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Land Subsidence in Jakarta Increases the Risk of Flooding with Future Climate
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Land Subsidence in Jakarta
Increases the Risk of Flooding
with Future Climate Change

Evina Tami Roriris

Master of Environmental Management
Brisbane, Australia, May 2020

Research Paper submitted in partial requirements for

the completion of Climate Change coursework,
School of Earth and Environmental Science,
The University of Queensland

Supervisor:
Associate Professor Helen Bostock
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Land Subsidence in Jakarta Increases the Risk of Flooding with Future

Climate Change
Introduction
Low-lying coastal communities around the world are threatened by sea level rises (Kekeh et al., 2020).
However, in some coastal cities, including Jakarta, the problem is exacerbated by land subsidence;
situated on the west-northern coast of Java island, Jakarta is home to more than 10 million people
(Abidin et al., 2015).

Like many other rapidly expanding coastal megacities around the world, Jakarta is facing significant
challenges of growing urban population and uncontrolled pollution (Deltares, 2015). Almost 64% of the
total population in Jakarta relies on groundwater extraction for its water supply. It is considered to be
more convenient and cheaper than piped water systems (Abidin et al., 2011). The draining of aquifers
has caused widespread land subsidence, with the secondary contributions from massive developments
and natural consolidation of sedimentary layers (Kagabu et al., 2013, Ward et al., 2011).

Land subsidence generates pressure on the coastal ecosystem, increasing the risk of coastal flooding
and further exacerbated by storm surges and the long-term climate events such as sea-levels rising
(Waltham, 2002). Previous research revealed that the subsidence rates in some parts of Jakarta were
between 9.5 to 21.5 cm/year in 2007, with an average rate of 4 cm/year across the city (Chaussard et
al., 2013, Abidin et al., 2008). With the extreme rate of land subsidence, about 40% of Jakarta now lies
below sea level, leaving coastal communities more vulnerable to flood events (Marshall, 2005). In 2025,
Jakarta ground level is expected to be 3 m below sea level (Erkens et al., 2015).

A future marked by inundation is obvious in Jakarta while Tokyo has appeared to successfully slow down
its subsidence rate since the early 1970s (Figure 1). Tokyo’s sinking trend has remained steady since
1970 when the Japanese administration began to stop natural gas extraction and announced the
restrictions on the pumping of groundwater (Sato et al., 2006).

Figure 1. Absolute global sea level rise and average land subsidence for several coastal cities in the world (Deltares, 2015)
 ENVM 7205 Climate Change

Land subsidence influences the severity of coastal flooding by the increase of flood frequency, water
depth, and inundation period (Chen and Tfwala, 2018). In early 2020, Jakarta suffered the worst deluge
since 2007, the 6 meters floodwaters resulted in 66 deaths and approximately 60,000 refugees (Husni,
2020). With the expectation for more extreme climate events in the future, Jakarta is considered as one
of the most vulnerable cities to coastal flooding (Takagi et al., 2016).

Table 1. Jakarta flood statistics

500

400

300

200

100

0
2002 2006 2010 2014 2018
Average Rainfall Death toll Submerged area (km2)

(Data source: BPPD, Bappenas, BMKG Indonesia)

As highlighted in the IPCC 5th Assessment Report, coastal floods are likely to become more intense due
to the consequence of climate change, including extreme precipitations and rising sea levels (Takagi et
al., 2016). According to the report, the global mean sea level has increased significantly from 1.4 mm
annually over the period 1901-1990 to 3.6 mm annually over the period 2006-2015 (Pörtner et al.,
2019).

Figure 2. Coastal floods in Jakarta (Left) (Courtesy of Brinkman J.J Deltares, 2007) and thin sea dike for coastal protection
(Right)(Courtesy of Takagi, 2015)
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Regional observations of Indonesia’s sea level rises using POSEIDON satellite data have shown a surge
of nearly 7 mm annually over the period 1992 to 2015 (Takagi et al., 2016). This finding indicates that
sea level rises in Indonesia are significantly higher than the average global increase, although such
discrepancies can be present due to natural climate variability (Cabanes et al., 2001).

Impacts from tropical cyclones and severe typhoons would pose an additional risk to flood events.
Although Jakarta is not directly impacted by typhoons, severe cyclone events in the north western
Pacific would likely contribute to increased flood intensity (Esteban et al., 2015).

This paper intends to answer the following questions in regards to coastal flooding in Jakarta:

• What are the future predictions of coastal flooding with the rising sea level?
• How vulnerable is the Jakarta coastal community to sea level rise with the current rate of land
subsidence?
• What are the existing climate mitigation and adaptation strategies? What are other possible
measures to improve the current strategy?

Study Area Profile and Characterisation

Jakarta is the capital city of Indonesia, situated on the northwest coast of Java Island (6°12'52.63"S,
106°50'42.47"E) with the total area of 661,52 km² (ST Agustione, 2014). Being the smallest province in
Indonesia, Jakarta has a very high population density of 14,464 people/sq km (Wardhana and Setyawan,
2020). The United Nations’ World Urbanization Prospects estimated Jakarta's population is at
10,770,487 (UN, 2018).

Figure 3. Geographic location of Jakarta, Indonesia (Marfai et al., 2015)

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The average temperature in Jakarta is 27.7°C (BMKG, 2020). Annual rainfall intensity is approximately
1755 mm, with the average monthly rain about 146.3 mm and is subject to frequent severe floods
(WPR, 2020).

The northern part of Jakarta is mainly flat-floored corridors, known as alluvial plains, adjacent to the
Java sea. The city lies on a deltaic floodplain at the mouth of the Ciliwung river that disembogues to the
Java Sea (Nurmalasari, 2014). The north coast area lies below sea level with a higher risk of flooding
and exposure to oceanic hazards such as erosion and sedimentation. In contrast, southern parts are
comparatively hilly with a lower risk of flooding (WPR, 2020, Hadi et al., 2005).

Rapid ecological degradation from uncontrolled pollution has also contributed to environmental
conditions in Jakarta. According to the World Bank, Indonesia’s coastal population of 187.2 million
generates 3.22 million tons of mismanaged waste annually, while almost 80% of solid waste in Jakarta
is discharged into Jakarta Bay (Jambeck et al., 2015, Hadi et al., 2005).
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Discussion

Predictions Under Future Climate Change – Sea Level Rise

Study of climate risks using climate models, satellite observations, and hydrographic observations have
been carried out extensively to predict the future sea level rise. Evidence from satellite data has shown
that sea level has been rising substantially, by around 3 mm per year since early 1990, while
instrumental records estimate that global average sea level rises have increased at a rate of about 1.7
mm per year since the 19th century (Solomon et al., 2007).

According to the IPCC’s Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC),
the global mean sea level is increasing due to the mass loss of glacier and ice sheet in polar regions and
ocean thermal expansion (Poloczanska et al., 2018).

Figure 4. Historical rate of changes in the sea level rise since 2020, and projected rate of global mean sea level under RCP 2.6,
RCP 4.5, RCP 6.0, and RCP 8.5.

Observed past and future changes in sea level rise in (Figure 3) are based on climate model projections
using Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). The RCP 2.6 reflects the scenario of low
greenhouse gas emission, while the RCP 8.5 corresponds to the absence of climate mitigation policies
where the greenhouse gas emissions scenario is the highest (Poloczanska et al., 2018). The average
magnitude of global sea level rise during this century is approximately 3-5 mm per year. Under the RCP
8.5 scenario, the rate of sea level rise is expected to be 4-15 mm per year in 2100.
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Conforming to climate models, change in sea level rise is not uniformly distributed around the globe
due to various factors, including post-glacial rebound and regional climate variabilities (Pachauri and
Reisinger, 2008). In general, regional differences are expected to be about ±30% although this variation
could be higher in certain areas where anthropogenic contributions are present, such as drained
aquifers (Poloczanska et al., 2018)

In Jakarta, previous research found that the rate of regional mean sea level rise is higher than the global
average, with an estimated increase of 6.78mm per year (Takagi et al., 2016).

Figure 5. Indonesian sea levels measured using TOPEX and Jason satellite radar altimeters (Takagi et al., 2016)

Assuming the regional sea level rise in Jakarta will continue at the rate of 7mm per year, Takagi et al
(2016) estimated that the sea level rise in Jakarta would be up to 35 cm by 2020.

Similarly, Sofian (2010) found a strong trend of future sea level rise in Jakarta by comparing three
different measurements (Table 2). Predictions made using coastal tide gauge measurement, altimeter,
and climate models show a substantial trend in sea level rise, with an average of 6-8mm per year.
Although slightly different estimations are present, overall sea level rise is projected to reach 75 cm ±5
cm in 2100 and 60 cm ±4 cm in 2080 (high confidence) (Sofian, 2010).

Table 2. Future projection of sea level rise in Indonesia

Period Sea Level Rise Projection since 2020 Level of

confident
Tide Gauge Altimeter ADT Model
2030 24 cm + 16 cm 16.5 cm + 1.5 cm 22.5 cm + 1.5 cm Moderate
2050 40 cm + 20 cm 27.5 cm + 2.5 cm 37.5 cm + 2.5 cm Moderate
2080 64 cm + 32 cm 44.0 cm + 4.0 cm 60.0 cm + 4.0 cm High
2100 80 cm + 40 cm 60.0 cm + 5.0 cm 80.0 cm + 5.0 cm High
(Data: Bappenas ID) (Sofian, 2010)
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Numerous studies have attempted to predict the coastal floods in Jakarta based on a number of
scenarios (Yoo et al., 2014, Takagi et al., 2016).

Takagi et al. (2015) developed Jakarta coastal flood projections by 2050 using a coastal hydrodynamic
model that accounts for abnormal tide events, sea level rises, and land subsidence. His findings
indicated that from 2000 to 2050, coastal floods could reach up to 110.5 km2 in extent, with land
subsidence accounting for 88% of the total increase. Additionally, the result demonstrated a non-linear
increase in flood risk overtime, where the 2025-2050 flood risk area is expected to expand 3.4x faster
compared to 2000-2025.

On the same subject, Yoo et al. (2014) made predictions of flood inundations by extracting the elevation
value (DEM) over Jakarta map and visualising the effect of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 m sea level rises using ArcGIS
software.

Figure 6. Flood inundations for sea level rise of 1m, 2m, 3m, 4m, 5m

According to Figure 5, the most significant influence of sea level rise is found in North Jakarta, followed
by West and Central Jakarta. The projected sea level rise of 1m by the end of the 21st century based on
the IPCC report shows that nearly 70 km2 of Jakarta is expected to flood, mainly along the coastal line
(Pörtner et al., 2019).

John Mercer, in 1978 proposed an idea of a 5m sea level rise that comes from a complete collapse of
the West Antarctic Ice (WAIS) (Mercer, 1978). Although the study was carried out almost half a century
ago, it is scientifically plausible and has been used as a model for modern climate research. Based on
his idea, Yoo et al. (2014) also examined the impact of 5m rise to coastal floods. The result suggested
that 91.31% of North Jakarta would be completely submerged within the 5m scenario, indicating
extreme risks to infrastructure and human settlements.

Coastal floods pose significant losses and threats to environmental, economic, social, and infrastructure
elements. Ward et al. (2011) estimated the damage exposure for 1:100 year flood events at $6.6 billion
AUD and $8.6 billion AUD for 1:1000 year events, which accounts for approximately 1.2% and 1.5% of
Indonesia’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) respectively.

Continuing land subsidence combined with rising sea levels increases the vulnerability of coastal
communities and economic sectors in Jakarta due to environmental and socioeconomic disruptions.
Therefore, the vulnerability assessment of Jakarta coastal communities would enhance our
understanding of the overall aspects of coastal community response to future climate risks.
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Vulnerability Assessment of Coastal Community in Jakarta

Change in the climate system will impact physical, biological, and human livelihoods. Therefore, it is
important to consider these impacts to understand the vulnerability of coastal communities in response
to future climate hazards.

According to the IPPC report, vulnerability is described as “a function of the character, magnitude, and
rate of climate change to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity” (Parry et
al., 2007).

A research was conducted in 2014 to assess the environmental vulnerability in Jakarta using a coastal
vulnerability index (Yoo et al., 2014).

Coastal City Flood Vulnerability Index (CCFVI) has been used rapidly for assessing relative vulnerability
by examining the physical, economic, and social aspects of a community (Balica et al., 2012). The three
main components of relative environmental vulnerabilities in Jakarta presented by Yoo et al. (2014) are
exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity.

Vulnerability index is calculated using the following equation:

EVI = Exposure + Sensitivity – Adaptive Capacity

Exposure

Fekete (2009) defined exposure as the susceptibility of elements within a hazardous area, while IPCC
(2012) defined exposure as values (human or physical items) located in flood hazard areas. According
to CCFVI, exposure is defined as ‘‘the predisposition of a system to be disrupted by a flooding event
due to its location in the same area of influence’’ (Balica et al., 2012).

Yoo et al. (2014) emphasised two major factors for environmental exposure. One factor is the flood
inundation, which was calculated by combining the records of flood inundation in Jakarta and the total
of flooded areas in 3m sea level rise scenario.

Another factor for environmental exposure is Jakarta water pollution. As one of the most polluted cities
in the world, Jakarta has been dealing with a significant ecological deterioration due to its poor waste
management, air, and water pollution (Ostojic et al., 2013). Considering that water pollution is a very
critical problem in Jakarta, the study focused on water pollution in Jakarta’s watershed and canals
systems in which they assumed that the density of canal system is negatively correlated with the water
quality.
Table 3. Indicators of environmental exposure (Yoo et al., 2014)

The standardised values of variables for environmental exposure are presented in Table 3. The
dimension index (DI) value is used to weigh each variable therefore various units of data input can be
 ENVM 7205 Climate Change

calculated (Lim et al., 2005). According to Table 3, East Jakarta had the highest flood records, followed
by South Jakarta and West Jakarta. The highest pollution record was found in East Jakarta and Central
Jakarta.

Sensitivity

Sensitivity in vulnerability assessment can be defined as the degree to which a system is susceptible to
environmental exposure (Zhang et al., 2018). Yoo et al. (2014) divided the system (Jakarta) into two
main components: human and natural systems. In terms of human systems, a population density was
considered as an important proxy, assuming that the higher the population, the more susceptible it is
to environmental exposure. Balica et al (2012) also highlighted the importance of socio-economic
elements in relation to system sensitivity, where socio-economic indicators often influence the ability
of a community or system to cope with flood hazards.

Yoo et al. (2014) suggested that population density is highly correlated to the degree of damage, where
economically disadvantaged communities are likely to be more susceptible to environmental hazards
due to clogged drains, increased health risks, and land subsidence (Yu et al., 2016).

Figure 6 shows the typical land use in Jakarta, where non-uniform and densely populated settlements
such as slum and squatter are dominant. Marfai et al. (2015) mentioned that slum populations have
high levels of vulnerability to coastal hazards because of its structures and materials, such as plywood
walls and bamboo, which are very susceptible to water damage. Therefore, the number of slum
populations was used as a relative measure of poor urban populations.

Figure 7. A common land use in Jakarta (Marfai et al., 2015)

Figure 8. Slum populations in northern Jakarta (Koch, 2015)

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In terms of natural systems, Yoo et al. (2014) divided the system into managed (agricultural land, rice
paddies) and unmanaged systems (coastal swamp, grassland, mangrove forest), assuming that both
systems are vulnerable to environmental exposure. Although mangrove vegetation and swamp
ecosystems are known as natural barriers for coastal zones, they exist as remnant patches in Jakarta
due to massive development in coastal areas and are considered as vulnerable to environmental
hazards (Krauss et al., 2008).

Table 4. Indicators of environmental sensitivity (Yoo et al., 2014)

According to Table 4, Central Jakarta had the highest population density in 2014, followed by South and
West Jakarta. North Jakarta had the highest slum population as well as unmanaged systems, including
agricultural lands, mangrove forests, and rice paddies. East Jakarta had the highest managed systems,
followed by North Jakarta. Overall, the study found that East Jakarta had the highest index for
sensitivity.

Adaptive Capacity

Adaptive capacity is the potential of a system to successfully adapt and withstand environmental
exposure (Brooks and Adger, 2005). Yoo et al. (2014) incorporated four aspects of adaptive capacity,
including economic aspect, infrastructure, environmental awareness, and the a dministrative
foundation for policy implementation. The gross regional domestic product (GRDP) of each district in
Jakarta was used as a proxy to determine the economic aspect. In terms of infrastructure, they
considered road construction as a suitable proxy, assuming that good network connections provide a
crucial link to logistics, food, and emergency services, and therefore play a critical role in resilience to
environmental exposure.
Table 5. Indicators of environmental exposure (Yoo et al., 2014)

Political and administrative components for measuring adaptive capacity were also established in a
study by Balica et al. (2012), especially in the flood management process. Yo et al. (2014) conducted a
quantitative survey for governmental officials working for the five districts of Jakarta to measure
environmental awareness and administrative foundation for policy implementation and compared the
results between the districts.

According to Table 5, Central Jakarta had the highest level of environmental awareness, policy
foundation, and regional income compared to other districts. In contrast, East Jakarta had the lowest
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level of awareness and considerably lower regional income. In terms of infrastructure, North Jakarta
had the least road connections, indicating a low physical capacity. Overall, they found that Central
Jakarta had the highest capacity index, while North Jakarta and East Jakarta had the lowest.

The Overall Vulnerability Index

Of the five districts examined, North and East Jakarta were the most vulnerable districts to coastal
floods, while Central Jakarta was the most resilient. The study confirmed that the coastal community in
Jakarta, in particular those in North Jakarta, were more vulnerable to environmental exposure driven
by climate and non-climatic factors (Abidin et al., 2011).

Major gaps in Vulnerability Assessment

Understanding the impact of climate change on coastal communities is a complex and thought-out
process. Although the vulnerability assessment index can give insights to the degree of community
vulnerability to sea level rise, there are gaps of knowledge in temporal variations as well as the
completeness of data.

Further, it is important to account for both biophysical and anthropogenic functions, primarily the
interaction between sea level rise and hydrogeological processes (Ramieri et al., 2011). Besides the role
of land structure morphology in determining surface water flow, Ramieri et al . (2011) emphasised the
importance of identifying soil characteristics, notably the suspended sediment and its ability to support
the water flow vertically and horizontally.

Therefore, further study is required to overcome the lack of understanding of Jakarta’s soil
characteristics to improve our knowledge in the complex system of coastal ecosystems. This includes
water storage capacity, pH, soil depth and texture, organic carbon, salinity, granulometry, etc.
 ENVM 7205 Climate Change

Community Responses and Adaptation Strategies

A successful strategy for subsiding cities will include both climate mitigation and adaptation measures
(Erkens et al., 2015). In climate change studies, mitigation is described as the act of reducing the sources
of greenhouse gases (GHGs) or increasing carbon sinks while the IPCC AR5 report defines adaptation as
the adjustment process to actual or anticipated climate risks and its impacts (Pachauri et al., 2014).
Adaptation measures are crucial to ensure human survival, the security of assets, and the safety of
ecosystems by facilitating adjustment to the changing climate (Angelo and Du Plessis, 2017).

Coastal adaptation focuses on minimising negative consequences of climate drivers including extreme
floods and coastal erosions, which may pose risks to communities, including loss of livelihoods,
settlement, economic stability, and ecosystem services (IPCC, 2014).

In Jakarta, the extreme flood event in 2007 has led to reconstructions of coastal flood risk reduction
measures (Djalante et al., 2017). Since that time, the Jakarta administration has been developing flood
protection measures that encompass on three main strategies:

First, a strong emphasis is placed on canal and river regulations, with the strategy to enlarge waterways
and remove informal settlements that contribute to the pollution and blocking of river flows. Similar to
that, communal work has been built around the need to clean waterways. However, this adaptation is
rarely found in urban slum populations, which have a significantly higher level of pollution and
unmanaged waste disposal (Marfai et al., 2015).

Second, attempts to dredge and widen flood reservoirs are in place, especially in northern parts of
Jakarta (Djalante et al., 2017). In addition to the reservoirs, water channels in Jakarta are also being
dredged to prevent future floods.

Figure 9. Dredging the flood reservoirs (Left Courtesy of Koch, 2015) (Right Courtesy of Fatkhurroz, 2018)

Third, a National Capital Integrated Coastal Development Masterplan (NCICD) was implemented in
2014, leading to the construction of the “Great Garuda Project” or the “Giant Sea Wall”. This adaptation
measure aims to build an enormous sea dike of 25 km in length to protect the population from coastal
flooding. Behind the wall, large reservoirs are constructed to buffer the river outflows of which the
water table ought to be maintained to be below sea level, allowing more controlled flood drainage in
Jakarta (Djalante et al., 2017, van der Wulp et al., 2016).
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Figure 10. Jakarta’s Great Garuda Project (Kuipocompagnons, 2015)

Jakarta is now planning to install pumping stations that discharge flood water at a capacity of 730m 3
per second as well as upgrading existing flood protection infrastructures, in particular retention basins,
drainage systems, and sea dikes along major waterways and coastal reservoirs (Garschagen et al.,
2018).

In addition to flood protection strategies from Jakarta Provincial government, Marfai et al. (2015)
identified several physical adaptation measures developed by coastal communities in Jakarta.

1. Increasing the house level and building additional floors

This strategy is found to be adequate to prevent water from entering the house when the flood
inundation level is still below the house level. However, building additional floors is more effective
in the case of extreme flood events, in which residents can move valuable items to the second
floor to avoid damage.
2. Building barriers
Structural adaptation strategies, including flood defences, barriers, and dikes, have been built by
the local government and community. Small dikes are common at a community level and found
to be relatively low cost to prevent water around the settlement. However, this adaptation
measure is not optimal especially under extreme flood events, where some houses are still
exposed to flood inundation.
3. Communal work system and building materials reuse
Communal work systems called “gotong-royong” are parts of non-physical adaptation measures
to minimise the risk of flooding by cleaning up local rivers and waterways.
Non-physical adaptation is also found in terms of post-flooding responses, in which the community
attempts to reuse undamaged building and household materials, such as wood and plastics, in
particular ones that need only cleaning and exterior repairs. This is mainly due to economic factors
and found in a smaller communities where coastal flood exposure is significantly higher.
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Recommendations
Land subsidence is the leading cause of the increase of Jakarta coastal flood inundations (Takagi et al.,
2016, Abidin et al., 2011). As the city is facing the twin challenges of the land subsidence and sea level
rise, an integrated approach and feasible solution is needed to deal with this issue.

Community awareness of land subsidence and future climate change is still very low in Jakarta. This
phenomenon is often misinterpreted by climate change sceptics, who assume that land subsidence
alone explains the increase of flood events in coastal areas, while in reality, land subsidence and sea
level rises are happening simultaneously.

While climate scientists agree that the rising sea level can be addressed by increasing carbon sinks and
lowering down GHGs emissions on a global scale, land subsidence is most likely a regional problem that
requires focus on community-based mitigation actions.

Therefore, it is important to focus on decelerating the rate of land subsidence to reduce the risk of
coastal flooding, as coordinated strategies on mitigating the risk of coastal floods in Jakarta.

Strategy 1: Implement restrictions of groundwater extraction

While full restrictions of groundwater extraction remain controversial, this mitigation measure is crucial
to restrain anthropogenic subsidence. Therefore, it is useful to discuss the example of successful water
governance practices to determine the effectiveness of groundwater restrictions. The national
government of Japan took the unprecedented step to groundwater management regimes, in which
they banned groundwater extraction for industrial in 1961 and air-conditioning use in 1963 (Tanaka,
2004). In addition, some of the metropolitan areas in Japan, including Tokyo, have restricted the drilling
of new wells following the above restrictions.

To support the regulation, the Tokyo administration relocated some of the industries to reduce water
demands, at the same time providing alternatives water supply, including sewage treatment,
normalising rivers and water channels, building dams, and several other measures. Japan’s
groundwater restriction regimes focused on the environmental impacts of excessive groundwater use,
and have shown remarkable results in decelerating land subsidence in some of Japan’s metropolitan
areas (Sato and Haga, 2006).

In some parts of Jakarta, a less drastic measure called “biopori” has been in place to reduce the risk of
groundwater extraction (Bahagijo, 2018). Biopori infiltration uses the concept of bio-pore, which aims
to increase water infiltration into the soil by placing a cylindrical hole (diameter of 10cm) underground
at a depth of 100 cm. This measure requires the community to plant a biopori before extracting the
groundwater. However, many environmentalists argue that this scheme is only effective to maintain
water at a superficial level, while groundwater in Jakarta is discharged from several hundred meters
underground (Hidayat, 2018).

Delatares (2015) identified some regulatory measures that could be considered in restricting water use:

• Appropriate legislation, consistent implementation, effective enforcement, and compliance

strategies
• Designation of critical groundwater areas and management zones
• Limit licensing and implement regulatory compliance checking for groundwater well drilling
• Metered and charged groundwater consumption
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Strategy 2: Development of alternative water supply

Approaches to groundwater restrictions carry with them various well-known limitations. Delares (2015)
suggested that the process of shifting towards alternative water sources requires water footprint
assessment and economic analysis to determine the potential costs of implementing these alternatives.
With the current state of Jakarta water pollution, transforming rivers into urban water supply
alternatives to groundwater sources become impractical, as research found that it could take up to 10
years to clean up Jakarta’s rivers and dams for domestic water use.

However, alternative water sources such as recycled wastewater, stormwater runoff, and desalinated
seawater could provide promising solutions. For instance, the use of recycled wastewater in Southern
California has been growing substantially, providing 2‒3% of the state’s urban and agricultural water
supply, while desalinated seawater use increased four times to nearly 246,696,000m3 between 2006 to
2016 period (McCann et al., 2018).

Strategy 3: Improved water quality in urban areas

To improve water quality in urban areas, water pollution control strategies and integrated wastewater
system are necessary. This involves transferring municipal wastewater into sewerage systems and
through advanced treatment processes (Grant, 2016). Luo et al. (2019) suggested that a sufficient
wastewater treatment plant is necessary to remove contaminants from sewage discharge and generate
a minimum impact on the environment in urban areas.

While controlling waste production and improving waste management are necessary, Jakarta needs to
monitor its urban population growth and development to limit groundwater overdraft and eventually
halt the land subsidence, reducing the risk of flooding (Luo et al., 2019).

Strategy 4: Integrated urban flood water management

Due to the lack of awareness of land subsidence and future climate risks in Jakarta, integrated flood
management and coastal protection strategies are vital to inform the community and predict current
and future subsidence (Deltares, 2015). Urban flood management should be linked to flood mitigation
strategies, in particular the development of city surface or subsurface to avoid flood inundation due to
poor drainage infrastructure.

Flood mitigation measures involve the management of flood water movement and structural methods,
such as bio-engineering solution to control the water flows by redirecting surface runoff through the
use of flood walls rather than complete flood prevention (Khadka, 2018).
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Conclusion
The impacts of sea level rise are often not fully recognised due to its complex patterns. As one of the
fastest sinking cities in the world, there is an urgent need for Jakarta to account for future climate
change risks on exposure to coastal flooding. Although the current coastal flood protection in Jakarta,
such as the Giant Sea Wall foresees a solution to prevent the city from coastal floods, it does not
necessarily fix the root problem: excessive groundwater use resulting in land subsidence.

Land subsidence in Jakarta increases coastal flood vulnerability, and consequently creates economic
disruption and losses, including building and infrastructure damage, maintenance costs, and failures of
road networks (Erkens et al., 2015). In that sense, Jakarta has been focusing on resilience paradigms,
building defences system for community at risk with the rising sea level. Yet, very little has been done
to mitigate human-induced contributions to land subsidence, reducing the capacity of soil and water
system to provide ecosystem services to cope with climate hazards.

With coastal communities in Jakarta being extremely vulnerable to future sea level rise, synergies
between adaptation and mitigation are important to address climate change issues. This can be
achieved by improving governance and integrating multi-sectoral approaches to enable long-term
sustainability. Looking ahead, Jakarta needs to focus on developing a comprehensive and integrated
approach for flood mitigation strategies, natural resource management, and strategic spatial planning
to address the issue both in short and long term effectively.
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