MODULE 2

TESTING OF TRANSFORMER AND INSTRUMENT

TRANSFORMERS
 Equivalent Circuit Of Transformer
In a practical transformer -
(a) some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage gives rise to leakage
reactance’s at both sides, which are denoted as X1 and X2 respectively.
(b) Both the primary and secondary winding possesses resistance, denoted as R1 and R2 respectively.
These resistances causes voltage drop as, I1R1 and I2R2 and also copper loss I12R1 and I22R2.
(c) Permeability of the core cannot be infinite, hence some magnetizing current is needed. Mutual flux
also causes core loss in iron parts of the transformer.
We need to consider all the above things to derive equivalent circuit of a transformer.

Equivalent Circuit Of Transformer

 Resistances and reactances of transformer, which are described above, can be imagined
separately from the windings (as shown in the figure below). Hence, the function of
windings, thereafter, will only be the transforming the voltage

 The no load current I0 is divided into, pure inductance X0 (taking magnetizing components
Iμ) and non-induction resistance R0 (taking working component Iw) which are connected
into parallel across the primary. The value of E1 can be obtained by subtracting I1Z1 from
V1. The value of R0and X0 can be calculated as, R0 = E1 / Iw and X0 = E1 / Iμ.
 But, using this equivalent circuit does not simplifies the calculations. To make calculations
simpler, it is preferable to transfer current, voltage and impedance either to primary side or
to the secondary side. In that case, we would have to work with only one winding which is
more convenient. From the voltage transformation ratio, it is clear that,
E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 = K
 Now, lets refer the parameters of secondary side to primary. Z2 can be referred to primary
as Z2'
where, Z2' = (N1/N2)2Z2 = K2Z2. ............where K= N1/N2.
that is, R2'+jX2' = K2(R2+jX2)
equating real and imaginary parts,
R2' = K2R2 and X2' = K2X2 .
And V2' = KV2
The following figure shows the equivalent circuit of transformer with secondary
parameters referred to the primary.

 Now, as the values of winding resistance and leakage reactance are so small that, V1 and
E1 can be assumed to be equal. Therefore, the exciting current drawn by the parallel
combination of R0 and X0 would not affect significantly, if we move it to the input
terminals as shown in the figure below.

 Now, let R1 + R2' = R'eq and X1 + X2' = X'eq

Then the equivalent circuit of transformer becomes as shown in the figure below
  Approximate Equivalent Circuit Of Transformer
If only voltage regulation is to be calculated, then even the whole excitation branch
(parallel combination of R0 and X0) can be neglected. Then the equivalent circuit becomes
as shown in the figure below

 TRANSFORMER TESTS

Open and Short Circuit Test of Transformer

Open and short circuit tests are performed on a transformer to determine the:

1. Equivalent circuit of transformer

2. Voltage regulation of transformer
3. Efficiency of transformer
The power required for open circuit tests and short circuit tests on a transformer is equal to
the power loss occurring in the transformer.
  OPEN CIRCUIT TEST ON TRANSFORMER
 A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in LV side of the transformer.The
voltage at rated frequency is applied to that LV side with the help of a variac of variable
ratio auto transformer.
 The HV side of the transformer is kept open. Now with the help of variac, applied voltage
gets slowly increased until the voltmeter gives reading equal to the rated voltage of the LV
side. After reaching rated LV side voltage, we record all the three instruments reading
(Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter readings).

 The ammeter reading gives the no load current. As no load current is quite small compared
to rated current of the transformer, the voltage drops due to this current that can be taken
as negligible.
 Since voltmeter reading V1 can be considered equal to the secondary induced voltage of
the transformer, wattmeter reading indicates the input power during the test. As the
transformer is open circuited, there is no output, hence the input power here consists of
core losses in transformer and copper loss in transformer during no load condition.
 But as said earlier, the no-load current in the transformer is quite small compared to the
full load current so, we can neglect the copper loss due to the no-load current. Hence, can
take the wattmeter reading as equal to the core losses in the transformer
Vo = Rated voltage
Wo = Input power
Io = Input current = no load current
As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current drawn by the primary is no
load current Io. The two components of this no load current are,
I 𝜇 = Io sin Φo
Iw = Io cos Φo
where cos Φo = No load power factor
And hence power input can be written as,
Wo = V1 Io cos Φo
 As secondary is open, I2 = 0. Thus its reflected current on primary is also zero. So we have
primary current I1 =Io. As I2 = 0, secondary copper losses are zero.
  And I1 = Io is very low hence copper losses on primary are also very very low. Thus the
total copper losses in O.C. test are negligibly small. As against this the inputvoltage is rated
at rated frequency hence flux density in the core is at its maximum value.
 Hence iron losses are at rated voltage. As output power is zero and copper losses are very
low, the total input power is used to supply iron losses. This power is measured by the
wattmeter i.e. Wo. Hence the wattmeter in O.C. test gives iron losses which remain constant
for all the loads.
... Wo = Pi = Iron losses
Calculations : We know that,
Wo = Vo Io cos Φ
cos Φo = Wo /(Vo Io ) = no load power factor
Once cos Φo is known we can obtain,
Iw = Io cos Φo
and I 𝜇 = Io sin Φo
Once Ic and Im are known we can determine exciting circuit parameters as,
Ro = Vo /Iw Ω
and Xo = Vo /I 𝜇 Ω

 SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON TRANSFORMER

 The connection diagram for short circuit test on transformer is shown in the figure. A
voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in HV side of the transformer
 The connection diagram for short circuit test or impedance test on transformer is as
shown in the figure below. The LV side of transformer is short circuited and wattmeter
(W), voltmere (V) and ammeter (A) are connected on the HV side of the transformer.
Voltage is applied to the HV side and increased from the zero until the ammeter reading
equals the rated current. All the readings are taken at this rated current.
 Now the current flowing through the windings are rated current hence the total copper
loss is full load copper loss. Now the voltage supplied is low which is a small fraction of
the rated voltage. The iron losses are function of applied voltage. So the iron losses in
 reduced voltage test are very small. Hence the wattmeter reading is the power loss which
is equal to full load copper losses as iron losses are very low.
... Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = Full load copper loss
Calculations : From S.C. test readings we can write,
Wsc = Vsc Isc cos Φsc
... cos Φsc = Vsc Isc /Wsc = short circuit power factor
Wsc = Isc2 R02 = copper loss
... R02 =Wsc /Isc2
while Z02=Vsc /Isc = √(R022 + X022)
... X02 = √(Z022 - R022)
Thus we get the equivalent circuit parameters R02, X02and Z02. Knowing the transformation ratio
K, the equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be obtained.

 TOTAL APPROXIMATE VOLTAGE DROP IN ATRANSFORMER

 During no-load condition, V1 is approximately equal to El and V02 = E2 where V02 indicates
no-load terminal voltage of the secondary. When secondary is loaded, let the secondary
terminal voltage be V2. The difference between V2 and V02 is the voltage drop across
equivalent impedance in secondary, i.e., I2Z02 shown in Figure (a).
Total approximate voltage drop =AG=AF+FG
= I2R02cosθ–I2X02sinθ
This approximate voltage drop is for lagging power factor only.
 For leading power factor, the approximate voltage drop will be
= I2R02cosθ–I2X02sinθ
where ‘+’ sign is for lagging power factor and ‘-’ sign is for leading power factor.
The above calculation is referred to as secondary. It may be noted that voltage drop referred
to as primary is
I1R01cosθ±I1X01sinθ
∴% voltage drop in secondary is=

=vrcosθ±vxsinθ (1.42)

where

and

 REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER
 Definition: The voltage regulation is defined as the change in the magnitude of receiving
and sending the voltage of the transformer. The voltage regulation determines the ability
of the transformer to provide the constant voltage for variable loads.
Voltage Regulation of Transformer Formula

The percentage change in output voltage from no-load to full-load is termed the voltage regulation
of the transformer. Ideally, there should be no change in Vo from no-load to full-load (i.e.,
regulation = 100%). For the best possible performance, the transformer should have the lowest
possible regulation. Mathematically, voltage regulation can be expressed as

Where Vo(NL) is the transformer no-load output voltage, and Vo(FL) is the full load output voltage.
When the transformer is loaded with continuous supply voltage, the terminal voltage of the
transformer varies. The variation of voltage depends on the load and its power factor.

Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer

The equation for the voltage regulation of transformer, represented in percentage, is

  LOSSES OF TRANSFORMER
Losses In Transformer
In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input power and output
power. An electrical transformer is an static device, hence mechanical losses (like windage or
friction losses) are absent in it. A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron losses and
copper losses). Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine, except that transformers
do not have mechanical losses.

Losses in transformer are explained below -

(I) Core Losses Or Iron Losses

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used for
the construction of core. Hence these losses are also known as core losses or iron losses.
 Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the
transformer core. This loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of
magnetic reversals and value of flux density.
It can be given by, Steinmetz formula:
Wh= ηBmax1.6fV (watts)
where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
V = volume of the core in m3
 Eddy current loss in transformer: In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary
winding which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with secondary
winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets linked with other
conducting parts like steel core or iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced
emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in them. This current is called as eddy
current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of heat.

(ii) Copper Loss In Transformer

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss for the primary
winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and
secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary winding
respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and current depends
on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies with the load.

 EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
 Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the
output power divided by the input power. That is efficiency = output / input .
 Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the transformers have
full load efficiency between 95% to 98.5% . As a transformer being highly efficient, output
and input are having nearly same value, and hence it is impractical to measure the
 efficiency of transformer by using output / input. A better method to find efficiency of a
transformer is using, efficiency = (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input).

Condition For Maximum Efficiency

Let,
Copper loss = I12R1
Iron loss = Wi

Hence, efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper loss and iron losses are equal.
That is Copper loss = Iron loss.

 ALL DAY EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

As we have seen above, ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer can be given as

But in some types of transformers, their performance can not be judged by this efficiency. For
example, distribution transformers have their primaries energized all the time. But, their
secondaries supply little load all no-load most of the time during day (as residential use of
electricity is observed mostly during evening till midnight).That is, when secondaries of
transformer are not supplying any load (or supplying only little load), then only core losses of
transformer are considerable and copper losses are absent (or very little). Copper losses are
considerable only when transformers are loaded. Thus, for such transformers copper losses are
relatively less important. The performance of such transformers is compared on the basis of energy
consumed in one day.

All day efficiency of a transformer is always less than ordinary efficiency of it.

 PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Need of Parallel Operation in Single Phase Transformers

There are three principal reasons for connecting transformers in parallel.

1. Firstly, if one transformer fails, the continuity of supply can be maintained through other
transformers.
2. Secondly, when the load on the substation becomes more than the capacity of the existing
transformers, another transformer can be added in parallel.
3. Thirdly, any transformer can be taken out of the circuit for repair/routine
maintenance without interrupting supply to the consumers.

This has mainly the following advantages,

4. To maximize electrical power system efficiency:

Generally electrical power transformer gives the maximum efficiency at full load. If we
run numbers of transformers in parallel, we can switch on only those transformers which
will give the total demand by running nearer to its full load rating for that time. When load
increases, we can switch none by one other transformer connected in parallel to fulfill the
total demand. In this way we can run the system with maximum efficiency.

5. To maximize electrical power system availability:

If numbers of transformers run in parallel, we can shutdown any one of them for
maintenance purpose. Other parallel transformers in system will serve the load without
total interruption of power

6. To maximize power system reliability

If any one of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to fault of other parallel
transformers is the system will share the load, hence power supply may not be interrupted
if the shared loads do not make other transformers over loaded.

7. To maximize electrical power system flexibility

 There is always a chance of increasing or decreasing future demand of power system. If it
is predicted that power demand will be increased in future, there must be a provision of
connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfill the extra demand because, it is not
economical from business point of view to install a bigger rated single transformer by
forecasting the increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money. Again
if future demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed from system
to balance the capital investment and its return.
Some more reasons that necessitate parallel operation of transformers are as follows.

 Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load requirement.

 The power demand might have increased over time necessitating augmentation of the
capacity. More transformers connected in parallel will then be pressed into service.
 To ensure improved reliability. Even if one of the transformers gets into a fault or is taken
out for maintenance/repair the load can be continued to be serviced.
 To reduce the spare capacity. If many smaller size transformers are used one machine can
be used as spare. If only one large machine is feeding the load, a spare of similar rating has
to be available. The problem of spares becomes more acute with fewer machines in service
at a location.
 When transportation problems limit installation of large transformers at a site, it may be
easier to transport smaller ones to the site and work them in parallel.

Conditions for satisfactory parallel operation

In order that the transformers work satisfactorily in parallel, the following conditions should be
satisfied:

1. Transformers should be properly connected with regard to their polarities.

2. The voltage ratings and voltage ratios of the transformers should be the same.
3. The per unit or percentage impedances of the transformers should be equal.
4. The reactance/resistance ratios of the transformers should be the same.

1. Connection with regard to Polarity

This condition is absolutely essential because wrong connections may result in dead short-circuit.

Figure (i) shows the correct method of connecting two single-phase transformers in parallel.

It will be seen that round the loop formed by the secondaries, the two secondary e.m.f.s EA and
EB oppose and there will be no circulating current.
Transformer Connection Based on Polarity (i) Correct Connections (ii) Wrong Connections
Figure (ii) shows the wrong method of connecting two single-phase transformers in parallel. Here
the two secondaries are so connected that their e.m.f.s EA and EB are additive. This may lead to
short-circuiting conditions and a very large circulating current will flow in the loop formed by the
two secondaries.Such a condition may damage the transformers unless they are protected by fuses
and circuit breakers.

2. Same Voltage Rating and Voltage Ratio

This condition is desirable for the satisfactory parallel operation of transformers.

If this condition is not met, the secondary e.m.f.s will not be equal and there will be circulating
currentin the loop formed by the secondaries. This will result in the unsatisfactory parallel
operation of transformers.

Let us illustrate this point. Consider two single-phase transformer A and B operating in parallel as
shown in the figure.

Let Ea and Eb be their no-load secondary voltages and Za and Zb be their impedances referred to
the secondary. Then at no-load, the circulating current in the loop formed by the secondaries is
Even a small difference in the induced secondary voltages can cause a large circulating current in
the secondary loop because impedances of the transformers are small. This secondary circulating
current will cause current to be drawn from the supply by the primary of each transformer.These
currents will cause copper losses in both primary and secondary. This creates heating with no
useful output.

When the load is connected to the system, this circulating current will tend to produce unequal
loading conditions i.e., the transformers will not share the load according to their kVA ratings. It
is because the circulating current will tend to make the terminal voltages of the same value for
both transformers.

Therefore, the transformer with a smaller voltage ratio will tend to carry more than its proper share
of the load.

Thus, one transformer would tend to become overloaded than the other and the system could not
be loaded to the summation of transformer ratings without overloading one transformer.

3. Equal Percentage Impedance

This condition is also desirable for proper parallel operation of single phase transformers.

If this condition is not met, the transformers will not share the load according to their kVA ratings..

In that case, it can be corrected by inserting proper amount of resistance or reactance or both in
series with either primary or secondary circuits of the transformers where the impedance is below
the value required to fulfill this condition.

4. Same Reactance/Resistance Ratio

If the reactance/resistance ratios of the two transformers are not equal, the power factor of the load
supplied by the transformers will not be equal.

In other words, one transformer will be operating with a higher and the other with a lower power
factor than that of the load.
  LOAD SHARING BY TRANSFORMER

Let us consider the following two cases:

 Equal voltage ratios.

 Unequal voltage ratios.

1.39.1 Equal Voltage Ratios

Assume no-load voltages EA and EB are identical and in phase. Under these conditions if the
primary and secondary are connected in parallel, there will be no circulating current between
them on no load.

Figure 1.48 Equal Voltage Ratios

Figure 1.48 shows two impedances in parallel. Let RA, XA and ZA be the total equivalent
resistance, reactance and impedance of transformer A and RB, XB and ZB be the total equivalent
resistance, reactance and impedance of transformer B.
From Figure 1.48, we have
EA=V2+IAZA (1.71)
and EB=V2+IBZB (1.72)
∴ IAZA=IBZB

∴
Equation (1.73) suggests that if two transformers with different kVA ratings are connected in
parallel, the total load will be divided in proportion to their kVA ratings if their equivalent
impedances are inversely proportional to their respective ratings.

Since

i.e.,
i.e.,

Similarly,
Similarly, load shared by transformer A,

Similarly,
Total S=SA+SB=V2I×10-3 kVA

 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Three Phase Transformer

 Three phase transformers are used to step-up or step-down the high voltages in various
stages of power transmission system. The power generated at various generating stations
is in three phase nature and the voltages are in the range of 13.2KV or 22KV. In order to
reduce the power loss to the distribution end, the power is transmitted at somewhat higher
voltages like 132 or 400KV.

 Hence, for transmission of the power at higher voltages, three phase step-up transformer is
used to increase the voltage. Also at the end of the transmission or distribution, these high
voltages are step-down to levels of 6600, 400, 230 volts, etc. For this, a three phase step
down transformer is used.

 A three phase transformer can be built in two ways; a bank of three single phase
transformers or single unit of three phase transformer.The former one is built by suitably
connecting three single phase transformers having same ratings and operating
characteristics. In this case if the fault occurs in any one of the transformers, the system
still retained at reduced capacity by other two transformers with open delta connection.
Hence, continuity of the supply is maintained by this type of connection. These are used in
mines because easier to transport individual single phase transformers.
Construction of Three Phase Transformers

A three phase transformer can be constructed by using common magnetic core for both primary
and secondary windings. As we discussed in the case of single phase transformers, construction
can be core type or shell type. So for a bank of three phase core type transformer, three core type
single phase transformers are combined. Similarly, a bank of three phase shell type transformer is
get by properly combining three shell type single phase transformers. In a shell type transformer,
EI laminated core surrounds the coils whereas in core type coil surrounds the core.

Core Type Construction

In core type three phase transformer, core is made up of three limbs or legs and two yokes. The
magnetic path is formed between these yokes and limbs. On each limb both primary and secondary
windings are wounded concentrically. Circular cylindrical coils are used as the windings for this
type of transformer. The primary and secondary windings of one phase are wounded on one leg.
Under balanced condition, the magnetic flux in each phase of the leg adds up to zero. Therefore,
under normal conditions, no return leg is needed. But in case of unbalanced loads, high circulating
current flows and hence it may be best to use three single phase transformers.

Shell Type Construction

In shell type, three phases are more independent because each phase has independent magnetic
circuit compared with core type transformer. The construction is similar to the single phase shell
type transformer built on top of another. The magnetic circuits of this type of transformer are in
parallel. Due to this, the saturation effects in common magnetic paths are neglected. However,
shell type constructed transformers are rarely used in practice.
Shell Type
Working of Three Phase Transformers

Consider the below figure in which the primary of the transformer is connected in star fashion on
the cores. For simplicity, only primary winding is shown in the figure which is connected across
the three phase AC supply. The three cores are arranged at an angle of 120 degrees to each other.
The empty leg of each core is combined in such that they form center leg as shown in figure.

working of a transformer

When the primary is excited with the three phase supply source, the currents IR, IY and IB are
starts flowing through individual phase windings. These currents produce the magnetic fluxes ΦR,
ΦY and ΦB in the respective cores. Since the center leg is common for all the cores, the sum of
all three fluxes are carried by it. In three phase system, at any instant the vector sum of all the
currents is zero. In turn, at the instant the sum of all the fluxes is same. Hence, the center leg
doesn’t carry any flux at any instant. So even if the center leg is removed it makes no difference
in other conditions of the transformer.

Likewise, in three phase system where any two conductors acts as return for the current in third
conductor, any two legs acts as a return path of the flux for the third leg if the center leg is removed
in case of three phase transformer. Therefore, while designing the three phase transformer, this
principle is used.

These fluxes induce the secondary EMFs in respective phase such that they maintain their phase
angle between them. These EMFs drives the currents in the secondary and hence to the load.
Depends on the type of connection used and number of turns on each phase, the voltage induced
will be varied for obtaining step-up or step-down of voltages.

 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

As discussed above, either by a single three phase transformer or by three single phase transformers
combination, three phase transformations can be carried out. The way of connecting the windings
for three phase transformation is same whether the three windings of a three phase transformer or
three windings of three single phase transformers are used. The primary and secondary windings
are connected in different ways, such as in delta or star or combination of these two. The voltage
and current ratings of the three phase transformer is depends on suitable connection. The most
commonly used connections are

 Star-delta
 Delta-star
 Delta-delta
 Star-star

Star – Delta Connection

This type of connection is commonly used to step-down the voltages to a lower value in
transmission end substations. Utility companies use this connection to reduce the voltage levels
for distribution systems.

 In this, the primary winding of the transformer is connected in star and secondary in delta
connection.
 The neutral point on the primary or high voltage side can be grounded which is desirable in
most of the cases.
 The line voltage ratio between secondary and primary is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio
of each transformer.
 There exists 30 degrees phase difference between primary and secondary line voltages.
 Since the actual primary coil voltage is 58% of the primary line voltage, the insulation
requirements for HV windings is reduced by using this winding.
 In this connection balanced three phase voltage are obtained at the secondary or LV side,
even when the unbalanced currents are flowing the in the primary or HV side due to neutral
wire. The neutral wire grounding also provides lightning surge protection.

Delta – Star Connection

 This connection is used to step-up the voltage level and is commonly employed in sending
end or starting of high tension transmission system.
 In this, the primary is connected in delta fashion and secondary in star fashion so that three
phase 4 wire system at secondary is possible.
 The secondary voltage to the load is √3 times the delta connected primary voltage. Also the
load and secondary currents will be the same due to the same series circuit.
 This connection provides three single phase circuits at both lower and higher voltages and
one three phase circuit at higher voltage so that single and three phase loads can be supplied.
 Dual voltages are obtained delta-star connection. Low single phase voltages are obtained by
wiring between any phase and ground. Higher single phase voltages are obtained by wiring
between any two phases. And by connecting all three phases to the load, three phase voltage
is obtained.
  The insulation requirement on high voltage side is lowered due to the star (less number of
turns per phase) connected secondary.
 Similar to star-delta, this connection causes to create a 30 degrees phase difference between
primary and secondary line voltages.
 By using this connection, it is not possible to connect it parallel with delta-delta and star-
star transformers due to the primary and secondary voltage phase difference.

Delta-delta

 This type of connection is used when the supply source is delta connected and the secondary
load needs single voltage with high current. This is generally employed for three phase
power loads (like three phase motor).
 In this, both primary and secondary windings are connected in delta fashion.
 The voltage across the load is equal to the secondary voltage and voltage across the primary
winding is equal to source voltage. In this, the current flow through the load will be 1.732
times the secondary current and the feeder current will equal to the 1.732 times current
through the primary winding. Due to these high supply and load currents, it is recommended
to place transformer much closer to both source and load circuits.
 In this, there exists no phase difference between the primary and secondary voltages.
 The three phase voltages remains constant even with unbalanced load, thus allows
unbalanced loading.
 The main advantage of this connection is if the one transformer is defective or removed for
service (open delta connection), then remaining two transformers continue to deliver thee
phase power at reduced load capacity.
Star – Star Connection

 In this, both primary and secondary windings are connected in star fashion and also there
exist no phase difference between the primary and secondary voltages.
 In this, current flowing through both primary and secondary windings are equal to the
currents of the lines to which they are connected (supply source and load). And voltages
between line phases on either end equal to 1.732 times respective winding voltages.
 Due to neutral availability, it is well suited for three phase four wire system.
 This type connection satisfactorily works if the load is balanced. But if the load is
unbalanced, the neutral point shift causes unequal phase voltages.
 Large third harmonic voltages would appear in both primary and secondary windings
without the neutral tie. This may lead to the insulation failures.
 This connection considerably generates interference with communication lines and hence
with this connection configuration, telephone lines cannot be run in parallel.
 Due to these disadvantages, the star-star connection is rarely used and not employed in
practice.

 3PHASE TRANSFORMATION WITH TWO 1-PHASE TRANSFORMER

Scott Connection

 This connection is used to convert the three phase power into two phase power using two
single phase transformers.
 One transformer called as main transformer having center or 50 percent tap and is connected
between the two lines of the three phase wires. The other transformer called as teaser
transformer having 86.6 tap and is connected between the third phase wire and 50 percent
tap of the main transformer.
 The secondary winding of each transformer provides the phases of two phase systems.
  The secondary voltages in the two transformers will be equal in magnitude if both
transformers are wound for equal number of turns on secondary. And produced voltages are
90 degrees out of phase with each other.
 This connection is mainly used to supply the power to the two phase motor.

Advantages of Three Phase Transformers

 Being prewired and ready to install, these can be easier to install.

 To provide the same KVA, the core material required is very less compared to a bank of
three single phase transformers.
 It is lighter and smaller.
 It requires less space to install.
 Higher efficiency
 Low cost compared with three units of single phase transformers.
 Transportation is easy and also transportation cost is less.
 Bus bar structure and switchgear installation for single three phase unit is simpler.
 Only three terminals are required to be brought out in case of a three phase transformer
compared to six terminals from three single phase transformers.

Disadvantages of Three Phase Transformers

 Cost of repair is more for three phase transformer.

 To restore the service, spare unit cost is more compared with one single transformer spare
unit.
 When these are self cooled, the capacity of the transformer is reduced.

 Advantages and Disadvantages of Three Phase Transformer over Single Phase

Transformer.
Advantages of Three Phase Transformer over Single Phase Transformer are:
 Less cost
 Less Weight
 less size
 Less time require to assembling
 Require less space
 Deliver more power
 Higher efficiency
 Easier to install
 Easy transportation and installation
 Easy to repair
 Easy assembling and
 Also We can get Single Phase supply from Three Phase supply, while it is not possible to get
Three Phase supply from Single Phase Supply.
Disadvantages of Three Phase Transformer over Single Phase Transformer are:
 Greater cost of standby Units
 increased cost and inconvenience of repairs.
 In Single Phase transformer ( three Single Phase Transformer) failure of one transformer, the
other two, Single Phase Transformer still supply the power, while it is not possible in case of
failing a Three Phase Transformer.
 Transformer,three phase:Scott Connection or T – T Connection
Scott Connection or T – T Connection
This is a connection by which 3-phase to 3-phase transformation is accomplished with the help of
two transformers as shown in Fig. 33.13. Since it was first proposed by Charles F. Scott, it is
frequently referred to as Scott connection. This connection can also be used for 3-phase to 2-phase
transformation as explained in Art. 33.10.

One of the transformers has centre taps both on the primary and secondary windings (Fig. 33.13)
and is known as the main transformer. It forms the horizontal member of the connection (Fig.
33.14).

The other transformer has a 0.866 tap and is known as teaser transformer. One end of both the
primary and secondary of the teaser transformer is joined to the centre taps on both primary and
secondary of the main trans- former respectively as shown in Fig. 33.14 (a). The other end A of
the teaser primary and the two ends B and C of the main transformer primary are connected to the
3-phase supply.
The voltage diagram is shown in Fig. 33.14 (a) where the 3-phase supply line voltage is assumed
to be 100 V and a transformation ratio of unity. For understanding as to how 3-phase
transformation results from this arrangement, it is desirable to think of the primary and secondary
vector voltages as forming geometrical TS¢ (from which this connection gets its name).

In the primary voltage T of Fig. 33.14 (a), EDC and EDB are each 50 V and differ in phase by
180°, because both coils DB and DC are on the same magnetic circuit and are connected in
opposition. Each side of the equilateral triangle represents 100 V. The voltage EDA being the
altitude of the equilateral triangle is equal to ( 3 / 2) ´ 100 = 86.6 V and lags behind the voltage
across the main by 90°. The same relation holds good in the secondary winding so that abc is a
symmetrical 3-phase system.

With reference to the secondary voltage triangle of Fig. 33.14 (b), it should be noted that for a load
of unity power factor, current Idb lags behind voltage Edbby 30° and Idc leads Edc by 30°. In other
words, the teaser transformer and each half of the main transformer, all operate at different power
factors.

Obviously, the full rating of the transformers is not being utilized. The teaser transformer operates
at only 0.866 of its rated voltage and the main transformer coils operate at cos 30° = 0.866 power
factor, which is equivalent to the main transformer’s coils working at 86.6 per cent of their kVA
rating. Hence the capacity to rating ratio in a T–T. connection is 86.6% — the same as
in V – V connection if two identical units are used, although heating in the two cases is not the
same.

If, however, both the teaser primary and secondary windings are designed for 86.6 volts only, then
they will be operating at full rating, hence the combined rating of the arrangement would become
(86.6 + 86.6)/(100 + 86.6)

= 0.928 of its total rating.* In other words, ratio of kVA utilized to that available would be 0.928
which makes this connection more economical than open-D with its ratio of 0.866.
Fig. 33.15 shows the secondary of the T – T connection with its different voltages based on a
nominal voltage of 100 V. As seen, the neutral point n is one third way up from point d. If
secondary voltage and current vector diagram is drawn for load power factor of unity, it will be
found that
1. current in teaser transformer is in phase with the voltage.

2. in the main transformer, current leads the voltage by 30° across one half but lags the voltage by
30° across the other half as shown in Fig. 33.14 (b).

Hence, when a balanced load of p.f. = cos f, is applied, the teaser current will lag or lead the voltage
by F while in the two halves of the main transformer, the angle between current and voltage will
be (30° – F) and (30° + F). The situation is similar to that existing in a V – V connection.

Summarizing the above we have :

1. Teaser transformer primary has 3/ 2 times the turns of main primary. But volt/turn is the same.
Their secondaries have the same turns which results in equal secondary terminal voltages.

2. If main primary has N1 turns and main secondary has N2 turns, then main transformation ratio
is

3. If the load is balanced on one side, it is balanced on the other side as well.

4. Under balanced load conditions, main transformer rating is 15% greater than that of the teaser.

5. The currents in either of the two halves of main primary are the vector sum

 TERTIARY WINDING OF TRANSFORMER

 What is Tertiary Winding ? What is Three Winding Transformer ?

In some high rating transformer, one winding in addition to its primary and secondary winding
is used. This additional winding, apart from primary and secondary windings, is known
as Tertiary winding of transformer. Because of this third winding, the transformer is
called three winding transformer or 3 winding transformer.
Advantages of Using Tertiary Winding in Transformer
Tertiary winding is provided in electrical power transformer to meet one or more of the
following requirements-
1. It reduces the unbalancing in the primary due to unbalancing in three phase load.
2. It redistributes the flow of fault current.
3. Sometime it is required to supply an auxiliary load in different voltage level in addition to
its main secondary load. This secondary load can be taken from tertiary winding of three winding
transformer.
4. As the tertiary winding is connected in delta formation in 3 winding transformer, it
assists in limitation of fault electric current in the event of a short circuit from line to neutral.

 MAGNETOSTRICTION

Magnetostriction (cf. electrostriction) is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes them

to change their shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization. The variation of
materials' magnetization due to the applied magnetic field changes the magnetostrictive strain until
reaching its saturation value, λ. The effect was first identified in 1842 by James Joule when
observing a sample of iron . OR
The meaning of striction is the state of being constricted. When a magnetic field is given to a
magnetic material, it experiences an alteration in shape or size or length or dimension. This
property of some magnetic materials is known as magnetostriction. This change of dimension of
magnetic materials during magnetization may continue till the magnetic saturation of the material
is attained
This effect causes energy loss due to frictional heating in susceptible ferromagnetic cores. The
effect is also responsible for the low-pitched humming sound that can be heard coming from
transformers, where oscillating AC currents produce a changing magnetic field.

 CONDITION FOR PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER:

 For parallel connection of transformers, primary windings of the Transformers are connected
to source bus-bars and secondary windings are connected to the load bus-bars.
 Various conditions that must be fulfilled for the successful parallel operation of transformers:
1. Same voltage Ratio & Turns Ratio (both primary and secondary Voltage Rating is same).
2. Same Percentage Impedance and X/R ratio.
3. Identical Position of Tap changer.
4. Same KVA ratings.
5. Same Phase angle shift (vector group are same).
6. Same Frequency rating.
7. Same Polarity.
 8. Same Phase sequence.

 SPECIAL TRANSFORMER
AUTOTRANSFORMER
An autotransformer is a kind of electrical transformer where primary and secondary shares same
common single winding. So basically it’s a one winding transformer.
Autotransformer Theory
In an auto transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as secondary
winding. But in two windings transformer two different windings are used for primary and
secondary purpose. A circuit diagram of auto transformer is shown below.

The primary winding AB from which a tapping at C is taken, such that CB acts as a secondary
winding. The supply voltage is applied across AB, and the load is connected across CB. The
tapping may be fixed or variable.When an AC voltage V1 is applied across AB, an alternating flux
is set up in the core, as a result, an emf E1 is induced in the winding AB. A part of this induced
emf is taken in the secondary circuit.

Let,

 V1 – primary applied voltage

 V2 – secondary voltage across the load
 I1 – primary current
 I2 – load current
 N1 – number of turns between A and B
 N2 – number of turns between C and B
Neglecting no load current, leakage reactance and losses,

V1 = E1 and V2 = E2

Therefore the transformation ratio

As the secondary ampere-turns are opposite to primary ampere turns, so the current I2 is in phase
opposition to I1. The secondary voltage is less than the primary. Therefore current I2 is more than
the current I1. Therefore, the resulting current flowing through section BC is (I2 – I1)

The ampere-turns due to section BC = current x turns

Equation (1) and (2) shows that the ampere turns due to section BC and AC balance each other
which is characteristic of the transformer action.

Saving of Copper in Auto Transformer as Compared to Ordinary Two Winding Transformer

The weight of the copper is proportional to the length and area of a cross section of the conductor.

The length of the conductor is proportional to the number of turns, and the cross section is
proportional to the product of current and number of turns.

Now, from the above figure (B) shown of the auto transformer, the weight of copper required in
an auto transformer is

Wa = weight of copper in section AC + weight of copper in section CB

Therefore
If the same duty is performed with an ordinary two winding transformer shown above in the
figure (A)

The total weight of the copper required in the ordinary transformer

W0 = weight of copper on its primary winding + weight of copper on its secondary winding

Therefore,

Now, the ratio of the weight of the copper in an auto transformer to the weight of copper in an
ordinary transformer is given as

Saving of copper affected by using an auto transformer = weight of copper required in an

ordinary transformer – weight of copper required in an auto transformer

Therefore,

Saving of copper = K x weight of copper required for two windings of the transformer
 Hence, saving in copper increases as the transformation ratio approaches to unity. Hence the auto
transformer is used when the value of K is nearly equal to unity.

Advantages of Auto transformer

 Less costly
 Better regulation
 Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer of the same rating.

Disadvantages of Auto transformer

There are various advantages of the auto transformer, but then also one major disadvantage, why
auto transformer is not widely used, is that

 The secondary winding is not insulated from the primary winding.

If an auto transformer is used to supply low voltage from a high voltage and there is a break in
the secondary winding, the full primary voltage comes across the secondary terminal which is
dangerous to the operator and the equipment. So the auto transformer should not be used to for
interconnecting high voltage and low voltage system.

 Used only in the limited places where a slight variation of the output voltage from input voltage
is required.

Applications of Auto transformer

 It is used as a starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full voltage to the stator of a squirrel cage induction
motor during starting.
 It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to correct the voltage drop.
 It is also used as a voltage regulator
 Used in power transmission and distribution system and also in the audio system and railways.

 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Instrument transformers are of two types –

1. Current Transformer (C.T.)

2. Potential Transformer (P.T.)
Current Transformer (C.T.)
Current transformer is used to step down the current of power system to a lower level to make it
feasible to be measured by small rating Ammeter (i.e. 5A ammeter). A typical connection
diagram of a current transformer is shown in figure below.

Primary of C.T. is having very few turns. Sometimes bar primary is also used. Primary is connected
in series with the power circuit. Therefore, sometimes it also called series transformer. The
secondary is having large no. of turns. Secondary is connected directly to an ammeter. As the
ammeter is having very small resistance. Hence, the secondary of current transformer operates
almost in short circuited condition. One terminal of secondary is earthed to avoid the large voltage
on secondary with respect to earth. Which in turns reduce the chances of insulation breakdown
and also protect the operator against high voltage. More ever before disconnecting the ammeter,
secondary is short circuited through a switch ‘S’ as shown in figure above to avoid the high voltage
build up across the secondary.

Potential Transformer (P.T.)

Potential transformer is used to step down the voltage of power system to a lower level to make
is feasible to be measured by small rating voltmeter i.e. 110 – 120 V voltmeter.
 Primary of P.T. is having large no. of turns. Primary is connected across the line (generally between
on line and earth). Hence, sometimes it is also called the parallel transformer. Secondary of P.T.
is having few turns and connected directly to a voltmeter. As the voltmeter is having large
resistance. Hence the secondary of a P.T. operates almost in open circuited condition. One terminal
of secondary of P.T. is earthed to maintain the secondary voltage with respect to earth. Which
assures the safety of operators.

Difference between C.T. and P.T.

Few differences between C.T. and P.T. are listed below –

Sl.
Current Transformer (C.T.) Potential Transformer (P.T.)
No.

1 Connected in series with power circuit. Connected in Parallel with Power circuit.

2 Secondary is connected to Ammeter. Secondary is connected to Voltmeter.

Secondary works almost in open circuited

3 Secondary works almost in short circuited condition.
condition.

Primary current depends on secondary

4 Primary current depends on power circuit current.
burden.

Primary current and excitation vary over wide range Primary current and excitation variation are
5
with change of power circuit current restricted to a small range.

One terminal of secondary is earthed to avoid the One terminal of secondary can be earthed
6
insulation break down. for Safety.

Secondary can be used in open circuit

7 Secondary is never be open circuited.
condition.

 TRANSFORMER RATINGS
Manufacturer designs transformer based on required voltage and current and specified them on the
nameplate of the transformer in terms of VA called the rating. It can be also said that the maximum
voltage and current that can be safely applied to transformer called the rating. The rating of
transformer depends upon temperature rise which depends upon losses taking place in the
transformer. Although temperature can be maintained within permissible limits by using the proper
cooling system. If the effectiveness of the cooling system is more then the rating of the transformer
will be more and vice versa. For a given cooling system rating of an electrical machine is indirectly
determined by the losses present in the machine.
In a transformer, losses are of two types

1. Constant losses or core losses – These depend on V

2. Variable losses or ohmic (I2R) losses – These depend on I
Hence total losses depend on V and I. Since rating of transformer depends upon losses and losses
depends upon V and I, hence the rating of transformer depends upon V×I, which is also termed as
VI rating. As losses are independent of the power factor of load, the rating of the transformer is
also independent of load and can be only decided based on losses. That’s why transformer is
generally specified with apparent power rating (VA or KVA) and not in KW.
Lets us take an example, a transformer working on rated voltage and rated current with load power
factor equal to zero, as load power factor is zero it will deliver zero power to load, but it has rated
KVA output, hence rating must be expressed in KVA.

For any transformer rated input in KVA at the primary = rated output in KVA at secondary +
losses.

As transformer runs on very high efficiency its losses can be neglected and hence rated input in
KVA at the primary = rated output in KVA at secondary. From here we can say that rated KVA
marked on the nameplate of transformer refers to both the windings. i.e KVA rating for both the
primary and secondary winding is same.
The KVA rating mentioned on the nameplate of the transformer is load side KVA but only at full
load condition.

No transformer is truly an 'ideal transformer' and hence each will incur some losses, most of which
get converted into heat. If this heat is not dissipated properly, the excess temperature in transformer
may cause serious problems like insulation failure. It is obvious that transformer needs a cooling
system. Transformers can be divided in two types as (i) dry type transformers and (ii) oil immersed
transformers. Different cooling methods of transformers are -
 For dry type transformers
 Air Natural (AN)
 Air Blast
 For oil immersed tranformers
 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
 Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
 Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)
  COOLING METHODS FOR DRY TYPE TRANSFORMERS
Air Natural Or Self Air Cooled Transformer
This method of transformer cooling is generally used in small transformers (upto 3 MVA). In this
method the transformer is allowed to cool by natural air flow surrounding it.

Air Blast
For transformers rated more than 3 MVA, cooling by natural air method is inadequate. In this
method, air is forced on the core and windings with the help of fans or blowers. The air supply
must be filtered to prevent the accumulation of dust particles in ventilation ducts. This method can
be used for transformers upto 15 MVA.

Cooling Methods For Oil Immersed Transformers,

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)

This method is used for oil immersed transformers. In this method, the heat generated in the core
and winding is transferred to the oil. According to the principle of convection, the heated oil flows
in the upward direction and then in the radiator. The vacant place is filled up by cooled oil from
the radiator. The heat from the oil will dissipate in the atmosphere due to the natural air flow
around the transformer. In this way, the oil in transformer keeps circulating due to natural
convection and dissipating heat in atmosphere due to natural conduction. This method can be used
for transformers upto about 30 MVA.
Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

The heat dissipation can be improved further by applying forced air on the dissipating surface.
Forced air provides faster heat dissipation than natural air flow. In this method, fans are mounted
near the radiator and may be provided with an automatic starting arrangement, which turns on
when temperature increases beyond certain value. This transformer cooling method is generally
used for large transformers upto about 60 MVA.

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a pump. The oil circulation is forced through the
heat exchangers. Then compressed air is forced to flow on the heat exchanger with the help of
fans. The heat exchangers may be mounted separately from the transformer tank and connected
through pipes at top and bottom as shown in the figure. This type of cooling is provided for higher
rating transformers at substations or power stations.
Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)
This method is similar to OFAF method, but here forced water flow is used to dissipate hear from
the heat exchangers. The oil is forced to flow through the heat exchanger with the help of a pump,
where the heat is dissipated in the water which is also forced to flow. The heated water is taken
away to cool in separate coolers. This type of cooling is used in very large transformers having
rating of several hundreds MVA