iconic STRUCTURES

The Golden Gate Bridge

The most famous bridge in the world, a symbol of San Francisco and American ingenuity.
By Roumen V. Mladjov, S. E., P. E.

T he Golden Gate Bridge

is one of the world’s
most famous and admired
structures. Spanning the pic-
turesque Golden Gate Strait
north of San Francisco,
the bridge transforms the
strait into a more beautiful
and dramatic setting. This
unique site and its bridge
are a graceful and majestic
entry into the San Francisco
Bay, a breathtaking sight
welcoming vessels from all
over the Pacific.
Built between 1933 and
1937, the Golden Gate a) b)
Bridge became a symbol of
the City of San Francisco Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, 1937: a) Overall view, b) South Tower, a view from the bridge deck.
and American ingenuity
and progress. It is one of the greatest bridges ever built and certainly much simple and visually powerful structure that we admire today.
the most celebrated of all. The suspension steel bridge structure is 6,450 The engineers relied on recent advances in Suspension Bridge Design
ft (1,966 m) long (the entire bridge, approaches included, is 8,980 ft Theory for the design. They verified these calculations with tests on a
(2,737 m) long). It carries six traffic lanes and two pedestrian/bicycle steel tower model of 1:56 scale (56 times smaller than one of the actual
lanes. The height of the bridge towers is 746 ft (227 m); (152 m (500 towers). The tests confirmed that the tower calculations were sound.
ft) above the deck); the navigation clearance is 220 ft (67 m). With a scaled-down force, one test simulated the actual 120 million
The bridge links San Francisco with Marin County and the North pounds (54,000 metric tons) of vertical load that would be placed
Bay at the points of the shortest distance across the Bay entrance. Long atop each full-sized tower by the main cables. (To visualize that much
considered an impossible dream by Californians, together with the San weight, picture a large ocean liner.)
Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, the Golden Gate Bridge made the Bay The geology of the south tower location was investigated before con-
Area into a unified economic entity, significantly contributing to its struction began. This tower was planned for construction over 1,100
future development as a major financial and cultural center. The site feet (335 meters) offshore on serpentine rock. Consulting geologist,
provides the essential background for a great bridge. Andrew Lawson, oversaw a load test performed by placing weight
The Golden Gate Bridge was designed by Joseph Strauss (Chief equivalent to a fully loaded railroad boxcar on an area of serpentine
Engineer) and his task group of extraordinarily experienced design and rock only 20 inches (508 millimeters) square. The rock was more than
consulting engineers: Charles Ellis, Leon Moisseiff, Othmar Ammann, strong enough.
and Charles Derleth Jr., together with the geologist Andrew C. Lawson. The bridge’s central span held the long-span world record until
Working closely with the engineers, architect Irving Morrow was 1964 when the Verrazano Narrows Bridge surpassed it by 18 meters.
responsible for the aesthetic design, including the signature Art Deco Invariably on the list of the greatest bridge structures, the Golden
style of the bridge towers and the bridge’s characteristic “International Gate Bridge is also included in ASCE’s list of Modern Wonders of the
Orange” color. World. What makes this structure so unique and famous? Far from
In 1921, Strauss submitted an initial design for a bridge that would being “merely” utilitarian, the Golden Gate Bridge is one of the few
cross the Golden Gate Strait — a hybrid bridge with a suspension span structures significantly enhancing its environment. Combining the
supported by cantilever trusses extending from the bridge towers. The breathtaking setting and the elegant, powerful structure contributes
idea was considered “ugly” by the contemporary local press. However, to its appreciation as one of the greatest bridges ever built. The ever-
Strauss’ design was ahead of its time. His idea was to significantly reduce changing conditions, from bright sunlight and shades to drifting fog
the suspension span (preserving the longer clear span), something often obscuring bridge elements, offer spectacular visual variations.
employed much later for “hybrid suspension” bridge structures with Pedestrian accessibility on the bridge deck and at multiple viewpoints
considerable savings vis-à-vis classic suspensions. along the structure makes it a favorite site for photographers and tour-
With the engineering team’s help, the bridge’s design evolved into the ists, adding to its popularity. The elegant lines of the suspension cable

34 STRUCTURE magazine
system, its long span, and the majestic
towers create a familiar and fascinating
picture. This structure, perfect in both
functionality and design, is also an object
of art. The bridge is a monument to the
creative spirit and the eternal drive to
surpass previous achievements.
To fully appreciate this achievement, one
must consider the project’s challenges and
the state of design and construction in the
1930s. The strait is a 6,700 ft (2,042 m)
wide opening in a mountain range, where
the Bay connects to the Pacific Ocean,
with its strong tides and currents, winds
exceeding 60 mph, and grade up to 330
ft (100 m) below the water surface. These
conditions required an enormous bridge
span never achieved before. As Kevin Starr The early hybrid bridge design option submitted by Strauss in 1921.
rightly noted, “Not since the Brooklyn
Bridge was built more than half a century earlier had bridge-builders The earthquake caused 68 deaths, at least 3,700 injuries, and an esti-
faced such a challenge.” mated loss of $6-7 billion. Although the Golden Gate Bridge suffered
We should also remember that in the 1930s, there were no computers, no observed damage from the Loma Prieta Earthquake, since the epi-
software, or even electronic calculators. The engineers had to rely on center was located some 60 miles to the south, the earthquake served
hand calculations and slide rules alone. There were no mobile cranes, as a reminder of the area’s susceptibility to seismic activity and initiated
welding, or high-strength bolts; all connections had to be done with an extensive seismic retrofit program.
rivets – a particularly challenging method, considering the difficult - In 1996, three more retrofitting projects commenced. The first
atmospheric conditions over open waves. Despite such challenges, two—on the Marin (north) approach viaduct and the San Francisco
the engineers and builders accomplished the task, building a bold and (south) approach viaduct—are already completed (1997–2008), so
efficient bridge concept. On more than one occasion, accidents delayed
the construction. A few months after construction began in 1933, a ship
traveling westward in thick fog crashed into the just-completed access
trestle to the San Francisco tower fender and destroyed a large part of
it; later the same year, strong storms twice destroyed part of the access
trestle. These accidents delayed progress on the bridge by five months.
Despite all obstacles, the structure was completed ahead of schedule
in less than 4 ½ years for $33.7 million, $1.3 million below budget!
The cost is equivalent to $710 million in 2023. However, in 2019 it
was estimated that building the same bridge today would cost about
$1,640 million.
The Golden Gate Bridge is a high-level engineering achievement with
a new record-long span at a very challenging site, a structure many
experts had considered impossible to build. The main span’s 4,200 ft
(1,280 m) length exceeds the spans of two bridges connecting Europe
and Asia at the Bosphorus Strait (with respective 3580 ft (1,090 m)
and 3524 ft (1,074 m) spans).
The 66,043-metric-ton steel structure (including anchorages) requires
periodic inspections and permanent maintenance to ensure its safe
operation. During its long years of service, the bridge has been retrofit-
ted several times:
- In 1953–1954, a lateral bracing system was added between the
stiffening trusses to increase the lateral and torsional resistance of
the bridge.
- In 1973–1976, all suspender cables were replaced.
- In 1982–1986, the original reinforced concrete deck was replaced
with a stronger and lighter steel orthotropic deck, a replacement done
in stages during night hours without closing traffic. Orthotropic
deck consists of a structural steel plate stiffened with ribs.
- In 1980–1982, the North and South approach structures were
seismically reinforced.
On October 17, 1989, the Loma Prieta Earthquake hit the San A scale model of one of the Bridge towers, loaded in a civil engineering testing
Francisco Bay Area with a 7.1 magnitude, with 15 seconds duration. machine at Princeton University in 1933.

O CTO B ER 2023 35

Elevation of Golden Gate Bridge.
the Bridge is expected to safely withstand an earthquake over 7.0 in
magnitude. However, it may still experience damage in major seismic
events that would require traffic closures. The final retrofit Phases 3A
and 3B will further strengthen the Bridge against earthquakes or other
disasters by reinforcing the main and side spans of the Bridge, both
towers and the south tower pier, with work scheduled to start in late
2024 and finish in 2029.
These efforts reflect natural concerns over seismic safety in the area. In
the mid-1990s, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) estimated a 62%
probability of at least one magnitude 6.7 or greater earthquake capable
of causing widespread damage, impacting the San Francisco Bay region
before 2031. More recently, USGS estimated a 72% probability of a
magnitude 6.7 or greater earthquake in the Bay Area before 2043.
Because of the significant strength of the steel-wire main cables, the
load-carrying capacity of the structure does not need reinforcement and
remains as originally designed. One unexpected load test occurred in
1987 when too many people assembled on the bridge deck during the
50th-anniversary celebration of the bridge. The celebration attracted
750,000 to 1,000,000 visitors, and the crowd on the bridge was about
300,000 people, causing the bridge’s center span to flatten out under
the weight. This unexpected load caused the main structure to deflect,
consuming all designed camber of the main span and temporarily trans-
forming it into a concave line. The pedestrian “crowd” load exceeded
by 50% the bridge design live load of 7.25 t/m’ (6 traffic + 2 pedestrian
lanes). This super load caused a larger-than-designed deflection, but the
structure successfully resisted the overload; the required tensile strength
for the two main cables is 224,000 kips (101,900 metric tons) (for the
total load above), while the capacity is 262,000 kips (119,000 metric
tons), i.e., there was still a safety factor of 1.17 vs. factored load and
2.44 safety factor vs. nominal load demand.
The bridge under construction.
36 STRUCTURE magazine
Description, Technical, and
Statistical Data
The main bridge has a typical suspen-
sion bridge structure with two majestic
towers and an elegant, simple suspen-
sion cable shape on one central-main
span and two side spans over a contin-
uous steel stiffener girder. The stiffener
girder comprises two steel trusses, laterally braced in between,
carrying the bridge deck. Originally the deck was reinforced con-
crete, replaced in 1982-1986 by a steel orthotropic deck system.
The towers are 227 m tall from the water level or 152 m above
the deck. They are steel-framed two-leg structures with art-deco-
enhanced horizontal frame connections. Between both legs, each
tower has four horizontal frame connections above the deck and
two “X” braces below the deck.
- The length of the central main span of the bridge is 4,200 ft
(1,280 m); the two side spans are 1,125 ft (343 m) each, with
a total suspension length of 6,450 ft (1,966 m). The bridge
length is 8,980 ft (2,737 m) between abutments.
- Width of the bridge deck: 90 ft; road width between curbs:
62 ft.
- Vertical clearance above water level: 220 ft (67 m).
- Main cables length: 7,650 ft (2,332 m); main cable maximum
sag: 144 m; cable diameters: 36ʺ 3/8 (0.92 m) with the wrap-
ping. Each main cable has 27,572 galvanized steel wires with
a diameter of 0.192ʺ.
- Main cables weight: 24,500 t (22,200 m. tons).
- Strength characteristics of the cable steel wire: tensile strength,
Fu = 235,600 psi; yield strength, 182,600 psi.
- There are 250 pairs of suspenders arranged 50 ft (15.2 m) apart,
each with a diameter of 2 11/16ʺ. The original suspenders were
replaced in 1972–1976.
- Weight of all cables, main and suspender, and accessories:
24,500 tons (22,200 metric tons).
- Total weight of each anchorage: 60,000 tons (54,400 metric
tons).
- Total weight of the bridge, excluding anchorages and approaches:
419,800 tons (380,800 metric tons). This includes a reduc-
tion of 12,300 tons (11,158 metric tons) in weight from the
re-decking in 1986.
- Maximum calculated deflections at midspan: downward, 10.8 ft
(3.3. m); upward, 5.8 ft (1.8 m); transverse deflection: 27.7 ft
(8.4 m).
- Deflections at the top of towers: transverse, 12.5 in (0.32 m);
longitudinal, 22 in (0.56 m).
- Live load capacity: 4,000 lbs. (1,814.4 kg) per lineal foot.
- Load on each tower from main cables: 61,500 tons (56,000
metric tons).
Bethlehem Steel manufactured the steel structures in Trenton
(New Jersey), Sparrows Point (Maryland), Bethlehem,
Pottstown, and Steelton (Pennsylvania). They were transported
by sea through the Panama Canal to the construction site in San
Francisco. The cables for the bridge were produced and supplied
by John A. Roebling’s Sons Company in Trenton, New Jersey.
Humankind has built bridges since the days of early civiliza-
tions. Several of them reflect the eternal aspiration to surpass
previous achievements in construction. Some, like the Golden
Gate Bridge, are landmarks that became symbols of cities,
countries, and human progress. The American Society of Civil
The Golden Gate Bridge under construction.
Engineers rightly recognizes the bridge as one of the Wonders
of the Modern World.
To this day, the Golden Gate Bridge remains a symbol of San
Francisco. It is what the Eiffel Tower is for Paris and what the
Statue of Liberty is for New York. Admiring this iconic struc-
ture, we should honor its designers and builders, engineers,
The Golden Gate Bridge.
construction companies and workers, those who have updated
and retrofitted it, and those who maintain it daily. This amazing
structure inspires and motivates new generations of engineers
and builders to higher structural and bridge engineering achieve-
ments. The Golden Gate Bridge has inspired generations of
engineers to build larger, taller, and stronger structures. It sym-
bolized the Art of American Bridge engineering and contributed
to the leading role of American bridge designers and builders for
most of the 20th century. This 86-year-old achievement should
also motivate our engineers, builders, and relevant authorities to
deliver more high-performing and efficient bridge structures to
maintain our country’s transportation functionality and safety
at the highest level.■
Full references are included in the online version of the article
at STRUCTUREmag.org.
Roumen Mladjov, S. E., P. E., Roumen’s main interests are structural and
bridge development, structural performance, seismic resistance, efficiency,
and economy. (rmladjov@gmail.com).
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