ECOLE NORMALE SUPERIEURE D’ABIDJAN /

UNIVERSITE ALASSANE OUATTARA DE BOUAKE

UNIVERSITE DE VACANCES
CENTRE DE FORMATION CONTINUE (CFC)

Département d’Anglais

LICENCE 1

COURS DE GRAMMAIRE ANGLAISE

Année académique 2023- 2024

 CONTENU DU COURS

I-TENSES AND SEQUENCE OF TENSES

A- Tenses
A-1- Present tenses
A-2- Past and perfect tenses
B- Sequence of tenses
B-1- If - clauses or conditional sentences
B-2- Reported speech

II- THE GERUND

1- As subject of a sentence
2- After prepositions
3- After certain verbs
4- In noun compounds

III- PASSIVE VOICE

1- Simple forms
2- Continuous forms
3- prepositions with passive verbs
4- infinitive constructions after passive verbs

IV-RELATIVE PRONOUNS
1-Defining relative clause
2-Non-defining relative clause

V- PREPOSITIONS
1- preposition of time and date
2-Among and between

VI- ADJECTIVES
1. Adjective order
2. Word order
3. Compound adjectives

VII- COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

1-Forms
2-Uses
3-Gradual increase or decrease and parallel construction.

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 I- TENSES AND SEQUENCE OF TENSES
A- TENSES
1. Present tenses
There are two present tenses in English.
1- Present continuous: I'm teaching English
2-Simple present: I teach English
1- The present continuous tense
The present continuous tense is used:
a) for something that is happening at or around the time of speaking. The
action is not finished.
Ex: The water is boiling. Can you turn it off.
Let's go out. It isn't raining now
b) for an action happening about this time but not necessarily at the moment of
speaking
I am reading a book by Bernard B. DADIE.
c) for a definite arrangement in the near future
I am going to the concert tonight.
2- The simple present tense.
a) We use the simple present to talk about things in general. We are not thinking
only about now. We use it to say that something happens all the time or
repeatedly, or that something is true in general. It is not important whether the
action is happening at the time of speaking:
Ex: He smokes; dogs bark; birds fly; the earth goes round the sun.
Ex: Nurses look after patients.
b) We use the simple present when you say how often we do things. So we use
adverbs or adverbial phrases such as: usually, sometimes, never, always, on
Mondays, twice a year, every week, etc.
I go to church on Sundays.
She usually goes away at weekends.
NB: The present simple tense must be used with those verbs which cannot be
used in the continuous form. i.e. verbs which are not action verbs: love, see ,
believe, understand , know , hate , hear , smell , want , prefer , etc.
" I love you" but not "I'm loving you".
When think means "believe", have means "possess" we do use the continuous.

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 2-The past and perfect tenses
A- The simple past (Preterit)
There are two kinds of verbs: the regular and the irregular verbs.
The past tense in regular verbs is formed by adding -ed to the infinitive.
Ex: to work --> worked; to play --> played
The irregular verbs vary considerably in their simple past form:
Ex: to speak--> spoke; to eat -->ate
The simple past form of each irregular verb must therefore be learnt.
In questions and negatives we use did /didn't + infinitive.
The simple past is the tense normally used for the relation of past events.
It is used:
a) when the time is given.
I bought my car last year
b) when the time is asked about.
when did you buy your car?
c) with ago
I met her three years ago
B- The past continuous
We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the middle of
doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already started
before this time but had not finished.
It was raining
We often use the past simple and past continuous together to say that
something happened in the middle of something else.
Tom burnt his hand when he was cooking the dinner.
While I was working in the garden, I hurt my back.
C- The present perfect
The present perfect is: have / has + past participle of the verb.
a- This tense may be said to be a sort of mixture of present and past. When
we use the present perfect there is always a connection with now. The action
in the past has a result now.
He told me his name but I've forgotten it.
-Is Elizabeth here?
-No, she's gone out.
b. We often use the present perfect to give new information or to announce
a recent happening.
The road is closed. There has been an accident.
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c. It is used with adverbs like: just, yet, already, never, ever, etc.
She has just gone. (It means she went out a few minutes ago.)
Have you had breakfast? I haven't had breakfast yet.
d. The present perfect can also be used with a time expression (for/since)
because it is a period that continues until now.
He has been in this university for two years.
I have smoked since I left university.

D- The past perfect tense

The past perfect is: had + past participle of the verb.
Sometimes we talk about something that happened in the past.
"Peter arrived at the party", this is the starting point of the story. Then if we
want to talk about things that happened before this time, we use the past
perfect.
The past perfect tense is therefore the past equivalent of the simple past
I saw her at the stadium.
He had seen her at the stadium.
It is also the past equivalent of the present perfect.
Present perfect: Who is this woman? I've never seen her before.
Past perfect: I didn't know who she was. I had never seen her before.
Ex: The house is dirty. They haven't cleaned it for weeks.
The house was dirty. They hadn't cleaned it for weeks.
EXERCISE
Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense or form.
1- “Have you seen her lately?” “I……………her a few days ago” (to meet)
2- When he came home, his wife………….the washing up ( still/to do).
3 - I ........... ….this political leader for ages (to know)
4- Peter .....….with this company for four years when he was dismissed (to work)
5- Look at these naughty boys! They .........at that poor girl (to laugh)
6- “Have you still got this letter?” “Of course not, I ………it a week ago” (to send)
7- Let's go to the concert. I know you……….…….music (to like)
8- When we arrived at the station, the train ..……..( already / to leave)
9- Last year, snow……….……until three days before Christmas. (not come)
10-This student………Spanish since the beginning of September. (to study)

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B- SEQUENCE OF TENSES
B-1- If -clauses (conditional sentences)
Conditional sentences have two parts: the if-clause and the main clause.
There are three kinds of condition al sentences. Each kind contains a
different pair of tenses.
Type 1: Probable condition
The verb in the if-clause is in the present tense; the verb in the main
clause is in the future tense.
If I pass my exam this year, I will travel to London.
Here the action in the if-clause can or will be performed.
Type 2: Improbable condition
The verb in the if-clause is in the simple past tense; the verb in the main
clause is in the conditional tense.
If I were you, I would tell her the truth.
Here we don't expect the action in the if-clause to take place or the
supposition is contrary to known facts.

Type 3: Impossible condition

The verb in the if-clause is in the past perfect tense the verb in the main
clause is in the perfect conditional.
If he had known earlier, he would have sent his children to school.
Here the condition cannot be fulfilled because the sentence refers only to
past events.

EXERCISE
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form.
1- If you………….a wallet in the street, what would you do with it? (find.)
2- I must hurry. My friend will be annoyed if I .... ………..on time (n o t / b e )
3- I didn't realize that Gary was in hospital. If I………………. he was in
hospital, I would have gone to visit him (know)
4- If the phone…………………………, can you answer it? (ring)
5- I can't decide what to do. What would you do if you………in my position? (be)
6- a- What shall we do tomorrow?
b- Well, if it ………………a nice day, we can go to the beach. (be)
7- The acci dent was your fault. If you………… . more carefully, it
wouldn’t have happened (drive).
8- If you took more exercise, you probably…………………………. healthier. (feel)

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Inversion
Begin this sentence with the underlined word.
If she had been informed, she would have come.
Had she been informed, she would have come.
This sentence is built as an interrogative form.
Inversion of the verbs after certain adverbs.
When a negative term (never, nowhere, not only, etc.), or a restricted term
(hardly, only, seldom, etc.), or an intensive term (well, often, etc.) is put at the
beginning of a sentence, the sentence is built as an interrogative form.
Begin these sentences with the underlined words.
1-He not once made the slightest effort to try to help us.
2-You hardly know him.
3-Sister Carrie seldom goes to church.
4-My father scarcely visited his relatives.
5-We shall never forget how much we are indebted to you.
6-If they had worked harder, they would have passed their exams.
7-She is neither beautiful nor kind.

B-2-Reported speech
1- When the introductory verb (say, tell, etc.) is in the present, present
perfect or future, the direct statements can be reported without any
changes of tense.
“The train will be late”, He says
He says that the train will be late.
NB: You can leave out “that”.
2- When the introductory verb is in the past tense, which it actually is, the
following tense changes are necessary:
1- Future -----------> conditional
2-Simple present -----------> simple past
3-Present continuous ----------> past continuous
4- Present perfect ----------> past perfect
The past simple can usually stay the same in reported speech, or you
can change it to the past perfect.
Ex: Tom said: “I woke up feeling ill, so I didn't go to work”.
Tom said that
Tom said that

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Adverbs of time and a few other expressions also change:
Here
This
These
Now
Yesterday
Next week
Tomorrow
Tomorrow morning
Ago

3-Imperatives.
a) Imperatives become infinitive phrases in reported speech.
“Come with us”. He told his friend.
He told his friend to come with them.
b) A negative imperative is reported by means of negative infinitive.
“Don't go out at night”. She warned her daughter.
She warned her daughter not to go out at night
4-Interrogatives
When we turn direct questions into indirect speech, the following changes are
necessary
a) The interrogative form of the verb changes to the affirmative form. The
question mark (?) is therefore omitted in indirect question.
b) If the direct question begins with a question word (when, where, who, how,
why, etc.) the question word is repeated in the indirect question.
“What do you want?” He asked her.
He asked her what she wanted.
c) If there is no question word, if or whether is placed after the introductory
verb.
“Is anyone there?” He asked.
He asked if anyone was there.
NB: It is not always necessary to change the verbs when you use reported
speech. If you report something and it is still true, you do not need to change
the verb.
Ex : Dominic said: “New York is more lively than London”.
Dominic said that New York is more lively than London

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 It is also correct to change the verb into the past, but you must use a past form
when there is a difference between what was said and what is really true.
Ex: You met a friend a few days ago, she/he said: " John is ill".
Later that day you see John who looks well and is going to play football.
I didn't expect to see you, John. Peter said you were ill.

EXERCISE
Report these sentences
l- “I'm living in London now”, she answered.
2- “My car was stolen a week ago”, he told the police.
3- “I'll do it tomorrow morning”, the young boy replied.
4- “I' m a single woman”, he says.
5- “What shall we do the day after tomorrow?” A student asked the teacher.
6- “Bring my money back next week”, he told his friend.
7- “I have just met an old friend ", she replies.
8- “Do you know when Parliament first came into existence?” The journalist
asked an MP
9- “Where will you spend the long holidays?” I asked Jane.
10- “Don’t go out at night when visiting New York”, Peter warned his sister.

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II-THE GERUND
The gerund has exactly the same form as the present participle.
Ex: teaching, reading, etc.
It can be used in the following ways:
1) as subject of a sentence
2) after prepositions
3) after certain verbs
4) in noun compounds
1- As subject of a sentence
Ex: It is easier to read French than to speak it.
Reading French is easier than speaking it.

There is no difference between these two forms, but the gerund implies that
the speaker has more than once performed the action while in the first
example, the speaker may only be expressing an opinion or theory.
It requires patience to look after children.
Looking after children requires patience.
Here the gerund implies that the speaker has looked after children.

2) After prepositions
When a verb is placed immediately after a proposition, the gerund form must
be used
Ex: I have objection to hearing your story again.
She must be fed up with studying.
Researchers have succeeded in saving many lives.
NB: A number of verb + preposition / adverb combinations take the gerund.
Ex: to care for, to give up, to keep on, to look forward to, to take to, persist
in, succeed in, etc.
Some expressions + prepositions also take the gerund.
Ex: be afraid of, be responsible for, be interested in, be worried about, etc.
Be careful not to confuse also: I used to which expresses a past habit with
I am used to which means “I am familiar with”
I used to sleep late on Sundays.
I am used to working at night.
3- The gerund must be used after certain verbs.
Not all verbs are used with the gerund. Some verbs are followed by
infinitives. Others are followed by gerunds. There is no general rule that
can tell you when to use these different forms.
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 This chart lists verbs according to the forms they go with and the patterns
they follow.
a-Verb + Infinitive: decide, promise, want, learn, plan, remember, would
like, etc.
Ex: I would like to learn more about AIDS.
b-Verb + Object + Infinitive: encourage, teach, want, help, tell, etc.
Ex: The President wants us to understand the importance of reconciliation.
c- Verb + Gerund: enjoy, imagine, finish, avoid, mind, resent, resist, enjoy,
admit, risk, detest, consider, etc. Also with some expressions like: have
(no) trouble, have (no) difficulty, can’t stand, can’t help, it’s no use, it’s no
good, and after worth.
Ex: You must try to avoid travelling in rush hours.
Most women enjoy shopping.
I had no trouble making my way to the airport.
d-Verbs that go with either gerund or infinitive: begin, like, hate, start,
need, stop, love, can’t bear, etc.
Ex. to need: I need to do something means it is necessary for me to do it.
I need to take more exercise
Something needs doing means something needs to be done.
The batteries in this radio need changing = they need to be changed.
Ex. to stop: To stop doing and to stop to do something.
He stopped to listen: he paused in order to listen.
He stopped listening: he didn't listen anymore.

Ex. to like: I like learning about science and I like to learn about science.
I like getting up early and I like to get up early.
In British English, there is sometimes a difference between I like doing
and I like to do something.
I like doing something means I enjoy it.
I like to do something means I think it is good or right to do it.
I like to clean the kitchen (this doesn't mean that I enjoy it, it means that I
think it is a good thing to do).
4) In noun compounds
A diving board is a board for diving off.
A dining room; A living room; A sleeping chair; A rocking chair.

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EXERCISE:
Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form
1- What are the advantages of (to have) a car?
2- Don't forget (to say) good bye before (to leave)
3- Would you like me (to shut) the windows?
4- Please finish your work. I don’t mind (to wait).
5- I used (to sleep) late on Sundays.
6-She kept (on) (to cry) for an hour.
7- I spent two hours (to read) last night.
8- Students are good at (to tell) lies.
9- Are you interested in (to learn) language?
10-Many industrious employees really appreciate (to have) time to relax.
11-I didn't mind (to waking).
12-She really appreciates (to make) time (to relax)
13 – Never one (to know) what tomorrow will be.
14 – She tried to be serious but she couldn’t help (to laugh)
15 – How old were you when you learnt (to drive).

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III- PASSIVE VOICE AND ITS COMPLEX FORM
We use an active verb to say what the subject does. We use the passive
verb to say what happens to the subject. Passive voice then designates the
voice of a verb whereby the subject is the recipient (person who receives) of
the action of the verb.
1. Simple forms: to be + past participle of active verb.
a) It is formed by putting the verb " to be” into the same tense as the
active verb and adding the past participle of the active verb.
Ex: Father built this house in 1910.
This house was built by (father) in 1910.
b) When we use the passive, who or what causes the action is often
unknown or unimportant.
Ex: A lot of money was stolen in the robbery.
(Someone stole it but we don't know who).
But if we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use by.
Ex: This house was built by father in 1910.
c) Some verbs can have two objects: give, ask, offer, pay, show, teach, etc.
Ex: We gave the police the information/ we gave the information to the police.
So it is possible to make two passive sentences.
1-The police were given the information
2-The information were given to the police.
When we use these verbs in the passive, most often we begin with the person.
2- Continuous forms: to be + being + past participle of active verb.
The passive of continuous forms sometimes seems difficult because it
requires the present continuous form of " to be", which is not otherwise much
used.
Ex: Someone is cleaning the room at the moment.
The room is being cleaned at the moment.
NB: The passive voice is used in English when it is more convenient or
interesting to stress the thing done than the doer of it, or when the doer
is unknown: “My watch was stolen” is much more usual than “Thieves stole
my watch”.
3- Prepositions with passive verbs
When a verb + preposition + object combination is put into the passive,
the preposition will remain immediately after the verbs.
Ex: We must write to him.
He must be written to
Ex: He threw away the old newspapers
The old newspapers were thrown away.
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4- Infinitive constructions after passive verbs
After “think, consider, know, say, report, believe, etc.”, sentences of the type, "
people think that he is... ", have two possible passive forms.
Ex: People say he is 108 years old.
a-It is said that he is 108 years old.
b-He is said to be 108 years old.
These structures are often used in news reports.
For example, in a report about an accident:
a-It is reported that two people were injured in the explosion
b-Two people are reported to have been injured in the explosion
-When the thought concerns a previous action, we use the perfect infinitive.
Ex- People know that she was the murderer.
1- It is known that she was the murderer.
2- She is known to have been the murderer.
Ex- People believe he was an impartial judge.
1- It is believed that he was an impartial judge.
2- He is believed to have been an impartial judge.

EXERCISE: Turn the sentences into the passive voice

1-He caught the mice near the old bridge.
2- They were taking him to hospital.
3- People reported that he broke his wife’s right arm.
4- People think that he was a terrorist; that is why the police arrested
him in Paris last year.
5- She has stolen very expensive bracelets.
6- I lent her a new book last week.
7- They have offered him a very good job.
8- The government is building a new university in Bouake.
9- They told us not to bang the doors.
10- Thieves broke into their house last night.

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IV- RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses. They refer back to a noun or
noun phrase in the main clause. The relative pronouns " who, whom, whose,
which and that" can be used in defining relative clauses or in non-defining
relative clauses.
I. DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
These describe the preceding noun in such a way as to distinguish it from
other nouns of the same class. A clause of this kind is essential to the clear
understanding of the noun.
The man who told me this refused to give me his name.
" Who told me this " is the relative clause.
If we omit this, it is not clear what man we are talking about.
Notice that there is no comma between a noun and a defining relative clause.
Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses.
These relatives vary slightly according to whether they refer to persons or
things and according to whether they are subjects or objects of a verb or in
the possessive case.
They do not vary for singular or plural or masculine or feminine.
The forms are as follows:
Subject Object Possessive
For persons Who /That Who/ whom/That/θ Whose
For things Which/That Which /That / θ Whose/ of which
It is sometimes essential to use that
A- Defining relative clauses for persons
1- Subject: Who or that (Who is normally used)

The boy who robbed you has been arrested

The girls who serve in the shop are the owner’s daughters.
That is much less usual that who except after superlatives and after “all,
nobody, no one, somebody, someone, anybody etc”., when either who or that
can be used.
He was the best president who/ that ever governed the country.
2-Object of a verb: whom, who, that.
The object form is whom, but this is considered very formal and seldom used
in spoken English.
Instead of whom, therefore, in spoken English we use who or that (that being
more usual than who ), and it is still more common to omit the object
pronouns altogether .
The man who / that/ whom/Ø I saw told me to come back today.

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3- With a preposition: whom or that
In formal English the preposition is placed before the relative pronoun, which
must then be put into the form whom.
The man to whom I spoke….
In informal speech, however, it is more usual to move the preposition to the
end of the clause. Whom then is often replaced by that, but it is still more
common to omit the relative altogether.
The man who / whom I spoke to….
The man that I spoke to ….
The man I spoke to ….
4. Possessive: Whose (Whose is the only possible form)
People whose rents have been raised can appeal.
The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him.

B- Defining relative clauses for things

1- Subject of verb: either which or that (which is the more formal).
- This is the picture which/ that caused such a sensation
2- Object of verb: Which or that, or no relative at all.
- The car which / that I hired broke down after five kilometres.
The car I hired broke down after five kilometres.
Which is hardly ever used after all, much, little, everything, none, no and
compounds of no, or after superlatives. Instead, we use that, or omit the
relative altogether, if it is the object of a verb.
- All the apples that fall down are eaten by the pigs.
- This is the best hotel (that) I know.
2. Object of a preposition
The formal construction is preposition + which, but it is more usual to move
the preposition to the end of the clause, using which or that or omitting the
relative altogether.
- The ladder on which I was standing began to slip.
- The ladder which/ that I was standing on began to slip.
- The ladder I was standing on began to slip.
4- Possessive: Whose + a clause is possible but can often be replaced by with
+ a phrase.
- Living in a house whose wells were made of glass would be horrible.
- Living in a house with glass walls would be horrible.

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II- NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
Non-defining relative clauses are placed after nouns which are definite
already. They do not therefore define the noun, but merely add something to it
by giving some more information about it.
1/ Use for persons: who, whom, whose
a-Subject: who
No other pronoun is possible. Note the comma.
-My neighbour, who is very pessimistic, says the war will break out again.
-Peter, who had been driving all day, suggested stopping at the next town.
Clauses such as these, which come immediately after the subject of the main
verb, are found mainly in written English. In spoken English we would be more
likely to say:
-My neighbour is very pessimistic and says that the war will break out again.
-Peter had been driving all day, so/and he suggested …
b- Object: whom/who
The pronoun cannot be omitted. Whom is the correct form, though who is
sometimes used in conversation.
Peter, whom every one suspected, turned out to be innocent.
As noted above, a non–defining clause in this position is unusual in spoken
English.
We would be more likely to say: Everyone suspected Peter, but he turned out
to be innocent.
c- Object of a preposition: whom
The pronoun cannot be omitted. The preposition is normally placed before
whom.
Mr Jones, for whom I was working, was very generous about overtime
payments.
It is however possible to move the preposition to the end of the clause. This is
commonly done in conversation, and who then often takes the place of whom.
Mr Jones, who/ whom I was working for, was very generous about overtime
payments.
d-Possessive: whose
Ann, whose children are at school all day, is trying to get a job.
In conversation we would probably say:
Ann’s children are at school all day, so she is trying to get a job.

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B/ Non- defining relative clauses
1/ Used for things
a- Subject: which (That is not used here)
That tower block, which cost £5 million to build, has been empty for five
years.
The 8.15 train, which is usually very punctual, was late today.
In speech we would be were likely to say:
-The tower block cost £5 million to build and has been empty for five years
-The 8.15 train is usually punctual, but it was late today.
b- Object: which (That is not used here, and the which can never be omitted)
These books, which you can get at any bookshop, will give you all the
information you need. Or these books will give you all the information you
need. You can get them at any bookshop.
c) Object of a preposition
The preposition comes before which or (more formally) at the end of the clause.
His house, for which he paid £10,000 ten years ago, is now worth £30,000.
d) Which with phrasal verbs
Combinations such as look forward to, look after, put up with, should be
treated as a unit, i.e. the preposition/adverb should not be separated from the
verb.
This machine, which I have looked after for twenty years, is still working
perfectly.
e) Possessive: Whose or of which
Whose is generally used both for animals and things. Of which, for things, is
possible.
The car, whose handbrake wasn’t reliable, began to slide backwards.
3/ Relative adverbs: When, Where and Why.
1- When can replace in which /on which (used of time):
Ex: The day when they arrived
The year when she was born
2- Where can replace in which/at which (used of place)
Ex: The hotel where they were staying
The place where we spent our holidays was really beautiful.
3- Why can replace for which.
The reason why he refused is unbelievable.

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 V-PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word used with a noun, pronoun or -ing form to show its
connection with another word.
If a preposition (in, for, etc.) is followed by a verb, the verb ends in -ing.
For example:
- Are you interested...........working for us?
- I am not very good..........learning languages.
- She must be fed up..........studying.
- What are the advantages...........having a car?
- How.................playing tennis tomorrow?
The student has two main problems with prepositions. He has to know:
1- Whether in any construction a preposition is required or not and
2- Which preposition to use when one is required.
The student should note that many words used mainly as prepositions can
also be used as conjunction and adverbs.
With verb + preposition combinations, the preposition normally remains
immediately after the verb.
Ex: the children I was looking after were interested in soccer.
In verb + adverbs combinations, the adverb remains in this position or is placed
after the object.
They blew up the bridge or they blew it up.
Preposition of time and date: at, on, by, in.
- at / on / in
- at a time: at six, at midnight, at down (at for the time of day)
- at an age: at sixteen (at the age of sixteen)
- on a day / date: on Monday; on June; on Christmas; on 12 March 1991
(on for days and dates).
Exception: at night, at Christmas, at Easter (the period not the day only)
But we say on Christmas day; on the morning / afternoon / evening / night
of a certain date:
She arrived on the morning of the tenth.
- in for longer periods: for example, months, years, seasons.
- In October, in 1961, in the 20th century, in the past, in the winter.
-By
- By a time / date / period = (at that time or before but not later than
that date – it often implies before that time / date.)
The train starts at 8.15, so you had better be at the station by 8.00.
By is often used with a perfect tense
- By the end of July, I’ll have read all the books
- By fifteen he had mastered piano techniques
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We also use by in many expressions to say how we do something.
Example: - send something by post; do something by hand
- Pay by cheque / by credit card (but pay in cash)
In the same way we use by to say how somebody travels: by car, train,
boat, ship, bus, road, air etc. ; But we travel on foot.
A- On time, in time, in good time
On time = at the time arranged, not before, not after (punctual, not late)
The 8.15 train left/started on time = it left/starred at 8.15
If something happens on time, it happens at the time which was planned.
In time / in time for + noun = not later, soon enough.
Example: Will you be home in time for dinner? (soon enough for dinner).
(the opposite of in time in too late.
In good time (for) means with a comfortable margin
Example: Passengers should be in good time for their train.
B- at the beginning / end, in the beginning / end, at first/ at last
At the beginning of/at the end of= at the time when something ends or starts.
Example1: At the beginning of a book there is often a table of contents, and at
the end there may be an index
Example 2: At the end of the concert, there was great applause.
In the beginning / at first = in the early stages. It implies that later on there
was change.
In the beginning / at first we used hand tools. Later we had machines.
At first we didn’t like each other very much, but in the end we became
good friends.
In the end / at last = eventually / after some time / finally
We use in the end when we say what the final result of a situation was.
We had a lot problem with our car. In the end we sold it and bought another.
The opposite of in the end is usually at first.
C- between – among
Between normally relates a person or thing to two other people or things, but
it can be used of more when we have a definite number in mind.
Luxemburg lies between Belgium, Germany and France.
Among relates a person or thing to more than two others; normally we have
no definite number in mind.
He was happy to be among his relatives

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VI- ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word used to describe a noun. It is a grammar word
that names a quality or that defines or limits a noun. It then makes
the meaning of a noun more definite.
Adjectives in English usually come before their nouns.
Ex: a big town; a new bag.
1- Adjective order
When you use more than one adjective before a noun, we usually put
them in a particular order. The basic principle is that the most
important adjective goes closest to the noun.
This table shows some examples. (GSACPOM)
Size and Age or Material or to
General shape temperature Colour Participle Origin do with Noun
cheap big new red broken French plastic
colourful tall cold white imported English leather x
2- Word order h
1. Verb + object; place and time
The verb and the object of the verb normally go together. We do not usually
put other words between them.
-Our guide spoke English fluently.
-I like children very much. (not I like very much children.)
-Everybody enjoyed the party very much.
-Do you clean the house every week end?
Usually the verb and the place (where?) go together.
-Go home; live in a city; walk to work.
If the verb has an object, the place comes after the verb + object.
-Take somebody home; meet a friend in the street.
Time (when) normally goes after place.
-Tom walks to work every morning.
-She has been in Canada since April.
-We arrived at the airport early.
It is often possible to put time at the beginning of the sentence.
-Every morning Tom walks to work.
2. Adverb with the verb
Some adverbs (always, never, often, probably, etc) usually go with the verb in
the middle of the sentence.
-Tom always goes to walk by bus.
-Your car has probably been stolen.
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N.B: If the verb is one word (goes, cooked, etc) the adverb usually goes before
the verb:
-Tom always goes to work by bus.
But adverbs go after auxiliary be.
-We were feeling very tired and we were also hungry.
-Why are you always late? You’re never on time.
If the verb is composed of two or more words, the adverb goes after the first
verb.
-I can never remember his name.
-Your car has probably been stolen.
3- Still, yet and already; any more / any longer, no more
a -Do you still want to go to the party or have you changed your mind?
Still usually goes in the middle of the sentence with the verb.
b-We use “not …..any more” or “not….any longer” to say that a situation has
changed .
Any more and any longer go at the end of a sentence.
-Ann doesn’t work here any more (or any longer). She left last month.
-We used to be good friends but we aren’t any more.
You can also use no longer. But no longer goes in the middle of the sentence.
-Ann no longer works here.
-We are no longer friends.
Note that we normally use no more in this way.
c. Yet means until now. We use yet mainly in negative sentences and
questions.
-I haven’t finished yet
-Have you finished yet?
Yet shows that the speaker is expecting something to happen. Yet usually goes
at the end of a sentence.
-It’s 10 o’clock and Tom hasn’t got up yet
-I’m hungry. Is dinner ready yet?
d. We use already to say that something happened sooner than expected.
Already usually goes in the middle of a sentence
-When is Sue going on holiday? She has already gone (= sooner than
you expected) -I’ve only just had lunch and I’m already hungry.

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3- Compound adjectives
The second element is the more important. The first word clarifies the
meaning. In general, when the adjective is composed of two words, the
second element is an adjective, a present participle (active), a past participle
(passive) or a noun ended by the suffix-ed.
1- The second element is an adjective
Light blue; to be self-confident, to be homesick, to be seasick.
2- The second element is a present participle
This adventure raises hair; it is a hair-raising adventure.
This girl looks old; she is an old-looking girl.
3- The second element is a past participle
A cake which is made at home is a home-made cake.
A child who is brought up well is a well-brought up child.
4- The second element is a noun ended by the suffix -ed
A girl with short sight is a short-sighted girl.
A man with one eye is a one-eyed man
Other forms
A first-rate hotel; A fifteen-year-old boy; Second-class citizens.

EXERCISE 1: Put these words in the correct order.

1- a steel shiny new pan
2- a Chinese beautifully-carved wooden small box
3-Spring cold refreshing water
4-A police tall officer bearded German
5- Off my I bicycle yesterday fell
6- A nylon orange carpet new
7- Avenue large a wide tarred
8- Way I a mine met my home friend on of.
EXERCISE 2: End the sentences with the correct compound words.
1- A street with one way is a…………………….…………..
2- A car which is as blue as the sky is a…………………….……
3-Charles Dickens is seventy years old; he is a .........
4- They make their bread at home; it's very good .......
5-A machine we use to make stamps is a……………………..
6- Mum prepares cakes that smells sweet; they are………………
7- A visit which lasts three days is a……………………………
8- We sell these articles well; they are………………………….
9- Betty has fair hair; she is a………………………………..
10- A brush we use to clean our teeth is a……………………….
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VII- COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

A- FORMS (Main points)

You add “er” for the comparative and “est” for the superlative of one-syllable
adjectives and adverbs.
• You use “er” an “est” with some two-syllable adjectives.
• You use “more” for the comparative and “most” to the superlative of most
two-syllable adjectives, all longer adjectives, and adverbs ending in “ly”.
• Some common adjectives and adverbs have irregular forms.
1. You add “er” for the comparative form and “est” for the superlative form on
one-syllable adjectives and adverbs. If they end in "e" you add “r” and “st”.
Cheap cheaper cheapest
Safe safer safest
They worked harder
I’ve found a nicer hotel.
If they end in a single vowel and consonant (except “w”, you double the
consonant.
Big bigger biggest
Fat hot sad thin wet
The day grew hotter
Henry was the biggest of them.
2. With two-syllable adjectives ending in a consonant followed by "y", you
change the “y” to “I” and add “er” and “est”.
Happy happier happiest
Angry; dirty; friendly; heavy; silly; busy; easy; funny; lucky; tiny
It couldn’t be easier
That is the funniest bit of the film.
3. You use “more” for the comparative and “most” for the superlative of most
two-syllable adjectives, all longer adjectives, and adverbs ending in “ly”.
Careful more careful most careful
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Seriously more seriously most seriously
Be more careful next time.
They are the most beautiful gardens in the world.
Rebellion affected Bouake most seriously.
Note that for “early” as adjective or adverb, you use “earlier” and
“earliest”, not “more” and “most”.
4- With some common two-syllable adjectives and adverbs, you can either add
“er” and “est”, or use “more” and “most”.
Common; gentle; pleasant; simple; cruel; handsome; narrow
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Note that “clever” and “quiet” only add “er” and “est”.
It was the cleverest man I ever met.
5. You normally use “the” with superlative adjectives in front of nouns, but you
can omit “the” after a link verb.
It was the happiest day of my life.
It was one of the most important discoveries.
I was happiest when I was on my own.

WARNING: When “most” is used without “the” in front adjectives and adverbs,
it often means almost the same as “very”.
This book was most interesting.
I object most strongly.
6. A few common adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparative and
superlative forms.
Good/well better the best
Bad/badly worse the worst
Far farther/ further the farthest/ furthest
Old older/elder the oldest/eldest
Much/ many more the most
Little less the least
She would ask him when she knew him better.
She sat near the furthest window.
Note that you use “elder” or “eldest” to say which brother, sister, or children
in a family you mean.
Our eldest daughter couldn’t come.

B- USES (Main points)

Comparative adjectives are used to compare people or things
• Superlative adjectives are used to say that one person or thing has more
of a quality than others in a group or others of that kind.
• Comparative adverbs are used in the same way as adjectives.
1. You use comparative adjectives to compare one person or thing with
another, or with the same person or thing at another time. After a comparative
adjective, you often use “than”.
She was much older than me.
I am happier than I have ever been.
2. You use a superlative to say that one person or thing has more of a quality
than others in a group or others of that kind.
Tokyo is Japan’s largest city
He was the tallest person there.
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3. You can use comparative and superlative adjectives in front of a noun.
I was a better writer than he was.
He had more important things to do.
It was the quickest route from Rome to Naples.
You can also use comparative and superlative adjectives after link verbs.
My brother is younger than me.
He feels more content now.
The sergeant was the tallest.
4. You can use adverbs of degree in front of comparative adjectives.
a bit; a great / good deal; a lot; rather; far; a little; much; slightly
This car is a bit more expensive.
Now I feel a great deal more confident.
It’s a rather more complicated story than that.
You can also use adverbs of degree such as “by far”, “easily”, “much”, or “quite”
in front of “the” and superlative adjectives.
It was by far the worst hospital l had ever seen.
She was easily the most intelligent person in the class.
Note that you can put “very” between “the” and a superlative adjective ending
in “est”.
It was of the very highest quality.

Exercise: Complete these sentences using the comparative or

superlative of the adjectives in brackets.
1. You certainly look much (happy) you did yesterday.
2. She would ask the Dean when she knew him (well).
3. California certainly has a (healthy) climate New York.
4. Without doubt, Didier Drogba is (good) football player in Africa.
5. What’s (quick) way of getting from here to the law court.
6. That’s (ridiculous) case I’ve ever heard.
7. Be much (careful) next time.
8. My marks are bad, but my neighbor’s are (bad).
9. I was a (good) student she was.
10.Manslaughter is not as (bad) murder.

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C- GRADUAL INCREASE OR DECREASE, AND PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION.
C 1- Gradual increase or decrease.
When you want to say something increases or decreases, you can use two
comparatives linked by "and".
It’s getting harder and harder to find a job.
Cars are becoming more and more expensive.
Politics in Cote d’Ivoire is becoming less and less interesting

Exercise: Translate these sentences, paying attention to the gradual increase

or decrease.
1- Il fait de plus en plus froid en Ecosse.
2- Elle travaille de mieux en mieux.
3- Ce feuilleton devient de moins en moins intéressant.
4- Les Ivoiriens s’intéressent de moins en moins à la politique.
5- Les marchandises deviennent de plus en plus chères en Côte d’Ivoire

C 2- Parallel constructions.
When you want to say that one situation depends on another, you can use
“the” and a comparative followed by “the” and another comparative. Each
clause starts with the comparative.
Ex 1. The smaller it is, the cheaper it is to post.
The larger the organisation is, the greater the problem of administration
becomes.
Ex 2. House Agent: Do you want a big house?
Wife: Yes, the bigger the better
Husband: I don’t agree. The smaller the house is, the less it will cost.
Exercise 2: Rewrite these sentences using the parallel constructions.
1- As we get to know him better, we find him more and more friendly.
2- As he gets older, he works less and less.
3- As he ate less, he felt better and better.
4- As there was less food in the shops, it became more and more expensive.
5- As they punish him more, he obeyed less and less.

D- Other ways of comparing things: as....as, the same (as), like

Main points
• You use "as....as" to compare people or things.
• You can also compare people or things by using " the same (as) ".
• You can also compare people or things by using a link verb and a phrase
beginning with "like".

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1. You use "as.........as"...to compare people or things that are similar in some
way, you use "as" and an adjective or adverb, followed by "as" and a noun
group, an adverbial, or a clause.
You’re as bad as your sister.
The airport was as crowded as ever.
I am as good as she is.
Let us examine it as carefully as we can.
2. You can make a negative comparison using "not as....as... "or not so….as.
The food wasn’t as good as yesterday.
They are not as clever as they appear to be.
He is not so old as I thought.
3. You can use the adverbs "almost", " just", " nearly", or " quite" in front of "
as.....as...
He was almost fast as his brother.
Mary was just as pale as before.
She was nearly as tall as he was.
In a negative comparison, you can use "not nearly" or "not quite" before
"as….as…."
This is not nearly as complicated as it sounds.
The hotel was not quite as good as they expected.
4. When you want to say that one thing is very similar to something else, you
can use "the same as" followed by a noun group, an adverbial, or a clause.
Your bag is the same as mine.
I said the same as always.
She looked the same as she did yesterday.
If people or things are very similar or identical, you can also say that they are
" the same".
Teenage fashions are the same all over the world.
The initial stage of learning English is the same for many students.
You can use some adverbs in front of "the same as" or " the same":
almost; just; much; roughly; exactly; more or less; nearly; virtually
He did exactly the same as john did.
You two look almost the same.

5. If the noun group after "as" or "like" in any of these structures is a pronoun,
you use an object pronoun or possessive pronoun.
James was as clever as him.
His car is the same as mine.

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