Meaning of Research

Features of Research
 Objectives of Research
• To identify the problem
• To collect information
• To adopt scientific approach
• To present benefits of research
• To examine relationship between
variables
• To maintain objectivity
• To make future predictions
 Types of research
• a)Pure, Basic and Fundamental
• b) Applied,
• c)Empirical
• d) Scientific & Social
• e)Historical
• f) Exploratory
• g) Descriptive
• h)Causal
Basic Research
• Basic research is mostly conducted to enhance knowledge.
• It covers fundamental aspects of research.
• The main motivation of this research is knowledge expansion.
• It is a non-commercial research and doesn’t facilitate in creating or
inventing anything.
• For example, an experiment is a good example of basic research.
Basic research is also known as fundamental or pure research since
it is mainly concerned with the improvement of scientific
knowledge.
• The purpose of basic research is simply to gather more information
to further understand existing phenomena specially in the field of
natural sciences.
• Applied Research:
• Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems.
• This type of research refers to the study that helps solve practical
problems using scientific methods.
• This research plays an important role in solving issues that impact the
overall well-being of humans. For example, finding a specific cure for a
disease.
• The purpose of applied research is to know more about a certain real-
world problem and take steps to solve it.
• It focuses on the application of natural science principles on practical
difficulties as well as enhancing innovations.
• Such studies are often associated with the fields of business, economics,
health, and politics
• Empirical research is based on observed and
measured phenomena and derives knowledge
from actual experience rather than from theory or
belief.
• Observation: The observation of a phenomenon
and inquiry concerning its causes.
• Induction: The formulation of hypotheses -
generalized explanations for the phenomenon.
• Deduction: The formulation of experiments that
will test the hypotheses (i.e. confirm them if true,
refute them if false).
• Testing: The procedures by which the hypotheses
are tested and data are collected.
• Evaluation: The interpretation of the data and the
formulation of a theory
Scientific Research
• Descriptive Research:

• Descriptive research is research used to “describe” a

situation, subject, behavior, or phenomenon.

• It is used to answer questions of who, what, when,

where, and how associated with a particular research
question or problem.
• Descriptive Research:

• Descriptive studies are often described as studies that

are concerned with finding out “what is”.

• For example, an apparel brand that wants to

understand the fashion purchasing trends among
buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this
region, gather population data and then conduct
descriptive research on this demographic segment
• Causal Research:

• Causal Research explores the effect of one thing on

another and more specifically, the effect of one
variable on another.

• The research is used to measure what impact a

specific change will have on existing norms and allows
market researchers to predict hypothetical scenarios
upon which a company can base its business plan.
• Causal Research:

• For example, if a clothing company currently sells blue

denim jeans, causal research can measure the impact of the
company changing the product design to the colour white.

• Following the research, company bosses will be able to

decide whether changing the colour of the jeans to white
would be profitable.

• To summarise, causal research is a way of seeing how

actions now will affect a business in the future.
• Exploratory research is the initial research into a
hypothetical or theoretical idea.

• This type of research isn't about making final conclusions,

but rather gathering general information about a topic.

• Often in marketing terms, exploratory research is used at

the start of a marketing plan or long-term business strategy
to see if an idea is viable in any way.

• Informal approaches can be used for exploratory research.

• Exploratory Research:
• Typical sources are casual conversations with customers or company
stakeholders.

• A survey conducted among current customers about future product ideas is

also exploring the concept of new services or goods.

• Exploratory research in marketing is constantly being conducted by

companies as ideas, concepts, and innovations come to light.

• As an idea takes shape, other forms of research get conducted.

• A company often chooses a path to growth because of exploratory research.

• Exploratory Research:
• Exploratory research is the initial research into a hypothetical or theoretical
idea. This type of research isn't about making final conclusions, but rather
gathering general information about a topic.
• Often in marketing terms, exploratory research is used at the start of a
marketing plan or long-term business strategy to see if an idea is viable in any
way.
• Informal approaches can be used for exploratory research.
• Typical sources are casual conversations with customers or company
stakeholders. A survey conducted among current customers about future
product ideas is also exploring the concept of new services or goods.
• Exploratory research in marketing is constantly being conducted by
companies as ideas, concepts, and innovations come to light.
• As an idea takes shape, other forms of research get conducted. A company
often chooses a path to growth because of exploratory research.
 13 steps of Research Process
• Step One: Decide Research Objective –
• Selecting research topic is the most important step of research process.

• Research can be in the field of social science, scientific, marketing,

human resources, finance, banking etc.

• Step Two: Define research problem –

• Research problem means having one or more desired outcomes, two or
more course of action, having objective in mind, involves doubts and
difficulty.

• The problem can be initially broad which will become more narrow,
specific and clear eventually
 13 steps of Research Process
• Step Three: Decide the Objective of Research –
• Objective means goal or purpose of research.
• It specifies what the researcher is trying to achieve, it is where focus of
research should be.
• A research should not have many objectives and researcher should ensure that
they meet their research objectives at the end of research.

• Step Four: Review of literature –

• Before forming hypothesis a researcher should study secondary data available.
Literature review can be of two types
• a) Conceptual- Studying concepts from books, magazines, internet,
newspapers
• b) Empirical - Studying previous research conducted on same topic
 13 steps of Research Process
• Step Five: Formulate hypotheses –
• Hypothesis means assumption.
• At the beginning of research based on topic, problem and objectives the researcher
can draw tentative conclusions by stating Null and Alternate hypothesis.
• It affects type of statistical test, type of data and quality f data.

• Step Six: Preparing the research design –

• The planning stage of research where blue print of research is prepared is called as
research design.
• It is a reference document which guides entire research.
• Research design should consist of objective of study, type of data to be collected,
amount of fund required and expected time to complete the research.
 13 steps of Research Process
• Step Seven: Prepare Sample Design –
• A sample should be derived from population and it should be true
representation of population.

• When research is conducted on entire population it is called as census survey,

the data obtained from this survey is highly accurate but it can be very costly
and time consuming for the researcher.

• Hence in most research sampling is done to save time and cost.

• The common types of sampling are probability and non-probability sampling.

 13 steps of Research Process
• Step Eight: Data collection-
• Data can be collected from primary or secondary source.
• Primary source is when researcher himself collects raw, up-to-date, fresh data
from observation, interview, survey method.
• Although the disadvantage of collecting primary data is that the process is
time consuming and can be costly though highly accurate, reliable, updated
data can be collected through this method.
• The second method of data collection is secondary method where researcher
collects data from books, internet, magazines, journals, newspaper etc.
• The advantage of this method is that it is economical, quick and less time-
consuming source of collecting data.
• The disadvantage of secondary method is that information available can be
irrelevant, inaccurate and out dated.
 13 steps of Research Process
• Step Nine: Project Execution –
• Success of research depends on accuracy, reliability, timeliness while project
execution.
• Supervision and quality will determine the effectiveness of conclusion and
recommendation.

• Step Ten: Data analysis –

• Analyzing data means converting raw data or complex data into logical format
by editing, coding, classification, tabulation so that it becomes easier to draw
statistical inferences
 13 steps of Research Process
• Step Eleven: Hypothesis Testing- Researcher uses statistical tests like ZTest, T-
Test-Ch-Square test, Anova and tools like Microsoft Excel or SPSS to test null
hypothesis.
• After the test, either the null or alternate should be true

• Step Twelve: Data Interpretation- After hypothesis testing researcher should

be able to generalize result, arrange facts and draw findings and
recommendation.

• Step Thirteen: Report writing- All the details of research like objective,
problem, hypothesis, data collection, analysis and recommendation is
presented in a complete, compact and concise report.
 Hypothesis and types of Hypothesis
• Hypothesis is considered as an intelligent guess or prediction, that gives
directional to the researcher to answer the research question.

• Hypothesis or Hypotheses are defined as the formal statement of the

tentative or expected prediction or explanation of the relationship between
two or more variables in a specified population

• For Example, “Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase
in creativity than students not receiving counselling” Or “the automobile A is
performing as well as automobile B.”
 Characteristics of hypothesis
•Hypothesis should be clear and precise.
•Hypothesis should be capable of being
tested.
•Hypothesis should state relationship between
variables, if it happens to be a relational
hypothesis.
•Hypothesis should be limited in scope and
must be specific.
 Characteristics of hypothesis
• Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple
terms so that the same is easily understandable by all
concerned.
• Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e.,
it must be consistent with a substantial body of established
facts.
• Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a
reasonable time.
• Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need
for explanation.
 Significance
• Hypothesis makes a research activity to the point and destination,
Research without hypothesis is like a sailor in the sea without
compass
• 2. Setting hypothesis helps in development of Research Techniques
• 3. Hypothesis formulation keeps away relevant observation from
irrelevant ones.
• 4. Hypothesis helps in selecting required facts, gives direction to
Research and acts as a guide by preventing blind research
• 5. Hypothesis helps in providing accuracy & Precision to findings of
research
• 6. A hypothesis highlights the causes of a problematic situation.
 Significance
• Further solution is also given by a hypothesis which provides answer to a
question.

• 7. Hypothesis save time, money and energy of a researcher because it is a guide

for him and help him in saving these basic things.

• 8. Hypothesis provides the basis of proper Data Collection Relevant and correct
information collected by a researcher is the main function of a good formulated
hypothesis.

• 9. A proper formulated hypothesis may lead to a good reasonable, utilized and

proper conclusion.

• If the hypothesis is better than the conclusions drawn by a researcher would be

better for solution of a problem.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
• SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS • Simple hypothesis is that one in which there
exits relationship between two variables one is called independent
variable or cause and the other is dependent variable or effect. •
Ex. Smoking leads to cancer • The higher ratio of unemployment
leads to crimes.

• COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS • Complex hypothesis is that one in which

as relationship among variables exists. • In this type dependent
and independent variables are more than two • Ex. Smoking and
other drugs leads to cancer, tension, chest infections etc. • The
higher ration of unemployment poverty illiteracy leads to crimes
like dacoit etc.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
• EMPIRICAL HYPOTHESIS • Empirical which means it is based
on evidence. • In scientific method the word "empirical"
refers to the use of working hypothesis that can be tested
using observation and experiment. • Empirical data is
produced by experiment and observation.

• QUESTION FORM OF HYPOTHESIS • It Is the simplest form

of empirical hypothesis. • In simple case of investigation
and research are adequately implemented by resuming a
question. • Ex. how is the ability of 9th class students in
learning moral values?
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
• NULL HYPOTHESIS • Null the hypothesis that there is no significant
difference between specified populations, any observed difference
being due to sampling or experimental error. • It is denoted by H0

• ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS • The alternative hypothesis, denoted by

H1 or Ha, • Is the hypothesis that sample observations are
influenced by some non-random cause.

• STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS • A hypothesis which can be verified

statistically called statistical hypothesis. • The statement would be
logical or illogical but if statistic verifies it, it will be statistical
hypothesis..
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
• DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS • Directional Hypothesis predicts the direction of
the relationship between the independent and dependent variable. •
Example- High quality of nursing education will lead to high quality of
nursing practice skills. • Girls ability of learning moral science is better than
boys.
• NON DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS • Non -directional Hypothesis predicts the
relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable
but does not specific the directional of the relationship. • Example- teacher
student relationship influence student’s learning. • There is no significant
difference between 9th class boys and girls abilities of learning moral values.
• CASUAL HYPOTHESIS • Causal Hypothesis predicts a cause and effects
relationship or interaction between the independent variable and dependent
variable. • This hypothesis predicts the effect of the independent variable on
the dependent variable
Research Design– Meaning, Definition, Need and
Importance
• Definition – “Research Design is the blue print for collection,
measurement and analysis of data”’
Sub Design Explanation

Conceptual plan It includes identification and selection of research problem, hypothesis setting,
operational definition of variables, limitation of study,
Sampling plan population of the study, sample size, sampling frame, sampling techniques and procedure.

Strategic plan: selection of appropriate data collection tools and techniques and application.

Analytical plan determination, selection and application of appropriate determination, selection and
application of appropriate qualitative and or quantitative data analysis tools.

Resource Plan manage resources like men, materials, machines, etc. essential for the conduction of
research.
 Features of a research design:
•Research design is similar to a building plan/blue-
print.
•Research design facilitates orderly execution of
research project
•It acts as a reference document.
•Research design is plan, structure and strategy
•Helps researcher to arrive a meaningful
conclusion
 Need/Significance of Research Design:
• Research design is needed to provide guidelines and answer
questions like who, what, when, where, how, how much of
the research project.
• It facilitates in organizing resources (manpower, money etc)
for collecting the data.
• It is needed to give suitable directions to research staff
• It is required for selection of appropriate techniques of data
collection and data analysis
• It is needed to determine sample size and collect relevant
data
 Need/Significance of Research Design:
• It is needed to assess expenses of research project
• Research design is needed to motivate staff
• Needed to execute project in orderly manner and take
faster decisions
• To achieve research objectives by proper planning
• Helps to avoid possible errors
• Increase efficiency, define variable relationships and
remove uncertainty
 Steps, Scope and Essentials of a Good
Research Design
• Defining of a problem: The problem chosen for research needs to be
described clearly in operational terms to make sure that researcher
understands positively what information he is searching for and what is
strongly related to the study.
• Objective of Study: The objective needs to be very clear in the mind of the
investigator as this will lead to the clarity of the design and proper response
from the participants.
• Data sources: Once the problem is chosen it is the responsibility of the
researcher to mention clearly the different sources of data for example
primary or secondary source.
 Steps, Scope and Essentials of a Good
Research Design
• Methods of Data Collection: Related to the research design an appropriate
method has to be followed for the collection of necessary data. The relative
advantage of observation, interview and questionnaire, when studied
collectively will help in the selection of an ideal approach
• Define the Population - In statistical terms, a ‘universe’ or ‘population’
refers to the aggregate of individuals or units from which a ‘sample’ is drawn
and to which the results and analysis are to apply.
• Determine Sample Size - As in practice a complete enumeration of all the
items in the ‘universe’ is not possible under many circumstances, due to the
requirement of a great deal of time, money and energy; the researcher
embarks upon deciding the way of a selecting a representative sample which
is popularly known as the sample design
 Steps, Scope and Essentials of a Good
Research Design
• Geographical limit – This step becomes a necessity at this point of
time as with the help of this step, research linked to the hypothesis
applies only to certain number of social groups.
• Decision of Resources – Resources include manpower, money,
material resources, with adequate resources it is possible to
complete work on time
• Preparing Research Design- It is the plan or blue print which
should contain objectives, data collection sources, data analysis,
time and cost involved, sample size, techniques to collect and
analyze data
 Steps, Scope and Essentials of a Good
Research Design
• Analysis of Data: This involves a number of operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data
through coding, tabulation. Thereafter statistical inferences are drawn.
While analyzing data, the researcher applies various well defined statistical
formulae for the computation of percentages, coefficients, tests of
significance
• Reporting the Research: The preliminaries incorporating the title page,
foreword or preface, acknowledgements; list of tables, charts or
illustrations; and table of contents. Contents of the reports which covers the
introductory part of research reports which should not only contain purpose
of the study, statement of the problem, hypothesis and operational
definition of the concepts but also should contain a description of the
agency, personnel and other aspects of research
 Good research design should fulfill the following
features:
• Good research design must be realistic, workable,
appropriate and able to give us intended
information.
• Design should be consistent with the research
capability of the researcher or feasible for the
research.
• Research design must be based on and synchronize
with the purpose of the research problem.
• It must be flexible so that it can be changed as per
the situation changed.
 Good research design should fulfill the following
features:
• Good research design should be formulated after the
crucial study of the nature of the problem.
• Design should provide well developed guidelines for
entire research steps.
• Design should constitute valid, reliable and
generalizable features.
• Research design should cover the data collection and
analysis technique properly.
• Population  The largest unit under study
• Sample  Derived from population
• True Representation of population
• 10% of population
• Save Time Save cost and effort
• Entire population  Census survey
• Sample  Sampling survey
• Two Types of Sampling -> Probability and Non Probability
• Probability  Each and every element of population has equal chance of
getting selected  Quantitative, objective, non biased SRS, Stratified,
Systematic, Cluster
• Non probability  Each and every element of population does not have
equal chance of getting selected Qualitative, Subjective, biased
Convenience, judgement, quota, snowball
 Sampling Techniques

Probability Non-Probability
Sampling Sampling

Simple Random Stratified Random Systematic Cluster Convenience Quota Judgement Snowball
Sample Sample Random Sampling sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
Sample

Proportionate Disproportionate One Stage Two Stage Multi Stage

 Non-probability samples
• Convenience sampling
• Purposive sampling:
• Quota sampling
• Snowball Sampling
 Convenience sampling
• The process of including whoever happens to be available at the time called
“accidental” or “haphazard” sampling.

• Samples are selected from the population only because they are conveniently
available to researcher.

• These samples are selected only because they are easy to recruit and
researcher did not consider selecting sample that represents the entire
population.

• Advantages are speed, cost-effectiveness, and ease of availability of the

sample.
 Purposive sampling
• The process whereby the researcher selects a sample based on experience or
knowledge of the group to be sampled called “judgment” sampling.

• In other words, researchers choose only those who he feels are a right fit
(with respect to attributes and representation of a population) to participate
in research study.

• This is not a scientific method of sampling and the downside to this sampling
technique is that the results can be influenced by the preconceived notions of
a researcher.

• Thus, there is a high amount of ambiguity involved in this research technique.

 Quota sampling
• The process whereby a researcher gathers data from individuals possessing
identified characteristics and quotas.

• Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and
female employees in an organization.

• There are 500 employees in the organization. These 500 employees are known as
population.

• In order to understand better about a population, researcher will need only a

sample, not the entire population.

• Further, researcher is interested in particular strata within the population. Here is

where quota sampling helps in dividing the population into strata or groups.
 Snowball sampling
• Is where research participants recruit other participants for a test or study. It
is used where potential participants are hard to find.

• Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not easily
available.

• This sampling system works like the referral program.

• Once the researchers find suitable subjects, they are asked for assistance to
seek similar subjects to form a considerably good size sample.

• For example, this type of sampling can be used to conduct research involving a
particular illness in patients or a rare disease
 Probability sampling

• Stratified random sampling

• Cluster sampling
• Multistage Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
 Stratified random sampling
• The population is divided into two or more groups called strata, according to
some criterion, such as geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and
subsamples are randomly selected from each strata.
• Advantages
• More accurate sample
• Can be used for both proportional and non- proportional samples
• Representation of subgroups in the sample ◦

• Disadvantages
• Identification of all members of the population can be difficult
• Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult.
 Cluster sampling
• The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not individuals, within the
defined population sharing similar characteristics
• Clusters are locations within which an intact group of members of the
population can be found
• Examples Neighborhoods School districts Schools Classrooms
• Advantages
• Very useful when populations are large and spread over a large geographic
region
• Convenient and expedient
• Do not need the names of everyone in the population ◦
• Disadvantages
• Representation is likely to become an issue
 Multistage Sampling
• The multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling.

• For example, If the government wants to take a sample of 10,000 households

residing in Gujarat state.

• At the first stage, the state can be divided into the number districts, and then few
districts can be selected randomly.

• At the second-stage, the chosen districts can be further sub-divided into the number
of villages and then the sample of few villages can be taken at random.

• Now at the third-stage, the desired number of households can be selected from the
villages chosen at the second stage.
 A B
a. Pure Research
b. Historical
c.Extraneous Variables
d. Research Process
e. Common sense Hypothesis
f. Research Design
g. Exploratory Research
h. Sample
i. Non Probability Sampling
j. Cluster Sampling
1)Developing Hypothesis
2)New Ideas
3)With Purpose
4)Random
5)Grouped Together
6)Multi Stage
7)Past Experience
8)Statistical Data
9)Works at lowest level
10)Theoretical