. Its x-axis and y-axis
are parallel to the x-axis and y-axis in the image plane coordinate system. The z-axis is
the optical axis; therefore, the z value of an image point in the image space coordinate
system is usually equal to the focal length of the camera (f). Image space coordinates are
used to describe positions inside the camera, and usually use units in millimetres or
microns. This coordinate system is referenced as image space coordinates (x, y, z) in this
chapter (ERDAS, Inc., 2010).
Figure 3-1: Image Space and Ground Space Coordinate System (ERDAS, Inc., 2010)
3.1.2 Object Space Coordinate System (Ground Coordinate System)
A ground coordinate system is usually defined as a 3D coordinate system that utilizes a
known geographic map projection. Ground coordinates (X, Y, Z) are usually expressed in
feet or meters. The Z value is elevation above mean sea level for a given vertical datum
(ERDAS, Inc., 2010).
Most photogrammetric applications account for the curvature of the Earth in their
calculations. This is done by adding a correction value or by computing geometry in a
coordinate system that includes curvature. Two such systems are geocentric and
topocentric coordinates. A geocentric coordinate system has its origin at the centre of the
Earth ellipsoid. The Z-axis equals the rotational axis of the Earth, and the X-axis passes
through the Greenwich meridian. The Y-axis is perpendicular to both the Z-axis and X-
axis, so as to create a three-dimensional coordinate system that follows the right hand

3-2
rule. A topocentric coordinate system has its origin at the centre of the image projected
on the Earth ellipsoid. The three perpendicular coordinate axes are defined on a tangential
plane at this centre point. The plane is called the reference plane or the local datum. The
x-axis is oriented eastward, the y-axis northward, and the z-axis is vertical to the reference
plane (up) (ERDAS, Inc., 2010).
3.1.3 Pixel Coordinate System

The file coordinates of a digital image are defined in a pixel coordinate system. A pixel
coordinate system is usually a coordinate system with its origin in the upper-left corner of
the image, the x-axis pointing to the right, the y-axis pointing downward, and the units in
pixels, as shown by axes c and r in Figure 3-2. These file coordinates (c, r) can also be
thought of as the pixel column and row number, respectively (ERDAS, Inc., 2010).
Figure 3-2: Pixel Coordinates and Image Coordinates
Refer to (Bhatta, 2011: 240)
3.2 Photogrammetric Transformations

A problem frequently encountered in photogrammetric work is conversion from one
rectangular coordinate system to another. This is because photogrammetrists commonly
determine coordinates of unknown points in convenient arbitrary rectangular coordinate
systems. These arbitrary coordinates may be the result of analytical computation, or they
may be read from stereoscopic plotters. The arbitrary coordinates must then be converted
into an absolute or ground coordinate system such as the state plane coordinate system.
The procedure of converting from one coordinate system to another is known as
coordinate transformation (Wolf, 1974).

3-3
Figure 3-3: Types of Coordinate Transformations

3.2.1 2D Conformal Transformation
A 2D geometric transformation (plane to plane transformation) that uses four parameters
to account for rotation, translation, and scale change. It defines the linear relationship
between two coordinate systems such as an image coordinate system and a map
coordinate system (Tempfli et al., 2009). The 2D conformal coordinate transformation,
also known as the four-parameter similarity transformation, has the characteristic that
true shape is retained after transformation. It is typically used in surveying when
converting separate surveys into a common reference coordinate system (Ghilani and
Wolf, 2006).
To perform a 2D conformal transformation, it is necessary that coordinates of at least two

points be known in both coordinate systems. Accuracy in the transformation is improved
by choosing the two points as far apart as possible. If more than two control points are
available, an improved solution may be obtained by applying the method of least squares.
2D conformal transformation consists of three basic steps namely scale change, rotation
and translation (Wolf, 1974). This transformation is a three-step process that involves
(Ghilani and Wolf, 2006):
1. Scaling to create equal dimensions in the two coordinate systems (1 parameter)

2. Rotation to make the reference axes of the two systems parallel (1 parameter)
3. Translations to create a common origin for the two coordinate systems (2 parameter)
The scaling and rotation are each defined by one parameter. The translations involve two
parameters. Thus, there are a total of four parameters in this transformation. The
transformation requires a minimum of two points, called control points, that are common
to both systems. With the minimum of two points, the four parameters of the
transformation can be determined uniquely. If more than two control points are available,
a least squares adjustment is possible. After determining the values of the transformation
parameters, any points in the original system can be transformed.

3-4
(a) (b)
Figure 3-4: 2D Arbitrary (a) and 2D Ground (b) Coordinate Systems
1. Scale Change: Distance ab in an image corresponds to the distance AB in the ground.

However their sizes are different and to make the distance ab equal to the distance AB,
the coordinates in the image has to be multiplied by a scale factor ‘s’. The scaled
coordinates are designated as X’ and Y’. By use of the two control points, the scale factor
is calculated in relation to the two lengths AB and ab as
The scaled coordinates X’ and Y’ are
𝑋 ′ = 𝑠𝑋
𝑌 ′ = 𝑠𝑌 (3-1)
2. Rotation: In order to analyse the rotation, let us construct an arbitrary coordinate
system E’N’ parallel to the EN coordinate system. Now superimpose the scaled coordinate
system X’Y’ onto this constructed coordinate system such that the origins of both the
system coincide (Figure 3-5). Although the origins of both the systems coincide, axes are
not aligned. In order to align the axes of scaled coordinate system to the E’N’ system, they
need to be rotated about the origin. Rotating the scaled coordinate system by clockwise
angle , the rotated coordinates of a point can be determined by using the following
equations:
𝐸 ′ = 𝑋 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑌′𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑁 ′ = 𝑋 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑌′𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (3-2)
Rotation angle  is the sum of angles  and  indicated in Figure 3-4. From the coordinates
of two control points, these angles are calculated as

3-5
Figure 3-5: X’Y’ Coordinate System superimposed onto the EN Ground Coordinate System
3. Translation: Finally, it is necessary to translate the origin of the rotated coordinate
system i.e., E’N’ to the origin of the ground coordinate system. Referring to the Figure
3-5, this can be accomplished by adding translation factors as follows:
𝐸 = 𝐸 ′ + 𝑇𝐸
𝑁 = 𝑁 ′ + 𝑇𝑁 (3-3)
where the translation factors TE and TN can be calculated for the coordinates of control
points as
𝑇𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐸′𝐴 = 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸′𝐵
𝑇𝑁 = 𝑁𝐴 − 𝑁′𝐴 = 𝑁𝐵 − 𝑁′𝐵
If equations 3-1, 3-2 and 3-3 are combined a single set of equations is produced that can
be used directly to transform the coordinates of unknown points from arbitrary coordinate
system to the ground coordinate system as
𝐸 = 𝑠𝑋 cos 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑌 sin 𝜃 + 𝑇𝐸
𝑁 = 𝑠𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑌 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑇𝑁 (3-4)
3.2.2 2D Affine Transformation

The 2D affine coordinate transformation, is a slight variation from the 2D conformal
transformation. In the affine transformation there is the additional allowance for two
different scale factors; one in the x direction and the other in the y direction (anisotropic
scaling). This transformation is commonly used in photogrammetry for interior orientation.
That is, it is used to transform photo coordinates from an arbitrary measurement photo
coordinate system to a camera fiducial system and to account for differential shrinkages
that occur in the x and y directions. As in the conformal transformation, the affine
transformation also applies two translations of the origin, and a rotation about the origin,

3-6
plus a small non-orthogonality correction between the x and y axes. This results in a total
of six unknowns, therefore is also known as the six parameter transformation (Ghilani and
Wolf, 2006).
A two-dimensional affine transformation consists of four basic steps: (1) scale change in
x and y, (2) correction for non-orthogonality, (3) rotation, and (4) translation. Figure 3-6
illustrates the geometric relationship between the arbitrary coordinate system xy and the
final coordinate system XY. In this figure, the non-orthogonality of x and y is indicated by
the angleε. The rotation angle necessary to make the two systems parallel is θ, and
translations ΤX and ΤY account for the offset of the origin. The four steps of the derivation
are as follows (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014: 543):
Figure 3-6: 2D Affine Coordinate Transformation Relationship
Step 1: Scale Change in x and y

To make the scale of the arbitrary system xy equal to that of the final system XY, each
coordinate is multiplied by its associated scale factor, sx and sy. This results in a correctly
scaled coordinate system x’y’ as given in Eqs. (3-5).
𝑥 ′ = 𝑠𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 ′ = 𝑠𝑦 𝑦 (3-5)
Step 2: Correction for Non-orthogonality
When x and y coordinates are measured from axes that intersect at a right angle, the x
distance (coordinate) is measured perpendicularly from the y axis, which means the
distance is at the same time parallel to the x axis. Similarly, the y distance is measured
perpendicularly from the x axis and is therefore parallel to the x axis. When the xy axes
are non-orthogonal, measuring an x distance perpendicularly from the y axis does not
result in a distance that is parallel to the x axis. The analogous situation applies with the
y distance. To derive the relationship, the specific measurement characteristics of the
system must be identified (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014).

3-7
Several geometric possibilities exist; however, two configurations are most common and
are illustrated in Figure 3-7 (a) and (b). In both figures the x’y’ measurement systems
have already been scaled in accordance with step 1. The first configuration, illustrated in
(a), is appropriate for most comparators where separate x and y carriages provide
independent movement in both directions. The x’ coordinate is measured parallel to the x’
axis from the origin to the point, and the y’ coordinate is measured parallel to the y’ axis
from the origin to the point. The second configuration, shown in (b), is appropriate when
one is using satellite imagery that is acquired in a scanning fashion while the earth rotates
beneath. The resulting image has a distinct parallelogram shape. In this configuration the
x’ coordinate is measured parallel to the x’ axis from the y’ axis to the point, and the y’
coordinate is measured perpendicular to the x’ axis. For the configuration of Figure 3-7
(a), the correction for non-orthogonality is given by Eqs. (3-6) (Wolf, DeWitt and
Wilkinson, 2014).
Figure 3-7: (a) Two-dimensional affine relationship for typical comparator. (b) Two-
dimensional affine relationship for typical scanning-type satellite image.
3-6
Equations (3-7) express the relationship for the configuration of Figure 3-7 (b).
3-7
Step 3: Rotation
Rotation by the angleθ is accomplished in the same fashion as in the two-dimensional

conformal coordinate transformation. Equations (3-8) give the relationship between the
x”y” system and the X’Y’ system which is parallel to the final XY system after rotation by
angleθ.
3-8
Step 4: Translation

3-8
The final step is to translate the origin by ΤX and ΤY to make it coincide with the origin
of the final system, as shown in Eqs. (3-9).
3-9
Combining the four steps for configuration (a) gives Eqs. (3-10).
3-10
Simplifying
or
or
Similarly
or
or
With the following substitution,
The final mathematical model for transformation is
3-11
These equations are linear and can be solved uniquely when three control points exist
(i.e., points whose coordinates are known in the both systems). This is because for each
point, an equation set in the form of Equations (3-11) can be written, and three points
yield six equations involving six unknowns. If more than three control points are available,
a least squares solution can be obtained (Ghilani and Wolf, 2006).

3-9
3.2.3 2D Projective Transformation

A 2D geometric transformation that uses eight parameters to mathematically model
perspective imaging of a plane. It defines the relationship between two coordinate systems
such as the coordinate system of a central perspective image and a map coordinate system
or a local coordinate system of a plane in object space (Tempfli et al., 2009).
The 2D projective coordinate transformation is also known as the eight-parameter

transformation. It is appropriate to use when one two-dimensional coordinate system is
projected onto another nonparallel system. This transformation is commonly used in
photogrammetry (Ghilani and Wolf, 2006).
3.2.4 3D Conformal Transformation

(Wolf, 1974)A 3D conformal coordinate transformation is essential in analytical or
computational photogrammetry for two basic problems (Wolf, 1974):
1. to convert coordinates of points from a tilted photographic coordinate system to an
equivalent vertical photographic system which is parallel to a ground or arbitrary object
space system, and
2. to form continuous 3D strip models from independent stereo-models
For transformation equations refer to (Wolf, 1974).
3.3 Mathematical Relationship between Image and Ground

Coordinates
3.3.1 Theory of Orientation
The orientation is the procedure where the transformation parameters from one
coordinate system to a second coordinate system are determined. A 2D orientation
includes shift and rotation of an object along a plane, and a 3D orientation includes the
determination of the position and attitude of an object in both coordinate systems. It
issues a logic known as collinearity (Bhatta, 2011).
The objective of orientation is to transform centrally projected images into a 3D model,

which we can use to plot an orthogonal map.
3.3.2 Interior Orientation (IO)

A projection from camera coordinates to image coordinates with the help of the cameras
interior orientation.
Interior orientation is the procedure whereby the geometric characteristics of an aerial

photograph are mathematically related to the geometric characteristics of the camera
system that took the photograph (Jensen, 2011). This means establishing the relationship
between the camera internal coordinate system and the image pixel coordinate system.
The first relation is given by the fiducial marks superimposed in the image and their
nominal co-ordinates, usually given in millimetres in the camera calibration certificate. In
this certificate you will also find the calibrated focal length in millimetres. After measuring
(digitising) the marks, the software will be able to calculate the transformation coefficients
for the relation between both systems. (Linder, 2009). Typical information required for
interior orientation that is available in the camera calibration report includes (Jensen,
2011):
 x,y location of the principal point;

 x,y location of all fiducial marks;
 Lens focal length;
3-10
 Deformation characteristics of the lens.
Fiducial marks are only used to establish the interior orientation for photos taken from a
traditional metric film camera. Digital cameras applied with an area CCD2 sensor do not
need them because each CCD element gives the same image pixel every time. Therefore,
the method of camera definition differs a bit from that you already know, and the interior
orientation is given directly and must not be carried out image per image (Linder, 2009).
Interior orientation refers to the geometric relationship between the image plane and the
perspective centre of the lens. Typically, the interior orientation and refinement
parameters are considered known based on the calibration report. Camera calibration
parameters define the interior orientation of the imaged bundle of rays (US Army Corps
of Engineers, 2002).
Interior orientation involves placing the photographs in proper relation to the perspective
centre of the stereo-plotter by matching the fiducial marks to corresponding marks on the
photography holders and by setting the principal distances of the stereo-plotter to
correspond to the focal length of the camera (adjusted for overall film shrinkage) (US
Army Corps of Engineers, 2002). Recreate the geometry of the projected rays to duplicate
exactly the geometry of the original photos. Three steps of interior orientations are:
1. Centering diapositives on the projectors
2. Setting off the proper principal distance
3. Compensation for image distortion
In general, aerial cameras are carefully calibrated by the camera manufacturer to

determine precise values of the interior orientation parameters. These are the principal
point location, focal length, lens distortion, fiducial mark coordinates or inter-fiducial
distances, and flatness of the camera focal plane. There are usually four fiducial marks on
the focal plane frame. These marks are exposed onto the negative when the photograph
is taken. The principal point is defined as the point of intersection of the lines joining
opposite fiducial marks. Fiducial marks enable corrections for film shrinkage or expansion
which may occur in the developing or subsequent storage of film. Lens distortion is
classified as either radial or tangential. Radial distortion is the distortion in image position
along radial lines onwards from principal point, and tangential distortion is distortion in
image position perpendicular to the such radial lines. Tangential distortion can usually be
neglected since it is normally quite small (Chikatsu, n.d.).
3.3.3 Exterior Orientation (EO)

A transformation from object coordinates to camera coordinates, referred to as exterior
orientation. The exterior orientation is achieved by a translation from the object coordinate
origin to the origin of the camera coordinate system (i.e., the projection centre), followed
by a rotation which aligns the axes of the two coordinate systems.
Exterior orientation determines the mathematical relationship between image coordinates

(x, y, z) and real-world map coordinates (X, Y, Z) for selected ground-control points
(Jensen, 2011). This is accomplished by determining the camera position in the ground
coordinate system. The camera position is determined by the location of its perspective
centre and by its attitude, expressed by three independent angles (Schenk, 2005).
2
Charged-coupled Device
3-11
Unlike interior orientation, which only works on one photograph at a time, exterior
orientation requires to locate the image coordinates of the control points in both images
of a stereo-pair (Jensen, 2011).
All aerial photographs are tilted to some degree. We need to know how to model this tilt
if we are going to extract useful measurements from aerial photography. There are six
elements of exterior orientation (Figure 3-8) that express the spatial location and angular
orientation of a tilted aerial photograph at the moment of exposure (𝑋𝑆 , 𝑌𝑆 , 𝑍𝑆 , 𝜔, 𝜙, 𝜅)
(Jensen, 2011). All the methods developed to determine these six parameters for each
aerial photograph require photographic images of at least three ground-control points
whose X, Y, Z coordinates are known (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014). If we can
determine these parameters for each aerial photograph, we can use the information to
relate image coordinates to real-world (exterior) map coordinates (Jensen, 2011).
(Chikatsu, n.d.)
Figure 3-8: Elements of Exterior Orientation (ERDAS, Inc., 2010)

3.3.4 Relative Orientation (RO)
Before corresponding points in images taken with two cameras can be used to recover
distances to objects in a scene, one has to determine the position and orientation of one
camera relative to the other. This is the classic photogrammetric problem of relative
orientation, central to the interpretation of binocular stereo information. Various empirical

3-12
procedures have been devised for determining the relative orientation in an analog
fashion. Most commonly used are stereo-plotters, optical devices that permit viewing of
image pairs and superimposed synthetic features called floating marks. (Horn, 1990).
Relative orientation involves reproducing in the stereo-plotter the relative angular

relationship that existed between the camera orientations in space when the photographs
were taken. This is an iterative process and should result in a stereoscopic model easily
viewed, in every part, without “y parallax” the separation of the two images so they do
not fuse into a stereoscopic model. When this step is complete, there exists in the stereo-
plotter a stereoscopic model for which 3D coordinates may be measured at any point; but
it may not be exactly the desired scale, it may not be level, and water surfaces may be
tipped (US Army Corps of Engineers, 2002).
Relative orientation of each stereo pair is performed by a least squares adjustment using
the collinearity equations. The stereo-model is created in an arbitrary coordinate system,
and the adjustment is unconstrained by ground coordinate values. Therefore, the photo
coordinate residuals should be representative of the point transfer and measuring
precision. The photo coordinate residuals should be examined to detect misidentified or
poorly measured points. The minimum number of points that will uniquely determine a
relative orientation is six (US Army Corps of Engineers, 2002).
RO recreates the relative relationship between dia-positives that existed at the time of the
photography. It creates, in miniature, a true 3D stereo-model of the overlapping area.
After the dia-positives have been placed in the projectors and the lights turned on,
corresponding light rays will not intersect to form a clear model.
(Chikatsu, n.d.)
3.3.5 Absolute Orientation (AO)

With absolute orientation we refer to the process of orienting a stereo-model to the ground
control system. The model coordinate system is Cartesian, but the ground control system
is usually not Cartesian because the elevations refer to a separate datum. In that case,
the ground control system must first be transformed into an orthogonal system. The
absolute orientation requires a successful interior and relative orientation. In case the
control points are measured during the relative orientation, the system immediately
computes the absolute orientation. As soon as the minimum control information is
measured, the system computes approximate locations for additional control points and
positions the stages accordingly (Schenk, 2005).
Then, these are transformed to terrain co-ordinates in the absolute orientation (Linder,
2009). Absolute orientation uses the known ground coordinates of points identifiable in
the stereoscopic model to scale and to level the model. When this step is completed, the
3-13
X, Y, and Z ground coordinates of any point on the stereoscopic model may be measured
and/or mapped (US Army Corps of Engineers, 2002).
After relative orientation, a true 3D model is formed, the purpose of which is to bring a
stereoscopic model to the desired map scale and to place the model in its correct
orientation with respect to reference system. Absolute orientation is achieved by a 3D
conformal coordinate transformation (7 parameter): three rotations, one scale factor, and
three shifts (translations). In order to perform AO, two horizontal control points are needed
to scale the model and three vertical control points are needed to level the model.
(Chikatsu, n.d.)
3.4 Classification of Points used in Orientation

A ground control point (GCP) is defined as any point in an image for which real-world
coordinates (X, Y, Z) are known. We can distinguish two kinds of GCPs, called signalised
(targeted) and natural points. Often, before taking the photos, topographic points are
signalised on the ground by white bars (size e.g. 1.2 by 0.2 m) forming a cross with the
point itself marked with a central “dot” of e.g. 0.2 m diameter (all dimensions depending
of course on the photo scale). The corresponding terrain co-ordinates are available from
the Land Surveying Office or sometimes from the company taking the photos (Linder,
2009).
But often we have no signalised GCPs. Then we must look for real object (terrain) points
which we can clearly identify in the image as well as in a topographic map mentioned
before. But not every point is really good to serve as a GCP: As far as possible, choose
rectangle corners (e.g. from buildings) or small circle shaped points. These have the
advantage to be scale-invariant. Take into account that we need also the elevation – this
might be a problem using a point on the roof of a building, because it is not possible to
get its elevation from the map! Therefore, if possible, prefer points on the ground (Linder,
2009).

3-14
Figure 3-9: Examples for natural ground control points (Linder, 2009)
Ground Control Points may be horizontal control points, vertical control points or both.
Horizontal control point positions are known planimetrically in some X-Y coordinate
systems (e.g., a state plane coordinate system). Vertical control points have known
elevations with respect to a level datum (e.g., mean sea level). A single point with known
planimetric position and known elevation can serve as both horizontal and vertical control
point (Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman, 2014) and often referred to as full control point.
For horizontal control, these control points should be clearly identifiable both on the
photograph and on the ground. The point should be well-defined with sharp contrast
between the feature and the surrounding area. A good quality vertical control point is one
whose elevation is higher than the surrounding area. Again, it needs to be identifiable on
both the terrain and photography.
Tie Points (Connection Point): Now imagine the case that we have much more than two
images, let’s say a block formed of 3 strips each containing 7 images as we will use in this
example, and we have no signalised points but only a topographic map, scale 1:50,000.
Greater parts of our area are covered with forest, so we can only find a few points which
we can exactly identify. It may happen that for some images we are not even able to find
the minimum of 3 points (Linder, 2009).
This may serve as a first motivation for that what we want to do now: The idea is to
measure points in the images from which we do not know their object coordinates but
which will be used to connect the images together. These are called connection points or
tie points. In addition, we will measure GCPs wherever we will find some (Linder, 2009).
Common points between adjacent strips are called tie points or bridging points. Tie points
are usually in areas of the photograph where the resolution is considerably lower (Schenk,
n.d.).
 A point that can be recognized on multiple overlapping photos but whose
coordinates are not known.

3-15
 Ground coordinates for tie points are computed during block triangulation.
 Tie points can be measured manually and automatically.
 Manual measurement in block images typically involves nine points in each image.
Aerotriangulation, also known as analytic bridging, uses mathematical concepts to densify

the photo control network with artificial points, also known as analytic points. The analytic
points are added to produce adequate control for each stereo model. Requirements for
the analytic points combined with the photo control (Caltrans):
 The analytic points shall have a maximum diameter of 50 microns.

 The combination of photo control and analytic points shall be a minimum of 7
points per neat model.
 There shall be an analytic point or photo control at each corner of all neat models.
 The combination of photo control and analytic points shall be a minimum of 3
points in common between two adjacent neat models.
 Additional Tie points shared between flight lines should be created as geometrically
warranted between overlapping flight lines.
A point added to each neat model to produce adequate horizontal and/ or vertical control
and to eliminate a photo control target that otherwise would have required field survey
effort. Also known as an artificial point or a Pug Point (Caltrans).
3.5 Photogrammetric Conditions: Collinearity and Coplanarity

Equations
3.5.1 Collinearity Condition and Collinearity Equation
The fundamental condition in analytical photogrammetry is the collinearity condition. It is
the condition in which the exposure station of a photograph, an object point in the ground
coordinate system, and its photographic image all lie on a straight line. This condition
holds irrespective of the angular tile of a photograph (Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman,
2014). If collinearity condition is achieved on both photos in a stereo-pair then the ground
coordinates (X, Y, Z) can be computed from x and y within the image coordinate system
on both photos.
The equations that express the collinearity condition are the collinearity equations. They
describe the relationships among image coordinates, ground coordinates, the exposure
station position, and angular orientation of a photograph (Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman,
2014).
𝒎𝟏𝟏 (𝑿𝑷 − 𝑿𝑺 ) + 𝒎𝟏𝟐 (𝒀𝑷 − 𝒀𝑺 ) + 𝒎𝟏𝟑 (𝒁𝑷 − 𝒁𝑺 )

𝒙𝒑 − 𝒙𝒐 = −(𝒛𝒑 − 𝒛𝒐 ) •
𝒎𝟑𝟏 (𝑿𝑷 − 𝑿𝑺 ) + 𝒎𝟑𝟐 (𝒀𝑷 − 𝒀𝑺 ) + 𝒎𝟑𝟑 (𝒁𝑷 − 𝒁𝑺 )
𝒎𝟐𝟏 (𝑿𝑷 − 𝑿𝑺 ) + 𝒎𝟐𝟐 (𝒀𝑷 − 𝒀𝑺 ) + 𝒎𝟐𝟑 (𝒁𝑷 − 𝒁𝑺 )
𝒚𝒑 − 𝒚𝒐 = −(𝒛𝒑 − 𝒛𝒐 ) •
𝒎𝟑𝟏 (𝑿𝑷 − 𝑿𝑺 ) + 𝒎𝟑𝟐 (𝒀𝑷 − 𝒀𝑺 ) + 𝒎𝟑𝟑 (𝒁𝑷 − 𝒁𝑺 )
where
𝑥𝑝 , 𝑦𝑝 = coordinates of a point on image space
𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 = image coordinates of the photo principal point
𝑋𝑃 , 𝑌𝑃 , 𝑍𝑝 = object space/ground coordinates of ground point P
𝑋𝑆 , 𝑌𝑆 , 𝑍𝑆 = object space/ground coordinates of exposure station O
𝑧𝑝 − 𝑧𝑜 = focal length f

3-16
𝑚𝑖𝑗 = elements of the orthogonal transformation matrix in which rotations

,  and  of the photographs are implicit given by the following
matrix relationship
𝑚11 𝑚12 𝑚13 1 0 0 cos 𝜙 0 −sin 𝜙 cos 𝜅 − sin 𝜅 0
(𝑚21 𝑚22 𝑚23 ) = (0 cos 𝜔 sin 𝜔 ) ( 0 1 0 ) ( sin 𝜅 cos 𝜅 0)
𝑚31 𝑚32 𝑚33 0 −sin 𝜔 cos 𝜔 sin 𝜙 0 cos 𝜙 0 0 1
Figure 3-10: Collinearity Condition
Examples of particular problems for which the collinearity equations are useful include
space resection (camera exterior orientation unknown, object points known, observed
image coordinates given, usually implying a single image), space intersection (camera
exterior orientations known, object point unknown, observed image coordinates given,
usually implying a single object point), and bundle block adjustment (simultaneous
resection and intersection, multiple images, and multiple points). This equation is
nonlinear and a linear approximation is usually made if we attempt to solve for any of the
variables as unknowns. This dictates an iterative solution (Bethel, 2003).
3.5.2 Coplanarity Condition and Coplanarity Equation

In most photogrammetric problems, object points are recorded on two or more
photographs. For two photos, the two conjugate rays defined on each object point must
be coplanar. The corresponding mathematical condition, known as the coplanarity
equation, implies that the two camera stations, the two image points, and the object point
are in a same epipolar plane. The coordinates of the object point do not appear in the
equation, so no approximations for the coordinates are needed (Grussenmeyer and Khalil,
n.d.).
The coplanarity condition implies that the two perspective centers, any object point and
the corresponding image points on the two photographs of stereo-pair, must all lie on a
common plane. This condition is fundamental to Relative Orientation or Space Intersection
(Ghosh, 2005).

3-17
Figure 3-11: Coplanarity Condition and Intersection for Relative Orientation (Ghosh,
2005)
The phrase conjugate image points refers to multiple image instances of the same object
point. If we consider a pair of properly oriented images and the pair of rays defined by
two conjugate image points, then this pair of rays together with the base vector between
the perspective centres should define a plane in space. The coplanarity condition enforces
this geometrical configuration. This is done by forcing these three vectors to be coplanar,
which is in turn guaranteed by setting the triple scalar product to zero. An alternative
explanation is that the parallelepiped defined by the three vectors as edges has zero
volume. Figure 3-11 illustrates this geometry. The left vector is given by (Bethel, 2003)
𝑢1 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜
𝑅1 = 𝑘1 [ 𝑣1 ] = 𝑘1 𝑀1𝑡 [𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 ]
𝑤1 −𝑓 1
Similarly the right vector is given by

𝑢2 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜
𝑅2 = 𝑘2 [ 𝑣2 ] = 𝑘2 𝑀2 [𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 ]
𝑡
𝑤2 −𝑓 2
and the base vector is given by
𝑏𝑥 𝑋𝑂2 − 𝑋𝑂1
𝑏 = [ 𝑦 ] = [ 𝑌𝑂2 − 𝑌𝑂1 ]
𝑏
𝑏𝑧 𝑍𝑂2 − 𝑍𝑂1
The coplanarity equation is the above sated triple scalar product, i.e.; 𝐹 = 𝑏⃗ ∙ 𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ∙ 𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = 0
where
k1, k2 = scale factors

3-18
M1, M2 = orientation matrices for photographs 1 and 2 respectively
The most prominent application for which the coplanarity equation is used is relative
orientation. The equation is non-linear and a linear approximation is usually made in order
to solve for any of the variables as unknowns. This dictates an iterative solution (Bethel,
2003).

3-19
Lecture Notes (03 March 2019) Chapter 4 Photogrammetric Triangulation
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC TRIANGULATION
4 Photogrammetric Triangulation: [8 hrs]
Investigating the possibility of object space reconstruction from imagery using
4.1 Single Image
4.2 Stereo Pair (two overlapping images)
4.3 Single flight lines (strip triangulation)
4.4 Image Blocks
4.4.1 Block Adjustment of Independent Models (BAIM)
4.4.2 Bundle Block Adjustment
4.4.3 Block Adjustment with added parameters (Self-Calibration)
4.5 Advantages and disadvantages
4.6 Statistical Evaluation: Precision, Accuracy and Reliability
4.1 Introduction
Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining reliable information about objects and of
measuring and interpreting this information. The task of obtaining information is called
data acquisition. Another major task of photogrammetry is concerned with reconstructing
the object space from images. This entails two problems: geometric reconstruction (e.g.
the position of objects) and radiometric reconstruction (e.g. the gray shades of a surface).
The latter problem is relevant when photographic products are generated, such as
orthophotos. Photogrammetry is mainly concerned with the geometric reconstruction. The
object space is only partially reconstructed, however. With partial reconstruction we mean
that only a fraction of the information recorded from the object space is used for its
representation (Schenk, 2005).
The geometrical relationship between image and object space can best be established by
introducing suitable coordinate systems for referencing both spaces (Schenk, 2005). Such
relationship can be achieved by using:
 Single image
 Stereo-pair
 Single strip or
 Image blocks
Aero-triangulation is the term most frequently applied to the process of determining the
X, Y, and Z ground coordinates of individual points based on photo coordinate
measurements. Photo-triangulation is perhaps a more general term, however, because
the procedure can be applied to terrestrial photos as well as aerial photos. With improved
photogrammetric equipment and techniques, accuracies to which ground coordinates can
be determined by these procedures have become very high (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson,
2014: 396).
Aero-triangulation is used extensively for many purposes. One of the principal applications
lies in extending or densifying ground control through strips and/or blocks of photos for
use in subsequent photogrammetric operations. When used for this purpose, it is often
called bridging, because in essence a “bridge” of intermediate control points is
developed between field-surveyed control that exists in only a limited number of photos
in a strip or block. Establishment of the needed control for compilation of topographic

4-1
maps with stereoplotters is an excellent example to illustrate the value of aero-

triangulation. In this application, the practical minimum number of control points
necessary in each stereo model is three horizontal and four vertical points. For large
mapping projects, therefore, the number of control points needed is extensive, and the
cost of establishing them can be extremely high if it is done exclusively by field survey
methods. Much of this needed control is now routinely being established by aero-
triangulation from only a sparse network of field-surveyed ground control and at a
substantial cost savings. A more recent innovation involves the use of kinematic GPS and
INS in the aircraft to provide coordinates and angular attitude of the camera at the instant
each photograph is exposed. In theory, this method can eliminate the need for ground
control entirely, although in practice a small amount of ground control is still used to
strengthen the solution (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014).
Besides having an economic advantage over field surveying, aero-triangulation has other
benefits: (1) most of the work is done under laboratory conditions, thus minimizing delays
and hardships due to adverse weather conditions; (2) access to much of the property
within a project area is not required; (3) field surveying in difficult areas, such as marshes,
extreme slopes, and hazardous rock formations, can be minimized; and (4) the accuracy
of the field-surveyed control necessary for bridging is verified during the aero-triangulation
process, and as a consequence, chances of finding erroneous control values after initiation
of compilation are minimized and usually eliminated. This latter advantage is so meaningful
that some organizations perform bridging even though adequate field-surveyed control
exists for stereo model control. It is for this reason also that some specifications for
mapping projects require that aero-triangulation be used to establish photo control (Wolf,
DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014).
Apart from bridging for subsequent photogrammetric operations, aero-triangulation can

be used in a variety of other applications in which precise ground coordinates are needed
although most of these uses have been largely replaced by GPS. In property surveying,
aero-triangulation can be used to locate section corners and property corners or to locate
evidence that will assist in finding these corners. In topographic mapping, aero-
triangulation can be used to develop digital elevation models by computing X, Y, and Z
ground coordinates of a systematic network of points in an area, although airborne laser
scanning is commonly being used for this task. Aero-triangulation has been used
successfully for densifying geodetic control networks in areas surrounded by tall buildings
where problems due to multipath cause a loss of accuracy in GPS surveys. Special
applications include the precise determination of the relative positions of large machine
parts during fabrication. It had been found especially useful in such industries as
shipbuilding and aircraft manufacture. Many other applications of aero-triangulation are
also being pursued (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014).
4.2 Methods of Aero-triangulation

Methods of performing aero-triangulation may be classified into one of three categories:
analog, semi-analytical, and analytical. Early analog procedures involved manual interior,
relative, and absolute orientation of the successive models of long strips of photos using
stereoscopic plotting instruments having several projectors. This created long strip models
from which coordinates of pass points could be read directly. Later, universal
stereoplotting instruments were developed which enabled this process to be accomplished
with only two projectors. These procedures are now principally of historical interest, having
given way to the other two methods (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014).
Semi analytical aero-triangulation involves manual interior and relative orientation of

stereo models within a stereoplotter, followed by measurement of model coordinates.
Absolute orientation is performed numerically—hence the term semi analytical aero-
4-2
triangulation. Analytical methods consist of photo coordinate measurement followed by

numerical interior, relative, and absolute orientation from which ground coordinates are
computed. Various specialized techniques have been developed within each of the three
aero-triangulation categories, some of these techniques are described in the following
sections. It predominantly relates to bridging for subsequent photogrammetric operations
because this is the principal use of aero-triangulation. Extension of these basic principles
can readily be translated to the other areas of application, however (Wolf, DeWitt and
Wilkinson, 2014).
4.3 Analog Triangulation

In this procedures, stereoplotters are used to for a continuous strip model at one scale
from an overlapping strip of photographs. Operations involved include relative orientation
of successive models and scale transfer between consecutive models, and adjustment of
the resulting strip to fit the available ground control (Davis et al., 2014). In extending
control by this method, adjacent stereomodels of a strip are successively oriented to each
other to form a continuous “strip model”. Coordinates of all pass points and control points
are read from the strip model, and then all points are adjusted to a limited amount of
field-surveyed ground control to arrive at their final coordinates (Wolf, 1974: 428).
At first, the first pair of photographs in the strip say photos 1 and 2 are relatively oriented
at some arbitrary scale (Davis et al., 2014). It is convenient, although not necessary, to
have enough field-surveyed ground control in the beginning model of the strip to enable
that model to be absolutely oriented. After completing the orientation of the first model
1/2, then the third photo 3 is then oriented to photo 2 (Wolf, 1974: 428). This procedure
is required so as not to destroy the first model and guarantee the continuity of the strip
model. This operation, therefore, is usually referred to as dependent relative orientation.
The scale of the model 2/3 may in general be different from that of the model 1/2. The
process of scale transfer between the two models is performed so that the scale of the
new model 2/3 is the same as that of the preceding model, 1/2. The process of dependent
relative orientation and scale transfer are repeated for all other models throughout the
strip. At the end a continuous strip model at an arbitrary uniform scale results. The data
from the plotter are then transferred and adjusted to fit available ground control (Davis et
al., 2014).
If there are not enough ground control in the beginning model of the strip to enable
absolute orientation, this first model may be set to some arbitrary scale and approximately
levelled. Then the strip is formed as previously described and elevations are read and
positions plotted as before for all ground control points and pass points. Pass point
positions and elevations are finally adjusted by numerical methods according to difference
between control coordinates and measured strip coordinates for all field-surveyed control
points. The amount of field-surveyed control needed in a strip depends upon the length
of the strip. As a minimum, about two horizontal and three or four vertical points should
exist in approximately every fifth model of the stip. The use of more control than this
amount will generally improve accuracy of the control extension (Wolf, 1974: 431).
Once the only possibility, analog methods do not play a significant role now-a-days
(Schenk, n.d.: 48).
Pass points for analogical control extension are normally selected in the general
photographic locations as shown in the Figure 4-1. The points may be images of natural
well-defined objects that appear in the required photo areas, or if no such points are
available, pass points may be artificially marked using a special point marking device. Even
though satisfactory natural points may exist in the required general locations on the
photographs, many photogrammetrists prefer to mark pass points artificially for two

4-3
reasons. First, a more discrete point is obtained so that more accurate measurements of
its position can be obtained. Second, the likelihood of misidentifying pass points is greatly
reduced. In analogical control extension only three pass points near the y axis of each
photo are makded as shown in the figure. When stereopairs of photos with pass points
marked in this manner are oriented in a plotter, six points appear in each stereomodel as
shown in the figure (Wolf, 1974: 432).
Figure 4-1: Idealized pass point locations for analogical control extension (top) and
locations of pass points in two adjacent stereomodels (bottom)
4.4 Semi-analytical or Independent Model (Streo-)Triangulation

In this procedure model relative orientation is performed instrumentally on a plotter, but
model connection, including scale transfer between successive models, is accomplished
analytically, hence the semi-analytical designation. The model is also called independent
model because each model 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, etc., is relatively oriented on the plotter
completely independently of other models. After relative orientation, each model will have
its own coordinate system, as schematically depicted for three consecutive models in the
figure (Davis et al., 2014).
Semi-analytical aero-triangulation, often referred to as independent model aero-

triangulation, is a partly analytical procedure that emerged with the development of
computers. It involves relative orientation of each stereomodel of a strip or block of
photos. After the models have been formed, they are numerically adjusted to the ground
system by either a sequential or a simultaneous method. In the sequential approach,
contiguous models are joined analytically, one by one, to form a continuous strip model,
and then absolute orientation is performed numerically to adjust the strip model to ground
control. In the simultaneous approach, all models in a strip or block are joined and
adjusted to ground control in a single step, much like the simultaneous transformation
technique (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014).
An advantage of using semi-analytical aero-triangulation is that independent stereomodels

are more convenient for operators in production processes. This stems from the fact that
4-4
the images that make up stereomodel are more “tightly” oriented with respect to each
other, whereas in fully analytical adjustments the images are oriented to optimize their fit
with respect to a block of multiple photos which may lead to residual y parallax in the
orientation between individual stereopairs. Regardless of whether the sequential or
simultaneous method is employed, the process yields coordinates of the pass points in the
ground system. Additionally, coordinates of the exposure stations can be determined in
either process. Thus, semi-analytical solutions can provide initial approximations for a
subsequent bundle adjustment (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014).
In the sequential approach to semi-analytical aero-triangulation, each stereopair of a strip

is relatively oriented in a stereoplotter, the coordinate system of each model being
independent of the others. When relative orientation is completed, model coordinates of
all control points and pass points are read and recorded. This is done for each stereomodel
in the strip. Figure 4-2 a and b illustrate the first three relatively oriented stereomodels of
a strip and show plan views of their respective independent coordinate systems. By means
of pass points common to adjacent models, a three dimensional conformal coordinate
transformation is used to tie each successive model to the previous one. To gain needed
geometric strength in the transformations, the coordinates of the perspective centers
(model exposure stations) are also measured in each independent model and included as
common points in the transformation. The right exposure station of model 1/2, O2, for
example, is the same point as the left exposure station of model 2/3. To transform model
2/3 to model 1/2, therefore, coordinates of common points d, e, f, and O2 of model 2/3
are made to coincide with their corresponding model 1/2 coordinates. Once the
parameters for this transformation have been computed, they are applied to the
coordinates of points g, h, i, and O3 in the system of model 2/3 to obtain their coordinates
in the model 1/2 system. These points in turn become control for a transformation of the
points of model 3/4. By applying successive coordinate transformations, a continuous strip
of stereomodels may be formed, as illustrated in Figure 4-2 c. The entire strip model so
constructed is in the coordinate system defined by model 1/2 (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson,
2014).
After a strip model has been formed, it is numerically adjusted to the ground coordinate
system using all available control points. If the strip is short, i.e., up to about four models,
this adjustment may be done using a three-dimensional conformal coordinate
transformation. This requires that a minimum of two horizontal control points and three
vertical control points be present in the strip. More control than the minimum is desirable,
however, as it adds stability and redundancy to the solution. As discussed later in this
section, if the strip is long, a polynomial adjustment is preferred to transform model
coordinates to the ground coordinate system. In the short strip illustrated in Figure 4-2 c,
horizontal control points H1 through H4 and vertical control points V1 through V4 would be
used in a three-dimensional conformal coordinate transformation to compute the ground
coordinates of pass points a through l and exposure stations O1 through O4 (Wolf, DeWitt
and Wilkinson, 2014).

4-5
Figure 4-2: Independent model or semianalytical aerotriangulation. (a) Three adjacent

relatively oriented stereomodels. (b) Individual arbitrary coordinate systems of three
adjacent stereomodels. (c) Continuous strip of stereomodels
4.5 Analytical Triangulation

Analytical procedure in photogrammetric control extension, like analogical methods,
involve the basic steps of relative orientation of each stereomodel, connection of adjacent
models to form a continuous strip, and adjustment of the strip to field-surveyed ground
control. The fundamental difference is that the basic input consists of precisely measured
photo coordinates of control pints and pass points. Relative orientation is then performed
analytically based upon the measured coordinates and known camera constants (Wolf,
1974: 438).
Analytically extended control tends to be more accurate than analogically extended

control, largely because analytical techniques can more effectively eliminate systematic
errors such as film shrinkage, atmospheric refraction distortions, camera lens distortions,
etc. Another advantage of analytical methods is freedom from the mechanical or optical
limitations imposed by stereoplotters. Photography of any focal length, tilt, and flying
height can be handled with the same efficiency. A disadvantage of analytical methods is
that the computations are rather complicated and difficult to comprehend. Also a medium-
4-6
or large size computer is necessary to contain and compute the volume of data for
extensive problems with economy and speed (Wolf, 1974: 439). The analytical aero-
triangulation methods can be classified according to their mathematical models as
(Schenk, n.d.):
 Polynomial strip adjustment

 Independent model method
 Bundle method
 Block adjustment with added parameters (Self-calibration)
Obviously, aero-triangulation with independent models or bundles requires common points

between models or photographs. In order to join the models, together, common points
are necessary. Common points between adjacent strips are called tie points.
Figure 4-3: Overlap configuration of an ideal block
Figure 4-3 shows the overlap configuration of an ideal block. The forward overlap is 60%
and the side overlap 20 to 30 %. Common points are found in the overlapping areas. As
indicated in the figure, the degree of overlap varies across the block. If we move from left
to right, we find the typical pattern of 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, …….; where the numbers refer to the
number of photographs covering the same area. This sequence of numbers doubles where
adjacent strips overlap. With this standard overlap configuration, the maximum overlap is
6. This corresponds to an area of 44mm×44mm in the four corners of the photographs.
Consecutive models overlap by 20 % (Schenk, n.d.).
Figure 4-4 (a) shows the typical pattern of 9 points per photograph, or 6 points per model.
The six model points serve to orient the model after the points are known in the object
coordinate system by the process of aerotriangulation. With this regular pattern we obtain
a total of p + 6 object points where p is the number of photographs per strip. With every
adjacent strip, this number is increased by two thirds. Thus, the total number of object
points, n, becomes n = 2p s+4s + p+2 with s the number of strips. To generalize, we
have (Schenk, n.d.):
n = a1p s + a2s + a3p + a4
where

4-7
s = number of strips
p = number of photographs per strip
n = total number of object points
In Table 4-1 the coefficients a1, . . . , a4 for different point densities are listed. A block
with 3 strips, 4 photographs each, and 9 points per photograph contains 42 object points.
Compare this with the number of measured points: 12 photographs, 9 points each, or 108
points. The ratio r of measured points to object points indicates the redundancy. For a
block with 10 strips, 20 photographs each, 25 points per photograph, we obtain n = 1763
and r = 2.84. The larger the redundancy the higher the reliability of a block adjustment.
Figure 4-4: Typical pattern of 9 points per photographs
Table 4-1: Coefficients for computing the total number of object points
4.5.1 Polynomial Strip Adjustment

A strip is formed by transforming consecutive models into a strip coordinate system. This
strip is then adjusted to the available ground control points using polynoms.
With the enormous increase of computer performance, the method of adjusting strips by
polynomials lost its significance. Schut was one of the pioneers who developed this method
in the sixties. His published programs were very popular and in wide spread use.
4.5.2 Independent Model Method

Here, models are joined together and transformed to the ground control system in a
simultaneous adjustment. The mathematical model is based on 7-parameter
transformation (3D similarity transformation). Model coordinates are either measured in
stereoplotters, or computed from photo-coordinates (e.g., by relative orientation)
(Schenk, n.d.).
The concept of the independent model method is to simultaneously determine the absolute
orientation of all models of a block by a least squares adjustment. Fig. 4.12 illustrates the
concept (Schenk, n.d.).

4-8
Figure 4-5: Concept of independent model method.
The independent model method was developed by European photogrammetrists, most

notably by Ackermann. The first commercial programs became available in the mid-
seventies. The method offers the advantage to use stereo plotters (analog instruments)
for measuring model coordinates. However, since more and more analog instruments are
replaced by analytical plotters, this advantage is no longer significant. Actually, using
stereo plotters today for aero-triangulation is quite a disadvantage, as measuring one
model takes longer and is less accurate (Schenk, n.d.).
We can perform a relative orientation of a entire strip of photography by either analog or

analytical methods. During the process of tying each successive model in the strip to the
one before it, systematic errors in the image coordinates accumulate to warp the strip. In
polynomial strip adjustment, the transformation from strip coordinates to world
coordinates is modelled as a set of polynomials with terms chosen to correct for the
common modes of strip deformation. One set of equations is solved for the planimetric (X,
Y) coordinates, while another equation models the Z transformation (Mikhail, Bethel and
McGlone, 2013: 120).
Polynomial adjustment is computationally economical, since only the polynomial

coefficients must be computed. This method was therefore well suited to the limited
computational power available in the early 1960s. However, its accuracy is low since the
image geometry is not directly modelled and only gross effects can be corrected.
Polynomial adjustment is no longer used in practice, other than occasionally to generate
tie point coordinate approximations for a bundle adjustment, since the cost of the
computational power required for a more accurate bundle adjustment is much less than
that of the additional control points required to obtain satisfactory results with polynomial
methods (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 121).
4.5.3 Block Adjustment of Independent Models (BAIM)

Instead of grouping the models into strips, we can adjust each model independently as
part of an overall block adjustment. This also reduces the number of parameters in the
adjustment (seven per model, as opposed to six per image for bundle adjustment), but
gives much better results than polynomial adjustment methods. The models can be formed

4-9
on standard analog stereoplotters or from comparator measurements using analytical

relative orientation methods (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 121).
Independent model block adjustment can be thought of as the simultaneous absolute

orientation of all the models in the block. If we have two horizontal and three vertical
control points in a model, we can relate model coordinates to world coordinates using the
three-dimensional similarity transformation. In independent model block adjustment,
instead of control points in each model, we have a block of models connected by tie points
(including the perspective centers), which among them contain at least two horizontal and
three vertical control points (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 121).
Inclusion of the perspective centers as tie points is critical for the geometric strength of
the solution. In standard block configurations, stereomodels overlap only at the very edges
in the along-strip direction. If tie points were chosen only within the edge regions, the tie
points would be nearly collinear, allowing the connected models to rotate around the
overlap region. Adding the perspective center as a tie point reinforces the connection by
preventing this rotation. If an analog stereoplotter is used to form the models, the
coordinates of the perspective center must be measured while the model is set in the
instrument. If analytical methods are used, the perspective center coordinates are
determined as part of the solution (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013).
Independent model block adjustment was widely adopted, since it could use either existing
stereoplotters or comparators for input data generation, the computational expense was
well suited to available computers, and the accuracy was much better than that of the
polynomial methods (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 122).
Several variations of the independent model method were developed. One of the most
successful was the implementation of PAT-M-43, developed at the University of Stuttgart.
This divided the seven-parameter planimetric adjustment and a three-parameter height
adjustment. The planimetric adjustment incorporated the scale factor, the K rotation
around the Z-axis, and the X and Y translations, while the height adjustment incorporated
the two levelling rotations, omega and phi, and the Z translation. These two adjustments
are not independent, since the planimetric adjustment assumes that the model is level
and the height adjustment assumes that the points are properly positioned planimetrically.
The two adjustments must therefore be repeated alternately until the corrections to the
point coordinates are negligible. Since the conditions are usually close to being met at the
start of the procedure and the solution is nearly linear, only a few iterations are typically
required (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 122).
A variation of independent model adjustment is to work with larger units, such as triplets
or sub-blocks. Using larger basic units further reduces the number of parameters and
simplifies editing of tie points for blunders (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 123).
4.5.4 Bundle Block Adjustment

The most elementary geometric unit in photogrammetry is the image ray, which connects
an object space point, the perspective center of an image, and the projection of the point
in the image. A single image can be thought of as a bundle of such rays converging at the
perspective center with an unknown position and orientation in space. A bundle block
adjustment established the position and orientation of each bundle, using the rays in each
bundle and the given ground control information (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013:
123).
Bundle adjustment is the most accurate and flexible method of triangulation currently in
use. The accuracy levels attainable in aerial triangulation allow its use for geodetic control
extension, while in close-range applications, precision of 1:500,000 of the largest
4-10
dimension of the measured object has been reported. Numerous extensions of the basic
method have increased both flexibility and accuracy. The addition of self-calibration
parameters corrects for remaining systematic errors and increases the overall accuracy of
the adjustment. Geometric relationships within the scene, such as collinearity or
coplanarity, can be incorporated to add information and thereby increase the precision.
High-quality navigational data from GPS receivers can be rigorously included to reduce
control requirements dramatically. Bundle block adjustment is based on the collinearity
equations (Section 3.5.1) (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013).
4.5.5 Block Adjustment with Added Parameters (Self-Calibration)

Camera calibration was formerly performed as a separate procedure from block
adjustment. The interior orientation parameters of the camera were determined and then
held fixed during the triangulation procedure. Image coordinate measurements were
assumed to be corrected for systematic effects, such as lens distortion and atmospheric
refraction, before the adjustment. This enabled the use of simplified geometric models,
since image measurements were assumed to be uncorrelated and to contain only random
errors (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 124).
However, there are many situations in which we would like to determine the systematic
errors under operational conditions as part of the solution. The examination of residuals
from block adjustments often shows clear trends attributable to uncorrected systematic
error, due to differences in environmental conditions between the calibration laboratory
and the operational environment. In some cases, it is not feasible to completely calibrate
the camera in a laboratory, as in close-range applications that use nonmetric cameras.
Many navigational sensors, such as inertial navigation systems (INS) or statoscopes, have
systematic drift errors that are known, the exact amount of drift cannot be determined
beforehand and must be part of the solution. For these reasons, block adjustment with
self-calibration parameters was developed (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 124).
Examination of the collinearity equations shows that the principal point coordinates and
the focal length appear directly in the equations and could be treated as additional
unknowns in the solution. It would seem that the refined image coordinates could be
replaced by unrefined image coordinates and the correction equations for lens distortion,
so that the coefficients can be obtained from the solution (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone,
2013).
The problem with naively solving for the interior orientation parameters in this way is that
in many cases there is not enough geometric information to separate the effects of the
parameters so that they can be determined. In this case, we say that the parameters are
correlated, since choosing a value for one parameter fixes the value of the other. For
example, take the case of a perfectly vertical aerial image of flat terrain. There are an
infinite number of combinations of flying height and focal length that will yield the same
image. If we are given the measurements of an object in the image and on the ground,
we cannot determine both the focal length and flying height, since their effects cannot be
separated. Exactly the same thing happen in an aerial triangulation with added parameters
– the geometry is often such that the effects of the self-calibration parameters cannot be
distinguished from each other or from the effects of the orientation parameters (Mikhail,
Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 124).
Note that parameters that are not perfectly correlated can still cause problems with the
solution. In the previous example, if we are given the measurements of two objects at
different elevations, we can theoretically determine both the flying height and focal length.
However, in a practical sense, we will still have trouble determining both parameters
unless the difference in elevation is significant with respect to the flying height. If the

4-11
difference in scale for the two objects is not greater than the effects of measurement or
computational roundoff errors, the parameters determined will not be accurate (Mikhail,
Therefore, to apply self-calibration by added parameters, we must carefully choose the

parameters we add to the solution, we must design the image acquisition geometry to
minimize correlation, and we must pay careful attention to correlations when we perform
the solution (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 124).
Several formulations of self-calibration parameters have been proposed. Generally, they

are based on first modelling known systematic errors, such as lens distortion, principal
distance error, or principal point offset. Additional terms are then added to cover general
deformations that might be present (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 125).
4.6 Advantages and Disadvantages

4.7 Statistical Evaluation: Precision, Accuracy and Reliability
Aerotriangulation Principles
a. Definition. Aerotriangulation is the simultaneous space resection and space intersection

of image rays recorded by an aerial mapping camera. Conjugate image rays projected
from two or more overlapping photographs intersect at the common ground points to
define the three-dimensional space (3-D) coordinates of each point. The entire assembly
of image rays is fit to known ground control points in an adjustment process.
Thus, when the adjustment is complete, ground coordinates of unknown ground points
are determined by the intersection of adjusted image rays.
b. Purpose. The purpose of aerotriangulation is to extend horizontal and vertical control

from relatively few ground survey control points to each unknown ground point included
in the solution. The supplemental control points are called pass points, and they are used
to control subsequent photogrammetric mapping.
Each stereomodel is scaled and leveled using the adjusted coordinate values of the pass
points located in the stereomodel.
c. Relationship to ground control. Aerotriangulation is essentially an interpolation tool,

capable of extending control points to areas between ground survey control points using
several contiguous uncontrolled stereomodels. An aerotriangulation solution should never
be extended or cantilevered beyond the ground control. Ground control should be located
at the ends of single strips and along the perimeter of block configurations. Within a strip
or block, ground control is added at intervals of several stereomodels to limit error
propagation in the adjusted pass point coordinates. Extending control by aerotriangulation
methods is often referred to as bridging since the spatial image ray triangulation spans
the gap between ground control.
(US Army Corps of Engineers, 2002)

4-12
Lecture Notes (14 Feb. 2019) Chapter 5 Direct vs Indirect Orientation
DIRECT VERSUS INDIRECT ORIENTATION

5 Direct versus Indirect Orientation: [5 hrs]
Incorporating additional sensory data from GPS/INS units in photogrammetric
triangulations
5.1 Advantages
5.2 Prerequisites
5.3 Mathematical Model
5.4 Direct vs Indirect Orientation
5.5 Flight Planning
5.1 Direct vs Indirect Orientation

There are three basic approaches for computing exterior orientation parameters of an
imaging sensor, they can be described as:
1. Direct Sensor Orientation or Direct Orientation

2. Indirect Sensor Orientation or Indirect Orientation
3. Integrated Sensor Orientation or Integrated Orientation
5.1.1 Direct Orientation

Determining the exterior orientation parameters directly using suitable positioning and
orientation sensors is called direct orientation.
5.1.2 Indirect Orientation

Determining the exterior orientation parameters indirectly by extracting them from block
of images using sufficient number of well-distributed known ground control points and
aerial triangulation is called indirect orientation.
RPC are not given or considered not accurate enough, you need GCPs. For aerial surveys
we can solve the exterior orientation in one of the following ways (Ip, 2005):
a) Indirect camera orientation: identify GCPs in the image and measure the row-column
coordinates; acquire (X,Y,Z) coordinates for these points, e.g. by GCPs or a sufficiently
accurate topographic map; use adequate software to calculate the exterior orientation
parameters, after having completed the interior orientation.
b) Direct camera orientation: make use of GPS and IMU recordings during image
acquisition employing digital photogrammetric software.
c) Integrated camera orientation, which is a combination of (a) and (b)
For images from very high resolution sensors such as Ikonos or QuickBird, adding one
GCP can already considerably improve the exterior orientation as defined by the RPC. For
Cartostat images it is advisable to improve the exterior orientation by at least five GCPs.
For orienting a frame camera image you need at least three GCPs (unless you also have
GPS and IMU data). After orientation, you can use the terrain coordinates of any reference
point and calculate its position in the image. The differences between measured and
calculated image coordinates (the residuals) allow you to estimate the accuracy of
orientation. As you may guess, advanced camera/sensor/image orientation is a topic for
further studies (Tempfli et al., 2009).
5-1
5.2 Integrated Orientation

Determining the exterior orientation parameters using a combination of a block of images,
positioning and orientation sensors’ measurements, and when necessary, ground control
points is referred to as integrated orientation.
The direct orientation approach is most commonly achieved using an integrated

DGPS/IMU. Such approaches have been introduced where the mathematical model and
proposed applications were presented.
The indirect orientation approach uses aerial triangulation, which relies on adjusting a
network of tie points in a block of images with a sufficient number of well distributed
known GCPs.
When the availability of GCPs is in question, such as within forests, snow covered grounds,
deserts, or along a coastline, the ability to resolve the exterior orientation parameters
indirectly is limited. Often these areas are also very important when emergency response
application is required, such as in the case of forest fires, flooding and hurricanes. Such
an application requires fast orthohoto generation, and there is insufficient time and
resources to extract the exterior orientation parameters using traditional aerial
triangulation. In addition, some projects only require a single strip or single photo
orientation. For instance, in the case where there is an existing DEM, the use of traditional
aerial triangulation to determine EOP is unpractical because it requires excessive GCPs and
additional overlapping photos. Hence in many applications direct orientation is either the
only practical solution, or the most cost effective solution (Ip, 2005).
The ground accuracy of object coordinates, when using a direct orientation, is dependent
upon the GPS accuracy for position and the IMU accuracy for orientation. The orientation
error produces a position error on the ground as a function of the flying height (or photo
scale). At the best, GPS provides about 5 – 10 cm RMS when using dual frequency
differential processing with highly accurate GPS base station data. For a high end direct
georeferencing system using ring-lase gyros (RLG), fibre optic gyros (FOG) or dry-tunes
gyros (DTG), the orientation accuracty is typically about 0.005 deg RMS for roll and pitch,
and about 0.008 deg RMS for the heading. For traditional large scale mapping projects
that are flown relatively low above the ground, the ground accuracy becomes dominated
by the DGPS position error [Mostafa et al (2001b)]. Therefore, for large scale mapping
(>1:1000) projects requiring centimetre accuracy, direct EO usage from DG system is
marginal for film camera system [Dardanelli et al (2004)]. To improve the GPS positioning
accuracy, further research has to be done [Brunton et al (2001)]. However, using AT to
improve the photo centre positioning accuracy has long been considered by researchers
as an acceptable solution, and has been introduced in OEEPE tests as the Integrated
Sensor Orientation (ISO) [Jacobsen and Wegmann (2001), Heipke et al (2001a)]. (Ip,
2005)

5-2
Accuracy Analysis of Reconstructed Points in Object Space From Direct and Indirect
Exterior Orientation Methods - Ayman Habib and Toni Schenk, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering The Ohio State University
Towards a Closer Combination of Direct and Indirect Sensor Orientation of Frame Cameras
- Birger Reese and Christian Heipke
5.3 Flight Planning

Successful execution of any aerial photogrammetric project depends upon good quality
photography. If the photography is to satisfactorily serve its intended purposes, the
photographic mission must be carefully planned and faithfully executed according to the
flight plan. A flight plan generally consists of two items: (i) a flight map – which shows
where the photos are to be taken and (ii) specifications – which outline how to take them,
including specific requirements such as camera and film requirements, scale, flying height,
end and side laps, tilt and crab tolerances, etc. A flight plan which gives optimum
specifications for a project can be prepared only after careful consideration of all the many
variables which influence aerial photography (Wolf, 1974).
An aerial photographic mission is an expensive operation involving two or more crewmen

and expensive aircraft and equipment. In addition, in many areas periods of time that are
acceptable for aerial photography are quite limited by weather and ground cover
conditions which are related to season of the year. Failure to obtain satisfactory
photography on a flight mission not only necessitates costly reflights but in all probability
it will also cause long and expensive delays on the project for which the photos are
ordered. For these reasons, flight planning is one of the most important operations in the
overall photogrammetric project (Wolf, 1974).
Certain factors, depending generally on the purpose of the photography, must be specified
to guide a flight crew in executing its mission of taking aerial photographs. Some of them

5-3
are (1) boundaries of the area to be covered, (2) required scale of the photography, (3)
camera focal length and format size, (4) endlap, and (5) sidelap. Once these elements
have been fixed, it is possible to compute the entire flight plan and prepare a flight map
on which the required flight lines have been delineated. The pilot then flies the specified
flight lines by choosing and correlating headings on existing natural features shown on the
flight map. In the most modern systems, the flight planning is done using a computer and
the coordinates of flight lines are calculated. Then the aircraft is automatically guided by
an on-board GNSS system along the planned flight lines (Ghilani and Wolf , 2012: 828).
The purpose of the photography is the paramount consideration in flight planning. For
example, in taking aerial photos for topographic mapping using a stereo-plotter, endlap
should optimally be 60% and sidelap 30%. The required scale and contour interval of the
final map must be evaluated to settle flying height. Enlargement capability from photo
scale to map compilation scale is restricted for stereo-plotting, and generally should not
exceed about 5 if satisfactory accuracy is to be achieved. By these criteria, if required map
scale is 200 ft/in., photo scale becomes fixed at 1000 ft/in. If the camera focal length is 6
in., flying height is established by Equation (27.2) at 6(1000) = 6000 ft above average
terrain. Some organizations may push this factor higher than 5, but it should be done with
caution (Ghilani and Wolf , 2012: 828).
Information ordinarily calculated in flight planning includes (1) flying height above mean
sea level, (2) distance between exposures, (3) number of photographs per flight line, (4)
distance between flight lines, (5) number of flight lines, and (6) total number of
photographs. A flight plan is prepared based on these items (Ghilani and Wolf , 2012:
829).
NUMERICAL Example: A flight plan for an area 10 mi wide and 15 mi long is required. The average
terrain in the area is 1500 ft above datum. The camera has a 6 in. focal length with 9 X 9
in. format. Endlap is to be 60%, sidelap 25%. The required scale of the photography is
1:12,000 (1000 ft/in.).
Solution
1. Flying height above datum:
Scale = f /H-havg
so 1/1000 = 6/H-1500 and H = 7500 ft
2. Distance between exposures, de: endlap is 60%, so the linear advance per photograph
is 40% of the total coverage of 9 in. X 1000 ft/in. = 9000 ft. Thus, the distance between
exposures is 0.40 X 9000 = 3600 ft.
3. Total number of photographs per flight line: length of each flight line = 15 mi (5280
ft/mi) = 79,200 ft
number of photos per flight line, Nphotos/Line = 79,200 ft/3600 ft/photo + 1 = 23
Adding two photos on each end to ensure complete coverage, the total is 23 + 2 + 2
= 27 photos per flight line.
4. Distance between flight lines: sidelap is 25%, so the lateral advance per flight line is
75% of the total photographic coverage,
distance between flight lines, ds = 0.75(9000 ft) = 6750 ft
5. Number of flight lines:

5-4
width of area = 10 mi (5280 ft/mi) = 52,800 ft
number of spaces between flight lines = 52,800 ft/6750 ft/line = 7.8 (say 8)
total flight lines, Nlines = 8 + 1 = 9
planned spacing between flight lines = 52,800/8 = 6600 ft
(Note: The first and last flight lines should either coincide with or be near the edges
of the area, thus providing a safety factor to ensure complete coverage.)
6. Total number of photos required:
total photos = 27 per flight line X 9 flight lines = 243 photos

5-5
5.3.1 Flight Map

A flight map, gives the project boundaries and flight lines the pilot must fly to obtain the
desired coverage. The flight map is prepared on some existing map which shows the
project area. In United States USGS quadrangle maps are frequently used. The flight may
also be prepared on small-scale photographs of the area if they are available. In executing
the planned photographic mission, the pilot finds two or more features on each flight line
which he can identify both on the flight map and on the ground. He flies the aircraft so
that his lines of flight pass over the ground points (Wolf, 1974).
Rectangular project areas are most conveniently covered with flight lines oriented north
and south or east and west. As illustrated in figure ____, this is desirable because the pilot
can take advantage of section lines and roads running in the cardinal directions and fly
parallel to them (Wolf, 1974).
If the project area is irregular in shape or if it is long and narrow and skewed to cardinal
directions, it may not be economical to fly north and south or east and west. In planning
coverage for such irregular areas, it may be most economical to alight flight lines parallel
to the project boundaries as nearly as possible. Flight planning templates are useful for
determining best and most economical photographic coverage for mapping, especially for
small areas. These templates, which show blocks of neat models, are prepared of
transparent plastic sheets at scales which correspond to the scales of the base maps upon
which flight plan is prepared. The templates are then simply superimposed on the map
over the project area and oriented in the position which yields best coverage with the
fewest number of neat models. Such a template is shown in figure ____. The crosses
represent exposure stations, and these may be individually marked on the flight map. This
template method of flight planning is exceptionally useful in planning exposure station
locations when artificial targets are used (Wolf, 1974).
Once camera focal length, photo scale, and image overlaps have been selected, the flight
map can be prepared.
5.3.2 Specifications
Most flight plans include a set of detailed specifications which outline the materials,
equipment, and procedures to be used on the project. These specifications include
requirements and tolerances pertaining to photographic scale (including camera focal
length and flying height), image overlaps, tilt, crab, and photographic quality (Wolf, 1974).
The following is a sample set to specifications for aerial photography:

5-6
Flight plans are normally portrayed on a map for the flight crew. However, old
photography, an index mosaic, or even a satellite image may be used for this purpose.

5-7
Lecture Notes (24 March 2017) Chapter 6 Digital Photogrammetry
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
6 Digital Photogrammetry: [5 hrs]
6.1 Digital Imagery
6.2 Digital Image Processing
6.3 Digital Image Resampling
6.4 Digital Image Compression
6.5 Digital Image Measurement
6.6 Feature Extraction
The term digital photogrammetry refers to photogrammetric techniques applied to digital

imagery. The current trend in favour of digital photogrammetry has been driven by the
enormous increase in computer power and availability, and the advances in image capture
and display techniques (Bethel, 2003).
Digital photogrammetry, is rapidly emerging as a new discipline in photogrammetry. In

contrast to all other phases, digital images are used instead of aerial photographs. With
the availability of storage devices which permit rapid access to digital imagery, and special
microprocessor chips, digital photogrammetry began in earnest only a few years ago. The
field is still in its infancy and has not yet made its way into the photogrammetric practice
(Schenk, 2005).
The digital or soft-copy photogrammetric systems are much simpler in design than the
analytical systems. They consists of a computer with stereo-capable graphics system, 3D
glasses with electronic shutters, and a 3D mouse as a user interface. The 3D mouse is a
reconfigured optical mouse with x, y, and z motion control and several user configurable
buttons. All other hardware of an analytical system has been replaced with software
programming (Bhatta, 2011).
Many photogrammetric tasks can be highly automated in soft-copy photogrammetry e.g.,

automatic DEM generation, contour generation, digital orthophoto generation, etc. The
products in digital photogrammetry are in digital form, such as digital maps, DEMs, digital
orthophotos, etc., which can be saved in the computer storage media. They can be easily
stored, managed and used (Bhatta, 2011).
6.1 Digital Imagery

An image may be defined as a 2D function, f(x, y), where x and y are spatial (plane)
coordinates (refer to section 3.1.3), and the amplitude of ‘f’ at any pair of coordinates (x,
y) is called the intensity or gray level of the image at that point. When x, y, and the
intensity values of ‘f’ are all finite, discrete quantities, we call the image a digital image.
Note that a digital image is composed of a finite number of elements, each of which has
a particular location and value. These elements are called picture elements, image
elements, pels, and pixels. Pixel is the term most widely used to denote the elements of a
digital image (Gonzalez and Woods, 2014). The intensity value may represent any
parameters such as reflectivity of electromagnetic radiation, emissivity, temperature, or
some geophysical or topographical elevation and is called as digital number (DN) which is
associated with each pixel. Pixel represents individual areas scanned by the sensor.
Smaller pixel size offers greater spatial accuracy (Bhatta, 2011).

6-1
Types of Digital Images

For photographic purposes, there are two important types of digital images—color and
black and white (Grayscale). Color images are made up of colored pixels while black and
white images are made of pixels in different shades of gray.
Grayscale Image
A black and white image is made up of pixels each of which holds a single number
corresponding to the gray level of the image at a particular location. These gray levels
span the full range from black to white in a series of very fine steps, normally 256 different
grays. Since the eye can barely distinguish about 200 different gray levels, this is enough
to give the illusion of a stepless tonal scale as illustrated below:
Assuming 256 gray levels, each black and white pixel can be stored in a single byte (8
bits) of memory.
Colour Images (RGB Images)

A color image is made up of pixels each of which holds three numbers corresponding to
the red, green, and blue levels of the image at a particular location. Red, green, and blue
(sometimes referred to as RGB) are the primary colors for mixing light—these so-called
additive primary colors are different from the subtractive primary colors used for mixing
paints (cyan, magenta, and yellow). Any color can be created by mixing the correct
amounts of red, green, and blue light. Assuming 256 levels for each primary, each color
pixel can be stored in three bytes (24 bits) of memory. This corresponds to roughly 16.7
million different possible colors.
Figure 6-1: (Bhatta, 2011)

6-2
Figure 6-2:
Note that for images of the same size, a black and white version will use three times less
memory than a color version.
Binary or Bilevel Images

Binary images use only a single bit to represent each pixel. Since a bit can only exist in
two states—on or off, every pixel in a binary image must be one of two colors, usually
black or white. This inability to represent intermediate shades of gray is what limits their
usefulness in dealing with photographic images.
Indexed Color Images

Some color images are created using a limited palette of colors, typically 256 different
colors. These images are referred to as indexed color images because the data for each
pixel consists of a palette index indicating which of the colors in the palette applies to that
pixel. There are several problems with using indexed color to represent photographic
images. First, if the image contains more different colors than are in the palette,
techniques such as dithering must be applied to represent the missing colors and this
degrades the image. Second, combining two indexed color images that use different
palettes or even retouching part of a single indexed color image creates problems because
of the limited number of available colors.(US Army Corps of Engineers, 2002)
6.2 Data Sources

Digital images can be obtained by scanning analog photographs or can be directly captured
in digital cameras or scanners. Digital image data for photogrammetry can come from a
number of sources. Satellite imagers transmit data directly in digital form. Primary among
the satellite sources would be SPOT and Landsat, each with a series of spacecraft and
sensors to provide continuous availability of imagery. Digital cameras for airborne or
terrestrial use have up to now been a minor contributor as source imagery for
photogrammetry. This is principally due to the limited size and density of sensor element
packing for area sensors, and to the adverse restitution capabilities with linear sensors
using motion-induced scanning. The predominant source of digital imagery for engineering
photogrammetry is the scan conversion of conventional film transparencies on high-
accuracy scanning systems. Such image data is typically collected as 8-bit (256 level) gray
values for monochrome imagery, or as 3 x 8-bit red, green, and blue components for color
imagery. Monochrome digital images are stored as a raster, or rectangular grid format.
For fast access they may also be tiled, or subdivided into subgrids. Color images may be
stored in band sequential or band interleaved order (Bethel, 2003).
6.3 Digital Image Processing

Digital image processing in general involves the use of computers for manipulating digital
images in order to improve their quality and/or modify their appearance. In digital image

6-3
processing, the digital number of each pixel in an original image is input to a computer,
with its inherent row and column location. The computer operates on the digital number
according to some preselected mathematical function or functions, and then stores the
results in another array which represents the new or modified image. When all pixels of
the original image have been processed in this manner and stored in the new array, the
result is a new digital image.
Many different types of digital image processes can be performed. One type falls under
the general heading of preprocessing operations. These are generally aimed at
correcting for distortions in the images which stem from the image acquisition process,
and they include corrections for such conditions as scanner or camera imperfections and
atmospheric refraction. Another type of digital image processing, called image
enhancement, has as its goal, the improvement of the visual quality of images. Image
enhancement makes interpretation and analysis of images easier, faster, and more
accurate; and thus it can significantly improve the quality of photogrammetric products
developed from digital images, and reduce the cost of producing them. Digital orthophotos
in particular benefit significantly from the improved image quality that results from image
enhancements.
A third type of digital image processing, called image classification, attempts to replace
manual human visual analysis with automated procedures for recognizing and identifying
objects and features in a scene. Image classification processes have been widely used in
a host of different interpretation and analysis applications, as well as in the production of
a variety of thematic maps. They are also used in automated soft copy mapping systems.
A final type of digital image processing, data merging, combines image data for a certain
geographic area with other geographically referenced information in the same area. The
procedures may overlay multiple images of the same area taken at different dates—a
technique which is very useful in identifying changes over time, such as monitoring a forest
fire or following the spread of a disease in a certain tree species. The procedures can also
combine image data with nonimage data such as DEMs, land cover, and soils. These types
of digital image processing are extremely important in the operation of geographic
information systems.
6.4 Digital Image Resampling

The acquisition of a digital image involves discrete sampling of a continuous analog signal,
for example, the reflected energy from the ground. These digital samples are made in a
(distorted) grid pattern, with each grid cell or pixel containing a digital number (DN)
representing the lightness of darkness at its corresponding ground location. When a digital
image is acquired, no attempt is made to have the pixels line up with any particular map
projection coordinates. It is therefore necessary to perform resampling to obtain a digital
sample at an intermediate (i.e., fractional) row, column location. Resampling involves
interpolation between existing pixels (DNs) to synthesize pixels that correspond to
fractional locations as illustrated in Figure 6-3. Determination of the appropriate fractional
locations is often the result of a coordinate transformation.
There are several techniques available for resampling digital images, although three
particular ones are by far, most prevalent. They are known as nearest-neighbour
interpolation, bilinear interpolation, and bicubic interpolation. Other, more computationally
intensive techniques are generally not employed since they tend to be sensitive to sensor
noise which exists in digital imagery.

6-4
Figure 6-3: Relationship between pixels from the originally sampled image and the
resampled image
6.4.1 Nearest Neighbour
The nearest-neighbour interpolation is the simplest of the three. As its name implies, the
DN chosen will be that of the image pixel whose center is closest to the center of the grid
cell. From a computational standpoint, all that is required is to round of the fractional row
and column values to the nearest integral value. Figure 6-4 shows the DNs for a 4 x 4
subarea from a digital image. A pixel is superimposed at a fractional location (R = 619.71,
C = 493.39). Rounding these values to the nearest superimposed at a interger yields 620
and 493 for the row and column indices, respectively. Thus, the resamples value is 56.
Figure 6-4: A 4x4 subarea of image pixels with superimposed grid cell at a fractional
location
The primary advantage of the nearest-neighbor method is that it is the fastest of the three
techniques in terms of computational time. It also has the advantage of not modifying the
original image data, which is important if remote-sensing image classification will be
performed. However, since a continuous interpolation is not being performed, the resultant
appearance can be somewhat jagged or blocky.

6-5
6.4.2 Bilinear Interpolation
The primary advantage of bilinear interpolation is the smoother appearance of the result.
This appearance is slightly compromised by the fact that some high-frequency detail is
filtered out. In other words, edges in the scene are slightly less distinct. In terms of
computational time, bilinear interpolation is slower than nearest-neighbor interpolation but
faster than bicubic interpolation.
6.4.3 Bicubic Interpolation (Cubic Convolution)

6-6
Bicubic interpolation is the most rigorous resampling technique of the three on the basis
of signal processing theory. It achieves the smooth appearance without sacrificing as much
high frequency (edge) detail as is characteristic of the bilinear interpolation. The reason
for this is illustrated in Fig. E-5. This figure shows a profile of four consecutive samples
along a single row of a digital image. The curve represents a smooth (cubic spline)
interpolation of image brightness based on the samples at the four dots. The dashed line
represents the linear interpolation between the two center pixels. For the indicated
fractional column, the bicubic interpolation is able to capture the trend of the signal better
than bilinear interpolation. By capturing trends in the signal, the bicubic interpolation
retains high frequency information that would be clipped by the bilinear interpolation
method. However, this enhanced appearance comes at a penalty in terms of
computational time.
6.5 Digital Image Compression

The term data compression refers to the process of reducing the amount of data required
to represent a given quantity of information. Data are the means by which information is
conveyed (Gonzalez and Woods, 2014).
Kurt Novak and Fayez S. Shahin, June 1996
Entropy and Redundancy

6-7
Compression Ratio

6-8
Lossy Compression
In lossy compression techniques, degradations of gray values are allowed in the
reconstructed image in exchange for a reduced bit rate as compared to lossless schemes.
Typically, lossy compression algorithms consist f three steps:
a) Image Decomposition of Transformation: In this step the image is transformed to

a new domain, such as the frequency domain, in order to reduce the dynamic
range of the signal (gray values) and to eliminate the correlations between the
original gray values.
b) Quantization: In this step the transformed pixel values are mapped onto a smaller,
finite number or output levels, in order to reduce the number of possible output
symbols. The type and degree of quantization impacts the quality of a lossy
scheme.
c) Symbol Coding: The resulting output sequence from the quantization process must
be efficiently coded, by using methods such as Huffman Coding/
Loss-less Compression
Some image compression applications require the reconstructed image to be numerically
identical to the original image on a pixel-by-pixel basis. An example is medical imaging,
where lossy compression schemes may compromise diagonistic accuracy. Lossless
compression schemes are also important in remote sensing, where the spectral
characteristics of image have to be preserved. As one might expect, the price to be paid
for an error-free image is a much lower compression ration as compared to lossy schemes
(Rabbani et al., 1990).
The primary difference between lossy and the lossless schemes is the inclusion or
quantization in lossy techniques. By quantization, the number of possible output symbols
is reduced. The reduction of the number of output symbols at the quantization step leads
to degradations in the reconstructed image in exchange for a higher compression ratio.

6-9
For and 8-bit image, the maximum compression ratio that can be obtained using lossless
schemes is 8 divided by the entropy of that image.
The most common lossless scheme is Lossless Predictive Coding. It can be implemented
by using the same steps as explained in the lossy scheme (Rabbani et al., 1990) with the
exclusion of the quantization step.
The amount of compression provided by any of the various processes is dependent on the
characteristics of the particular image being compressed, as well as on the picture quality
desired by the application and the desired speed of compression and decompression.
Those based on the discrete cosine transform (DCT) are lossy, thereby allowing substantial
compression to be achieved while producing a reconstructed image with high visual fidelity
to the encoder’s source image. The second class of coding processes is not based upon
the DCT and is provided to meet the needs of applications requiring lossless compression.
These lossless encoding and decoding processes are used independently of any of the
DCT-based processes.
Information Technology – Digital Compression and Coding of Continuous-tone Still Images

– Requirements and Guidelines (Recommendation T.81).

6-10
Lecture Notes (27 February 2019) Chapter 7 Photogrammetric Products
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PRODUCTS

7 Photogrammetric Products: [5 hrs]
7.1 Concept of DEM, DSM, nDSM and DTM
7.2 DEM Representation and Generation
7.2.1 Raster vs TIN representation
7.2.2 Automatic DEM Generation
7.2.3 Normalized Image Generation
7.3 Orthophoto Production
7.3.1 Polynomial Rectification
7.3.2 Differential Rectification
7.3.3 Image Resampling Techniques
7.3.4 True Orthophoto Production
The traditional photogrammetric product is a paper topographic map showing elevation

contours and selected terrain and man-made features. Paper maps are now being
supplemented and even replaced by digital products. Some of these digital products are
simply digital representations of standard hardcopy products, but others contain entirely
new types of information specifically designed for computer display and manipulation. The
best example of the new applications of digital data is the geographic information system
(GIS), which allows the user to display a map generated to his own requirements, using
stored data or information derived from stored data (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013:
225). Broadly, photogrammetric products are categorized as hardcopy and digital
products.
7.1 Hardcopy Products

Large numbers of paper maps are still printed and distributed, but nearly all are now
produced from digital source material. Map data was formerly drawn by a stereoplotter
operator, using a plotting table attached to the stereoplotter. Rough plots of contours and
planimetric features were done in pencil, then edited and converted to a reproducible form
by draftsman. This process has been replaced by computer methods. The computer can
perform many editing functions automatically. For instance, the computer can square
buildings on command from the stereoplotter operator or check for interference and
consistency between different data layers (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 225).
7.1.1 Contour Maps

The familiar contour map indicates elevation by showing lines of equal elevation (isolines).
The elevation difference between adjacent contour lines is the contour interval, which is
chosen as a function of the map scale and the local terrain relief. The smaller the map
scale, the larger the contour interval used, since contour lines will tend to be closer
together. Areas of steep relief also require a larger contour interval, so that the contour
lines are not too close together. The contour interval is also determined by the accuracy
of the elevation determination. For instance, the US National Map Accuracy Standards
require that 90% of all points have elevations accurate to within half the contour interval.
By this standard, to map with a 10 m contour interval, the elevations must be determined
with a standard deviation of 3 m. (Since 90% of the values in a normal distribution lie

7-1
within 1.645 times the standard deviation, to be accurate to within half the contour
interval would require a standard deviation of 5/1.645 = 3 m.)
To estimate the maximum flying height that can be used to produce maps with a given
contour interval, photogrammetrists use the C-factor, which is the ration of the flying
height and the contour interval. The C-factor is influenced by all parts of the mapping
system, including the camera, the quality of the imagery, the stereoplotter, and the
operator. However, it can provide a rough guide for standard production situations. Older
direct-projection analog plotters were rated at a C-factor of 700 to 1500, while analyitical
plotters have C-factors of 2000-2200. For softcopy (digital) systems using scanned aerial
imagery, the C-factor is affected by the same geometric factors as for analog plotters and
also by the resolution at which the image is scanned. C-factors between 800 and 2100
have been estimated for softcopy systems, depending on the scanning resolution (Mikhail,
Contours are well-suited to photogrammetric production. To produce a contour map, the

operator sets the floating mark at the desired elevation in an absolutely oriented
stereomodel and guides it along the ground surface, tracing each contour in turn. The raw
contours produced by the operator must be edited to ensure that no contours cross and
that the contours are consistent with the linear features on the map. For instance, contours
should cross roads perpendicular to the direction of the road, and the bend of the contours
should align with the drainage (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 227).
Contour maps usually include spot elevations at the tops of hills, in road intersections, and
at other points as required to fully describe the topography (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone,
2013: 227).
7.1.2 Planimetric Maps

Planimetric maps show features such as roads, buildings, and power lines. This types and
amount of detail shown are determined by the scale of the map as well as its purpose. A
road may be depicted on a small-scale map by the centreline or as the two edges. On a
large-scale map, the median strip, curbs and shoulders, drainage, and manhole covers
may be shown. Planimetric features are usually shown with contours as in Figure.
Planimetric maps may also show abstract features, such as political boundaries, which are,
of course, not generally derived from photogrammetric information (Mikhail, Bethel and
McGlone, 2013: 227).
7.1.3 Rectified Images

Rectified images are another standard hardcopy photogrammetric product. A rectified
image is produced by reprojecting the original tilted aerial photograph into an equivalent
vertical photograph. The reprojected image is geometrically identical to a vertical
photograph taken from the same point as the original photograph. Since the rectified
image is vertical, it shows horizontal planes at a uniform scale. Rectification is done using
a rectifier, which mechanically recovers the projective geometry of the original and
rectified photographs (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 227).
If the terrain is relatively flat, the rectified image can be enlarged to a nominal scale and
used as a low-precision map. However, the more the terrain deviates from a plane, the
more inaccurate such a map will be. Even though rectified prints are relatively inexpensive
to produce, they have been replaced in most applications by digital orthophotos (Mikhail,

7-2
7.1.4 Photo Mosaics

Photo mosaics are used as low-accuracy maps of areas larger than the coverage of a single
photo. Mosaics are manually produced by cutting out central sections of photos and
matching them together to cover the area of interest. Only central sections are used, to
minimize errors due to relief displacement. Rectified prints are sometimes used rather than
the original photographs to improve the accuracy and consistency of the mosaicking
(Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 227).
Manually produced image mosaics are seldom used now, except as indices to locate
specific images within a set of flight lines. Most mosaics are now generated automatically
from digital orthophotos (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 228).
7.2 Digital Products

Nearly all mapping is currently done using digital systems, even when the final product is
a paper map. There is an important distinction, however, between a digital graphical
representation and a true digital cartographic data structure. A graphical representation
only displays a particular set of data, and lacks the ability to access the underlying
semantics of the data set. A cartographic data structure can be manipulated on the basis
of the information it represents. Briefly, a digital graphical representation is a picture of a
map, while a digital data structure can be used and understood like a map (Mikhail, Bethel
and McGlone, 2013: 228).
For instance, one current product of the USGS is the digital raster graphic (DRG), a
1:24,000 topographic map scanned into digital image form. This is distributed as a TIFF
image file, which can be displayed and manipulated with standard image manipulation
programs. However, the user cannot specify that only the roads and drainage be displayed
or have the computer calculate the total mileage of two-lane roads shown on the map. In
contrast, given the digital elevation model, and the user can generate alternative
representations of the data or process the data layers to extract new information (Mikhail,
Bethel and McGlone, 2013).
Another example of the difference between a simple graphical representation and a digital
data structure is the usefulness of different representations of elevation data. Contours
may be represented digitally as connected strings of point coordinates with attached
attributes indicating their elevation. In some sense a digital file of contours is a digital
elevation model. However, contours cannot be easily or efficiently used to determine the
elevation of an arbitrary point. Instead, digital contours are primarily a display
representation (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013).
7.2.1 Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)

One of the most common photogrammetric products is the digital elevation model. DEMs
have a number of uses
used, both as raw data and as input to orthoimage production. The
development of automated procedures to generate DEMs has greatly increased their
production, and therefore also their utilization (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013).
A digital elevation model represents the Earth’s surface elevation digitally as an array of
points. The most common DEM format is the raster grid, with elevations given at regularly
spaced points, or posts. DEMs are often classified by their post spacing, for example, a 1-
arc second or approximately 30 m DEM. A smaller horizontal spacing usually implies more
accurate elevation values, but in practice elevation accuracy is determined by the
production method and the product specifications. The horizontal spacing may be relative
to any coordinate systems; for instance, UTM with post spacings given in meters or

7-3
geodetic coordinate systems with post spacings specified in arc-seconds (Mikhail, Bethel
DEMs are currently produced by both manual and automated methods. In manual
production, either the stereoplotter sets the floating mark at the horizontal position of
each post and the operator places it on the ground, or the system drives along a profile
while the operator keeps the mark on the ground. The DEM may also be interpolated from
manually generated contours, although it is now more common for contours to be
generated from a DEM. Automated systems use computer vision techniques to perform
the operator’s task of determining the ground surface elevation by matching corresponding
portions of two stereo images (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 230).
Both production methods have their strengths and weaknesses. Manual methods are
typically reliable, but are slow and expensive for large areas. Automated methods can be
fast and relatively inexpensive, but fail on complicated scenes, such as urban areas of
forests, and in featureless areas. Manual editing of automated results is nearly always
required. In some systems, the operator can specify beforehand any areas in which he
believes the automated process will not work well. The stereomatcher then skips these
areas, leaving them for the operator to do (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 231).
Automated systems match on the visible surfaces, such as the tops of buildings or trees,
instead of the terrain surface that we want to represent in the DEM. While some progress
has been made toward automatically recognizing trees and buildings and dropping the
elevations to the ground, this process still requires extensive manual editing (Mikhail,
A common problem for both manual and automated methods is banding or corn rows,
which give the DEM a ridged appearance. This may be caused by systematic offsets
between adjacent elevation profiles, or it may be an artefact of interpolating the DEM from
contours. Operators often have a tendency to let the floating mark dig into the ground
when profiling uphill and to let it float slightly above the ground when profiling downhill.
If adjacent profiles are done in opposite directions, to reduce the amount of image
movement required, the profile elevations will differ by the amount of this systematic
offset. automated systems may also have systematic errors in their correlation along
profiles, leading to the same problems. Even if the overall amplitude of the regular pattern
is within accuracy specifications, systematic errors have an effect on relative accuracy and
also detract from the appearance of products generated from the DEM (Mikhail, Bethel
Automated systems may produce spikes of holes due to noise in the data of bad matches.
Large anomalies can usually be detected and corrected automatically; the harder problem
is errors close to the average terrain variation in magnitude, which must be recognized
and corrected manually (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 233).
7.2.2 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)

For the representation of elevation triangulated irregular network (TIN) is an alternative
to DEM. Instead of storing elevation values at a regular grid points, a TIN uses an
irregularly-spaced set of points to approximate the terrain surface as a series of triangles.
A number of methods are used to generate TINs, in order to obtain the most efficient
representation of the terrain with the fewest points. The primary advantage of TIN
representations is that they require significantly fewer points to represent the terrain with
the same accuracy. The representation accuracy can be increased by adding more points,
up to the level of the original DEM (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 229).

7-4
A disadvantage of TIN representations is that determining the elevation at a point is more

complicated. With a gridded DEM, the row, column coordinates of the point within the
DEM can be determined by subtracting the corner coordinates of the DEM and dividing by
the grid spacing. Points that lie between grid nodes are then determined by interpolation.
With a TIN, the triangle containing the point of interest must be determined by search,
which requires more computation, even though a number of efficient search methods exist
(Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 230).
7.2.3 Digital Vector Data

Planimetric features are represented as digital vector data. In its simplest form, digital
vector data consists of a set of 2D or 3D coordinates that describe the outline of a feature,
along with some way of identifying the type of feature. This simple data form may be
thought of as the digital equivalent of hardcopy planimetric map (Mikhail, Bethel and
McGlone, 2013: 233).
Feature types may simply be identified by the file name, as when a file contains only roads
or only buildings, or by an attribute, which is an identification code included in the data
structure. Attribute codes may refer to very broad classes of features (e.g., buildings or
roads), or be based on hierarchical classifications (e.g., four-lane divided highways, two-
lane highways, unpaved roads, etc.) (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013).
Along with positions and object types, we want to represent the topology of the data set.
Topology is concerned with properties that are not changed by spatial deformation, such
as connectivity. In geospatial data sets, we use topological relationships to model
networks, such as roads or drainage, and area properties. Having topological information
allows us to query the dataset based on connectivity (for path planning or drainage
calculations, for example) and adjacency (to determine which parcels adjoin a certain
road, for example) (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 233).
Basic topological elements are of three types: nodes, lines and faces. Nodes define line
endpoints and intersections. Lines are ordered sets of points between nodes. Note that a
point is not the same thing as a node – a point specifies a location only, while a node
specifies connectivity. There may be several points between nodes on a line. A line cannot
cross itself, and connects to or crosses other lines only at nodes. Lines may describe linear
features such as roads or may be the boundary of a face. A line has a left side and a right
side. Faces may represent physical regions, such as an area with a defined soil type, or
may just be the interior region of a set of intersecting lines with not particular physical
significance. Every data set has at least two faces, one bounded by the data set and one
outside it (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 233).
Digital representations are discrete, meaning that we are trying to describe the continuous
outline of the object with a finite number of points. We can keep adding points to the
description of irregular objects and gain more detail; however, this added detail may not
be displayable, useful, or even meaningful (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 234).
Generalization refers to the reduction in displayed detail as map scale decreases. For
example, a large-scale map will show bends in a river, both sides of a road, and most
buildings; a small-scale map will show only the main path of the river, the centreline of
the road, and an outline of the urban area. A similar process of generalization is performed
with digital vector data. Digital features are generalized by removing point, thereby making
the representation less detailed as shown in the Figure 7-1. Although this may seem like
a fairly simple operation, generalization becomes much more complicated when the
interactions between adjacent features and different types of features must be taken into
account. As the scale is reduced, the relationships between the features must be

7-5
maintained. A road adjacent to a river cannot intersect or cross the river as both are
generalized (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 234).
Figure 7-1 Generalization of a linear feature by point removal
Generalization is also determined by the proximity and types of adjacent features. An

isolated building is more likely to be represented on large-scale maps than a building of
the same size in an urban area. The consistent generalization of data is still a cartographic
art. Automated generalization is a problem that has yet to be satisfactorily solved for all
feature types (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013).
One major difference between digital and hardcopy vector data is that the digital data has
no inherent scale. A feature in a digital data file can be shown in any size on a display
screen, expressing the scale as the ratio of the displayed size to the feature’s real size is
therefore meaningless. However, we can use the concept of generalization for an
approximate scale description. There are well-established levels of generalization for each
standard map scale. For instance, roads are represented to the same level of detail on all
1:24,000 maps and to another level of detail on 1:250,000 maps, although the same road
will be represented very differently at the two map scales. The amount of detail captured
in the data indicates the type of map for which it would be suitable, and we can use that
as a very rough indication of the “scale” of the data. In many cases, the digital data has
been derived by digitizing and existing map and, is this case, the scale in terms of
generalization is relatively well-defined (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013).
7.2.4 Orthoimagery
An orthoimage is an image based on an orthographic projection, rather than the
perspective projection of a regular frame photograph. A frame image the rays of light pass
through a single point, the perspective center, before intersecting the image plane. Points
at the same horizontal location but at different elevations, such as the top and bottom of
a building, will therefore be imaged at different locations in the image. This is called relief
displacement. The scale of the frame image varies with the elevation of the terrain, due
to the central projection. In an orthographic projection, the projecting rays are
perpendicular to a horizontal reference plane. Changing the elevation of a point does not
affect its projection, so the scale of an orthoimage is constant.
Orthoimages are produced by first obtaining or generating DEM of the area. This elevation
information is then used to remove the elevation effects from the perspective image by
reprojection. Orthoimages are often produced from more than one source image to obtain
the required coverage for the final product. In addition, selecting only the center portions
of images minimizes the relief displacement shown by buildings or elevated objects.
Another way to reduce the relief displacement in images intended for orthoimage
production is to use lenses with longer focal lengths than the standard 6” lens.
There are two basic approaches to generating an orthoimage; forward projection and
backward projection. In forward projection, pixels in the source image are projected onto
the DEM and their object space coordinates are determined; the object space points are
then projected into the orthoimage. Since the spaces between the points projected into
the orthoimage vary due to the terrain variation and perspective effects, the final
orthoimage pixels must be determined by interpolating between the projected points.

7-6
In backward projection, the object space coordinates; X, Y corresponding to each pixel of

the final orthoimage are calculated. The elevation, Z, at that X, Y location is determined
from the DEM, and the X, Y, Z object space coordinates are projected into the source
image to obtain the gray level or colour value for the orthoimage pixel. Since the projected
object space coordinates will not fall exactly at pixel centres in the source image,
interpolation or resampling must be done in the source image.
The depiction of tall objects, such a buildings, that are not included in the terrain model
is a problem in orthoimage production. When the ortho projection is performed in image
regions showing objects not in the DEM, the wrong pixels will be extracted from the source
image. This building lean effect can be particularly noticeable in urban areas. Some
orthoimage production systems use an elevation model containing building outlines, either
automatically derived or manually delineated. This problem can be minimized by using
long focal length photography and by using only the central part of the photo, since relief
displacement increases with shorter focal length and with the radial distance from the
image nadir point. In general, points that have multiple elevations, such as a multilevel
freeway interchange, cannot be correctly orthorectified unless the photographic view is
from directly overhead.
7.2.5 Point Products

Some photogrammetric products consists of a set of point coordinates, possibly with
associated covariances. For industrial inspection applications, the coordinates of specified
targets on the product or on production fixtures and tooling are determined and compared
to the reference values. In aerial work, the control network over a large area may be
densified by photogrammetric block triangulation. And initial set of control points are
surveyed or located, then additional points to be added to the control network are targeted
so that they can be precisely identified and measured on the imagery. The block solution
is controlled with the existing known points and simultaneously determines the coordinates
of the targeted points. This method can provide a highly accurate and consistent geodetic
network over a large area, although it is being replaced by satellite observations.
In some military applications, points determined from a triangulation solution are stored
in a database, along with image “chips” that show the point. Future images may then be
easily recorded using these stored control points (Mikhail, Bethel and McGlone, 2013: 238).
7.3 Concept of DEM, DSM, nDSM and DTM

A digital elevation model (DEM) is a digital and mathematical representation of an existing
or virtual object and its environment, e.g. terrain undulations within a selected area. DEM
is a generic concept that may refer to elevation of ground but also to any layer above the
ground such as canopy or buildings. When the information is limited to ground elevation,
the DEM is called a digital terrain model (DTM) and provides information about the
elevation of any point on ground or water surface. When the information contains the
highest elevation of each point, coming from ground or above ground area, the DEM is
called the digital surface model or DSM (Kasser and Egels, 2004).
nDSM – normalized Digital Surface Model
nDSM = DSM - DTM
Most elevation data are stored in a digital elevation model that can be analysed in
conjunction with other spatial data in a GIS. A digital elevation model (DEM) is defined as
a file or database containing elevation points over a contiguous area (Miller, 2004; Ma,
2005). DEMs may be subdivided into (Jensen, 2011):

7-7
1. Digital Surface Models (DSM) that contain elevation information about all features in
the landscape, such as vegetation, buildings, and other structures; and
2. Digital Terrain Models (DTM) that contain elevation information about the bare Earth
surface without the influence of vegetation or man-made structures.
Four major technologies are used to obtain elevation information, including (Bossler et al.,
2002 cited in (Jensen, 2011)):
 In situ surveying,
 Photogrammetry,
 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR), and
 Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
A DTM is a digital representation of terrain relief, a model of the shape of the ground
surface. We have a variety of sensors at our disposal that can provide us with 3D data:
line cameras and frame cameras, laser scanners and microwave radar instruments. They
all can produce (X, Y, Z) coordinates of terrain points, but not all of the terrain points be
points on the ground surface. Consider a stereo pair of photographs, or stereo pair from
SPOT-5 of a tropical rain forest. Will you be able to see the ground? Obtained coordinates
will pertain to points on the ground only in open terrain. Since a model based on such
data is not a DTM, we refer it to as digital surface model (DSM). The difference between
DTM and DSM is illustrated by Figure 7-2, we need to filter DSM data to obtain DTM data
(Tempfli et al., 2009).
Figure 7-2: Difference between DTM and DSM (Tempfli et al., 2009)
In terrain modelling, it is handy to choose the coordinate system such that Z stands for
elevation. If we model a surface digitally by nothing else than elevation values Z at
horizontal positions (X, Y), why not call such a model a digital elevation model (DEM). The
term DEM was introduced in the 1970’ies with the purpose to distinguish the simplest form
of terrain relief modelling from more complex types of digital surface representation. The
term DEM was original exclusively used for raster representation (elevation values given
at the intersection nodes of a regular grid). Note that both a DTM and DSM can be a DEM
and, moreover, ‘elevation’ would not have to relate to terrain but could relate to some
subsurface layer such as ground water level, or some soil layer, or the ocean floor (Tempfli
et al., 2009).

7-8
Figure 7-3: Process of DTM Generation (Tempfli et al., 2009)
DEM –Digital Elevation Model (bare ground surface or a generic term for both DTM and
DSM)
DTM –Digital Terrain Model (bare ground surface) DSM –Digital Surface Model (the
elevation of the top of the surface, i.e. ground, trees, buildings).
DSM –buildings included DEM (DTM) –buildings removed

7-9
7.4 DEM Representation and Generation

Digital Elevation Models
The concept of digitally recording discrete height points to characterize the topographic
surface has been in practice for a number of years. Names and acronyms used to describe
this concept include DTM, digital terrain model; DEM, digital elevation model; DHM, digital
height model; and DTED, digital terrain elevation data. The philosophy behind this concept
is that one obtains sufficient digital data to describe the terrain, and then generates
graphic products such as contours or profiles only as a means for visualizing the terrain.
This is in contrast to the conventional practice of recording a contour map and having the
contours be the archival record which represents the landforms. The advantage of the
DEM approach is that the height database can be used for several different applications
such as contour generation, profile/cross section generation, automated road design, and
orthophoto interpolation control. Potential pitfalls in this approach mostly revolve around
decisions to balance the conflicting demands of accurate terrain representation versus fast
data collection and reasonable file sizes. There are basically two alternatives to consider
when collecting such data: random data points selected to describe the terrain, or a regular
grid of points, with interval selected to describe the terrain (Bethel, 2003).
(Bethel, 2003)Orthophoto Production

As implied by their name, orthophotos are orthographic photographs. They do not contain
the scale, tilt, and relief distortions characterizing normal aerial photographs. In essence,
orthophotos are “photomaps”. Like maps, they have one scale (even in varying terrain),
and like photographs, they show the terrain in actual detail (not by lines and symbols).
Hence, orthophotos give the resource analyst the “best of both worlds” – a product that
can be readily interpreted like a photograph but one on which true distances, angles, and
areas may be measured directly. Because of these characteristics, orthophotos make
excellent base maps for compiling data to be input to a GIS or overlaying and editing data
already incorporated in a GIS. Orthophotos also enhance the communication of spatial
data, since data users can often relate better to an orthophoto than a conventional line
and symbol map or display (Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman, 2014).
Historically, orthophotos were produced from perspective photos using complicated

optical-mechanical devices called orthophotoscopes. Modern orthophotos are now
produced digitally, using digital photos (or scanned analog photos) and a DEM as the
primary inputs to the orthophoto production process. Again, whether prepared in an
analog or digital environment, orthophotos represent “reprocessed” versions of original
photos that eliminate the scale variation and image displacement resulting from relief and
tilt. The original image data are re-projected orthographically using elevation information
to remove the elevation effects from the original image (Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman,
2014). Notice how the power line clearing has been straightened in the orthophoto on the
right, in Figure 7-4. In this image, relief displacement has been removed and the true path
of the power line is shown.

7-10
Figure 7-4: Comparison of unrectified vertical aerial image and orthoimage of same
scene (GEOG 482: The Nature of Geographic Information).
Orthophoto alone do not convey topographic information. However, they can be used as
base maps for contour line overlays prepared in a separate stereoplotting operation. The
result of overprinting contour information on an orthophoto is a topographic
orthophotomap. Much time is saved in the preparation of such maps because the
instrument operator need not map the planimmetric data in the map compilation process
(Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman, 2014).
One important thing here is that tall objects such as buildings will still appear to lean in
an orthophoto. This effect is particularly troublesome in urban areas. Such effect can be
removed by including building outline elevations in the DEM, or minimized by using the
central portion of a photograph, where relief displacement of vertical features is at a
minimum (Lillesand, Kiefer and Chipman, 2014). – True Orthophoto
An orthophoto is a photograph showing images of objects in their true orthographic

positions. Orthophotos are therefore geometrically equivalent to conventional line and
symbol planimetric maps which also show true orthographic positions of objects. The
major difference between an orthophoto and map is that an orthophoto is composed of
images of features, whereas maps utilize lines and symbols plotted to scale to depict
features. Because they are planimetrically correct, orthophotos can be used as maps for
making direct measurements of distances, angles, positions and areas without making
corrections for image displacements. This, of course, cannot be done with perspective
photos (Wolf, 1974).
Orthophoto Production by Differential Rectification
Orthophotos are produced from perspective photos (usually aerial photos) through a
process called differential rectification, which eliminates image displacements due to
photographic tilt and relief. Tilt displacements, exist in aerial photo if at the instant of
exposure the photo plane is tilted with respect to the datum plan. Rectification eliminates
the effects of tilts and yields an equivalent vertical photo. Unless terrain is perfectly flat,
however, a rectified equivalent photo will still contain scale variations as a result of image
displacements due to changes in relief. In the process of removing relief displacements
from any photo, scale variations are also removed and scale becomes constant throughout

7-11
the photo. Any photo which have constant scale throughout is an orthophoto having the
same planimetric correctness as map. It should be mentioned that although relief
displacements due to variable terrain are removed, a shortcoming of orthophotos is that
relief displacements of vertical surface such as walls of buildings cannot be removed (Wolf,
1974).
At first glance, an orthophoto looks the same as a perspective photo. But upon comparison
of an orthophoto and a perspective photo of the same area, differences can usually be
detected. Figure 7-4 (left) is a portion of a perspective photo, while the right one is an
orthophoto produced from the same portion of the perspective photo. Note in particular
how relief displacement has made the power line on the left image appear crooked,
whereas it appears straight on the orthophoto because relief displacements have removed
(Wolf, 1974).
The desirability of orthophotos over perspective photos has been recognized for many
years. As early as 1903, Scheimpflug had conceived the idea of directly producing
orthophotos from perspective photos. In the early 1930s, the Gallus-Ferber restitution
machine was introduced in France. In addition to its use for stereoscopic plotting, the
instrument could produce orthophotos directly from perspective photos. Even though the
instrument was operational, inefficiencies together with a general lack of enthusiasm for
the finished product caused orthophoto production to lie dormant until the 1950s (Wolf,
1974).
In 1950 Russell Bean of the US Geological Survey began experimenting with the equipment
for producing orthophotos, and his work led to the development of the instrument
presently known as the orthophotoscope. The first orthophotscope was introduced in
1953, and it was followed by several improved generations. Continued developments led
to the model T-64 Orthophotoscope which is currently used extensively by the Geological
Survey in producing orthophotos (Wolf, 1974).
Advantages and uses of Orthophotos
Orthophotomaps prepared from orthophotos offer significant advantages over both line
maps and aerial photos. This is because orthophoto possess the advantages of both air
photos and line maps. On the one hand, orthophotos have the pictorial qualities of air
photos because the images of an infinite number of ground objects can be recognized and
identified. Furthermore, because of the planimetric correctness with which images are
shown, measurements may be taken directly from orthophotos just as from maps (Wolf,
1974).
The capability of being able to correlate images on the orthophtomap with what is
observed on the ground is an asset in many fields of endeavour. Engineers, planners,
surveyors, foresters, geologists, agronomists, etc., can use orthophotos advantageously
as base maps for plotting field observations. Foresters, for example, can classify and
delineate different timber types in their true position directly on the orthophotomap by
correlating images with what they observe in the field. Also, soil scientists can plot
locations where soil samples were taken and delineate soil-type boundaries directly on the
ground. Property surveyors can utilize orthophotomaps to advantage because fence lines
and other key items of evidence that can be field identified are shown in true plan view
on the orthophotomap (Wolf, 1974).
Because images can be correlated with their corresponding objects on the ground,
orthophotos make excellent base maps for preparing flight plan maps. Orthophotos are
also very useful communication tools. Property owners and lay people can understand an
orthophotomap, whereas they are frequently awestruck by a line and symbol map. Using

7-12
orthophotos, engineers are better able to communicate with property owners to discuss
right of way purchases, access to property, etc., (Wolf, 1974).
Orthophotomaps themselves offer no information as to elevations. They can serve as

planimetric base maps upon which elevation contours are superimposed, however, and
the resulting product is termed a topographic orthophotomap. Contours for topographic
orthophotomaps are normally derived in a separate stereoplotting operation. The use of
orthophotomaps as base maps for elevation contours eliminates the need for mapping
planimetric data in stereoplotter compilation and can result in substantial time savings.
Orthophotos can be used as maps without cartographic treatment, or they can be

enhanced an supplemented with lines, symbols, names, etc. Colors may also be added to
enhance the quality of the orthophotomap (Wolf, 1974).
An orthophoto is a photograph showing images of objects in their true orthographic

positions. Orthophotos are therefore geometrically equivalent to conventional line and
symbol planimetric maps which also show true orthographic positions of objects. The
major difference between an orthophoto and a map is that an orthophoto is composed of
images of features, whereas maps utilize lines and symbols plotted to scale to depict
features. Because they are planimetrically correct, orthophotos can be used as maps for
making direct measurements of distances, angles, positions, and areas without making
corrections for image displacements. This, of course, cannot be done with perspective
photos. Orthophotos are widely used in connection with geographic information systems,
where they serve as planimetric frames of reference for performing analyses, and are also
used for generating layers of information for databases (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014:
320).
Orthophotos are produced from perspective photos (usually aerial photos) through a
process called differential rectification, which eliminates image displacements due to
photographic tilt and terrain relief. The process is essentially the same as standard
rectification described in Secs. 10-14 and 10-15, except that it is performed independently
at myriad individual, tiny surface patches or differential elements. In this way, rather than
rectify the photograph to some average scale (which does not correct for relief
displacements), each differential element is rectified to a common scale. Prior to the age
of digital photogrammetry, complicated optical-mechanical devices were employed to
produce orthophotos from film diapositives. Several of these are described in the second
edition of this book. Modern orthophotos, however, are produced digitally, Softcopy
systems are particularly well-suited for differential rectification. The essential inputs for
the process of differential rectification are a DEM and a digital aerial photo having known
exterior orientation parameters (ω, , κ, XL, YL, and ZL). It is also necessary to obtain
the digital image coordinates (row and column) of the fiducials so that a transformation
can be computed to relate photo coordinates to digital image coordinates. A systematic
application of the collinearity equations is then performed to produce the orthophoto
(Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014: 321).
Figure 7-5 illustrates the collinearity condition for a particular groundel point P in the DEM.
The X and Y coordinates of point P are based upon the row and column within the DEM
array, and its Z coordinate is stored in the DEM groundel array at that position. Given the
X, Y, and Z coordinates of point P and the known exterior orientation parameters for the
photograph, the collinearity equations can be solved to determine photo coordinates xp
and yp. These photo coordinates define the position where the image of groundel point P
will be found. Since photo coordinates are related to the fiducial axis system, a
transformation must be performed on these coordinates to obtain row and column

7-13
coordinates in the digital image. The transformed row and column coordinates will
generally not be whole numbers, so resampling is done within the scanned photo to obtain
the digital number associated with groundel point P (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014:
321).
Figure 7-5: Collinearity relationship for a DEM point P and its corresponding image p.
The process of creating the digital orthophoto requires repetitive application of the
collinearity equations for all the points in the DEM array. Figure 13-7 gives a schematic
illustration of the process. In this figure, two arrays are shown in vertical alignment, where
each of the groundels of the DEM array corresponds one-to-one with a pixel of the
orthophoto array. The orthophoto array is initially empty, and will be populated with digital
numbers (shown in the figure as x’s) as the process is carried out. At each step of the
process, the X, Y, Z coordinates of the center point of a particular groundel of the DEM
are substituted into the collinearity equations as discussed in the preceding paragraph.
The resulting photo coordinates are then transformed to row and column coordinates of
the digital aerial photo. Resampling is performed to obtain a digital number, which is then
placed into the corresponding pixel of the digital orthophoto. The process is complete
when all pixels of the orthophoto have been populated with digital numbers (Wolf, DeWitt
and Wilkinson, 2014: 322).

7-14
Lecture Notes (24 March. 2017) Chapter 8 Application of Aerial Photographs
APPLICATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

8 Application of Aerial Photographs: [5 hrs]
8.1 Use of Aerial photographs in highways, transmission lines and canals
8.2 Use of Aerial photographs in cadastral survey
8.3 Use of Aerial photographs in land and natural resource survey
8.1 Use of Aerial Photographs in Topographic Mapping an Cadastral

Survey
The earliest applications of photogrammetry were in topographic mapping, and today that
use is still the most common of photogrammetric activities. At present, the USGS, the
federal agency charged with mapping the United States, performs nearly 100 percent of
its map compilation photogrammetrically. State departments of transportation also use
photogrammetry almost exclusively in preparing their topographic maps. In addition,
private engineering and surveying firms prepare many special-purpose topographic maps
photogrammetrically (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014).
Figure 8-1: Aerial Photo (top) and Topo Map (bottom) (Courtesy: Google Maps)

8-1
Lecture Notes (24 March. 2017) Chapter 8 Application of Aerial Photographs
Photogrammetry has become an exceptionally valuable tool in land surveying. To mention

just a few uses in the field, aerial photos can be used as rough base maps for relocating
existing property boundaries. If the point of beginning or any corners can be located with
respect to ground features that can be identified on the photo, the entire parcel can be
plotted on the photo from the property description. All corners can then be located on the
photo in relation to identifiable ground features which, when located in the field, greatly
assist in finding the actual property corners (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014).
8.2 Use of Aerial Photographs in Highways, Transmission Lines and

Canals
Topographic maps vary in scale from large to small and are used in planning and designing
highways, railroads, rapid transit systems, bridges, pipelines, aqueducts, transmission
lines, hydroelectric dams, flood control structures, river and harbor improvements, urban
renewal projects, etc., (Wolf, DeWitt and Wilkinson, 2014).
The field of highway planning and design provides an excellent example of how important
photogrammetry has become in engineering. In this field, high-altitude photos or satellite
images are used to assist in area and corridor studies and to select the best route; small
scale topographic maps are prepared for use in preliminary planning; large-scale
topographic maps and DEMs are compiled for use in final design; and earthwork cross
sections are taken to obtain contract quantities. In many cases the plan portions of the “
plan profile”sheets of highway plans are prepared from aerial photographs. Partial
payments and even final pay quantities are often calculated from photogrammetric
measurements. Map information collected from modern photogrammetric instruments is
directly compatible with computer-aided drafting (CAD) systems commonly used in
highway design. The use of photogrammetry in highway engineering not only has reduced
costs but also has enabled better overall highway designs to be created (Wolf, DeWitt and
Wilkinson, 2014).
8.3 Use of Aerial Photographs in Land and Natural Resource Survey

One of the greatest benefits of Aerial photography concerning the environment is the
documentation of a situation and its change over time by using Aerial photographs in order
to raise awareness. To be more specific, Aerial Photos are a good mean for campaigning.
Hence public opinion can influence the willingness of government to incorporate
environmental data into existing plans and regulations in order to protect environment
(Haseena, Kiran and Murthy, 2013).
Aerial photographs can provide the first objective impression of damages in a very rapid
changing environment. Specifically in situations such as earthquakes or flooding, Aerial
photos facilitate the planning and coordination of adequate response in terms of rescue
resources, identifying population groups at risk where human intervention is most needed
to limit and prevent hazards during first response stages (Haseena, Kiran and Murthy,
2013).
Photogrammetry still has some practical applications for finding mineral and fuel deposits,
mapping areas and tracking geological changes and water management as well as general
geological research that other applications cannot contribute to (Ray, 1960). A great
example of this is water drainage ahead of proposed new urban developments - flood
plain risks and subsidence.
They can also be used to study the process of natural changes, such as variations in soil
and geology over time as well as changes to the underlying ground that leads to disasters
such as landslides (Lohmann and Altrogge, n.d.).

8-2
Lecture Notes (18 Nov. 14) References
REFERENCES
Alamús, R., Baron, A. and Talaya, J. (2001) 'Integrated Sensor Orientation at ICC,
mathematical models and experience', OEEPE-Workshop on Integrated Sensor
Orientation, Hannover.
Andersen, Ø. and Nilsen, B. (2001) 'Can map compilation rely on GPS/INS alone?', OEEPE-
Workshop on Integrated Sensor Orientation, Hannover.
Anderson, J.M. and Mikhail, E.M. (2013) Surveying: Theory and Practice, 7th edition, New
Delhi: McGraw Hill Education.
Anderson, J.M. and Mikhail, E.M. (2014) Surveying: Theory and Practice, 7th edition, New
Delhi: McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
Anon (2003) 'Obituary - Gilbert Louis Hobrough', in The Photogrammetric Record.
Bannister, A., Raymond, S. and Baker, R. (2012) Surveying, 8th edition, New Delhi: Pearson
Education.
Bethel, J.S. (2003) 'Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing', in Civil Engineering Handbook,
2nd edition, CRC Press.
Bhatta, B. (2011) Remote Sensing and GIS, Oxford University Press, YMCA Library
Building, New Delhi 110001, India.
Bischof , H. and Leberl, F. (n.d) 'Chapter 5 - Digital Image Processing', in McGlone, J.C.
(ed.) Manual of Photogrammetry, American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing.
Campbell, J.B. and Wynne, R.H. (2011) Introduction to Remote Sensing, New York, L
ondon: The Guilford Press.
Caprile, B. and Torre, V. (1990) 'Using Vanishing Points for Camera Calibration',
International Journal of Computer Vision 4, pp. pp. 127-139.
Chikatsu, H. (n.d) 'Photogrammetry', Civil Engineering, vol. I.
Coughlan, J.M. and Yuille, A.L. (September 1999) 'ManhattanWorld: Compass Direction
from Single Image by Bayesian Inference', Proceedings of the 11th International
Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV’99), Kerkyra, Greece, pp. 941-947.
Criminisi, A., Reid, I. and Zisserman, A. (September 1999) 'Single View Metrology',
Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV’99), Kerkyra,
Greece, pp. 434-441.
Davis, R.E., Foote, F.S., Anderson, J.M. and Mikhail, E.M. (2014) Surveying: Theory and
Practice, 6th edition, McGraw Hill.
Derenyi, E.E. (1982) Photogrammetry for Civil and Forest Engineers, Department of
Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering, University of New Brunswick.
Doyle, F. (1964) 'The Historical Development of Analytical Photogrammetry', in

Photogrammetric Engineering, XXX(2).
ERDAS, Inc. (2010) ERDAS Stereo Analyst® - User’s Guide.
Faig, W. (1976) AeroTriangulation, Department of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering.

3
Falkner, E. and Morgan, D. (2002) Aerial Mapping - Methods and Applications, 2nd edition,
Washington DC: CRC Press.
Ghilani , D. and Wolf , P.R. (2012) Elementary Surveying : An Introduction to Geomatics,

13th edition, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Ghilani, C.D. and Wolf, P.R. (2006) Adjustment Computations: Spatial Data Analysis, 4th
edition, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Ghosh, S.K. (2005) Fundamentals of Computational Photogrammetry, New Delhi: Concept

Publishing Company.
Gonzalez, C.R. and Woods, E.R. (2014) Digital Image Processing, 3rd edition, New Delhi:
Dorling Kindersley.
Gruner, H. (1977) 'Photogrammetry: 1776 - 1976', in Photogrammetric Engineering and

Remote Sensing.
Grussenmeyer, P. and Khalil, O.A. (n.d) Solutions for Exterior Orientation in

Photogrammetry, A Review, Strasbourg.
Hartley, R. and Zisserman, A. (2004) 'Epipolar Geometry and the Fundamental Matrix', in
Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press.
Haseena, H.K., Kiran, B.R. and Murthy, K.S. (2013) 'Application of Aerial Photography and
Remote Sensing in Environmental and Geological Interpretations in India: An Overview',
International Journal of Environmental Biology, vol. 3, no. 3, August, pp. 100-114,
Available: http://www.urpjournals.com.
Horn, B.K.P. (1990) 'Relative Orientation', International Journal of Computer Vision, vol.
4, pp. 59-78.
Ip, A.W.L. (2005) Analysis of Integrated Sensor Orientation for Aerial Mapping, Calgary:
Department of Geomatics Engineering, University of Calgary, Available:
http://www.geomatics.ucalgary.ca/links/GradThesis.html.
Jensen, J.R. (2011) Remote Sensing of the Environment, 2nd edition, Dorling Kindersley
India Pvt. Ltd.
Kasser, M. and Egels, Y. (2004) Digital Photogrammetry, London and Newyork: Taylor &
Francis.
Konecny, G. (1985) 'The International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing -
75 years old or 75 years young', in Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing.
Kraus, K. (1993) Photogrammetry, Vol I: Fundamentals and Standard Processes,

Ferdinand Dummlers Verlag.
Kraus, K., Jansa, J. and Kager, H. (1997) Photogrammetry Vol II: Advanced Methods and
Applications, Dümmlers.
Liebowitz, D. and Zisserman, A. (September 1999) 'Combining Scene and Auto-calibration

Constraints', Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computer Vision
(ICCV’99), Kerkyra, Greece, pp. 293-300.
Lillesand, T.M., Kiefer, R.W. and Chipman, J.W. (2014) Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation, 6th edition, New Delhi: Wiley.

4
Linder, (2009) Digital Photogrammetry - A Practical Course, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Lohmann, P. and Altrogge, G. (n.d) The use of SPOT and CIR aerial photography for urban
planning, Hannover: Institute for Photogrammetry and Engineering Surveys.
Matthews , N.A. (2008) Aerial and Close-Range Photogrammetric Technology: Providing

Resource Documentation, Interpretation, and Preservation, Denver: U.S. Department of
the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, National Operations Center.
McGlone, J.C. (ed.) (1980) Manual of Photogrammetry, 4th edition, American Society for
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
McGlone, J.C., Mikhail, E.M. and Bethel, J.S. (ed.) (2004) Manual of Photogrammetry, 5th
edition, American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
Mikhail, E.M., Bethel, J.S. and McGlone, J.C. (2013) Introduction to Modern
Photogrammetry , New Delhi: Wiley India.
Moffitt, F., (1962) Elements of Photogrammetry - Part 3, Montreal: International Textbook

Company.
Philipson, , (ed.) (1997) Manual of Photographic Interpretation, 2nd edition, American

Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
Ray, R.G. (1960) Aerial Photographs in Geologic Interpretation and Mapping, Washington:
United States Government Printing Office.
Reddy, M.A. (2012) Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems,
4th edition, Hyderabad: BS Publications.
Rother, C. (2000) 'A New Approach for Vanishing Point Detection in Architectural
Environments', Proceedings of the Eleventh British Machine Vision Conference, 11-14
September, Available: http://www.bmva.org/bmvc/2000/papers/p39.pdf [21 November
2014].
Schenk, T. (2005) Introduction to Photogrammetry, Department of Civil and

Environmental Engineering and Geodetic Science, The Ohio State University, 2070 Neil
Ave., Columbus, OH 43210.
Schenk, T. (n.d) 'Aerial Triangulation'.
Schofield, W. and Breach, M. (2007) Engineering Surveying, 6th edition, Oxford: Elsevier.
Straforini, M., Coelho, C. and Campani, M. (1993) 'Extraction of vanishing points from
images of indoor and outdoor scenes', Image and Vision Computing, pp. pp. 91-99.
Svedberg , D. and Carlsson, S. (1999) 'Calibration, Pose and Novel Views from Single
Images of Constrained Scenes', Proceedings of the 11th Scandinavian Conference on
Image Analysis (SCIA’99), June, pp. pp. 111-117.
Tempfli, C., Kerle, N., Huurneman, G.C. and Janssen, L.L.F. (ed.) (2009) Principles of
Remote Sensing: An Introductory Textbook, 4th edition, Enschede: The International
Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC).
The MathWorks, Inc. (2014) Image Processing Toolbox™ - User's Guide.
US Army Corps of Engineers (1993) Engineering and Design: Photogrammetric Mapping,

Washington DC: Military Studies Press.

5
US Army Corps of Engineers (2002) Engineering and Design: Photogrammetric Mapping,

Washington DC: Military Studies Press.
van den Heuvel, F.A. (1998) 'Vanishing point detection for architectural photogrammetry',
International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, pp. 652-659.
Wolf, P.R. (1974) Elements of Photogrammetry (with Air Photo Interpretation and Remote
Sensing), International Student Edition edition, Mcgraw Hill.
Wolf, P., , DeWitt, B., and Wilkinson, B.E. (2014) Elements of Photogrammetry with
Application in GIS, 4th edition, McGraw Hill Professional.

6

Principles of Photogrammetry

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Principles of Photogrammetry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC CONCEPTS ..................

ELEMENTARY PHOTOGRAMMETRY ............. 2-1

MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS ....................... 3-1

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC TRIANGULATION ....... 4-1

DIRECT VERSUS INDIRECT ORIENTATION .. 5-1

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY..................... 6-1

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PRODUCTS............... 7-1

APPLICATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS .. 8-1

“Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining reliable information about the properties of

Compiled by: Bikash Sherchan

1.2 Sources of Photogrammetric Information

Physical information refers to properties of electromagnetic radiation, e.g., radiant

Semantic information is related to the meaning of an image. It is usually obtained by

Temporal information is related to the change of an object in time, usually obtained by

Table 1-1: Areas of Specialization of Photogrammetry (Schenk, 2005)

Object Sensor Platform Specialization

1.3 Types and Uses of Photogrammetry

1.3.1 Aerial vs Terrestrial (Close-range)

Compiled by: Bikash Sherchan

Terrestrial photogrammetry refers to applications where the camera is supported on the

Terrestrial photogrammetry techniques can be applied to measuring and mapping large

1.3.2 Metric vs Non-metric (Semantic)

The most common applications of metric photogrammetry are: (a) production of

Primary: Size, Shape, Tone, Texture, Pattern

Additional: Site / Location, Association, Shadows, Stereoscopic Appearance

Shape: General form, configuration or outline of individual objects, eg. regular,

Size: The physical extent or dimension of a feature. May be comparative

Comparable: Large, small, massive, tiny

Magnitude: kms, metres, microscopic, macroscopic

Tone: Relative brightness or colour of a feature

Colour: Blue, Green, Red, etc.

Pattern: Relates to the spatial arrangement of objects. Repetition of form or spectral

Compiled by: Bikash Sherchan

Site/Location: physical position of object feature (topographic or geographic), hill slopes,

1.3.3 Analog vs Analytical vs Digital – not included in the syllabus

With analytical photogrammetry single or pairs of photographs are placed in an X-Y

Digital (also called softcopy) photogrammetry is rapidly emerging as a new discipline in

1.3.4 Stereo vs Single Image (Monoscopic) – not included in the syllabus

1.4 Platform for Photogrammetric Sensing Systems

 auxiliary sensors (GPS).

1.5 History and Developments in the field of Photogrammetry

The developments in photogrammetry, from around 1850, have followed four

 Plane table photogrammetry, from about 1850 to 1900;

Plane Table Photogrammetry: Photogrammetry has gone through several evolutionary

Analytical Photogrammetry: Much of the basic principles upon which modern

Compiled by: Bikash Sherchan

In the early 1950s, Everett Merritt published works on analytical photogrammetry. He

Digital Photogrammetry: One of the pioneers in digital photogrammetry was Gilbert

1.6 Differences between Traditional and Digital Photogrammetry

Photogrammetric analysis procedures range from obtaining distances, area, elevations

Digital or soft copy photogrammetry refers to any photogrammetric operation involving

Analog photogrammetry: It lasted about 40 years. Aerial survey techniques became a

Compiled by: Bikash Sherchan

Computer-assisted Photogrammetry: The third phase of development, known as

Database technology began to emerge in digital mapping systems. Interactive graphical

Softcopy or digital photogrammetry: The new phase of transition is known as “softcopy”

Compiled by: Bikash Sherchan

2.1 Perspective Projection

Figure 2-1: (a) Orthographic vs (b) Perspective Projections (Derenyi, 1982)

Consequently, a central projection (photograph) has the same geometric characteristics

Compiled by: Bikash Sherchan 2-1

2.2 Scale and Coverage

Representative Fraction (RF)

1 cm on the map/photo = 25,000 cm on the ground