Stylistics and Discourse Analysis ‫ ׀‬Page 1 of 13

STYLISTICS AND
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
COGNATE ELE 1

MARTIN DAVE R. ENOPEQUIS, LPT

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LITERARY POETRY STYLISTICS

MODULE 4

OVERVIEW

Written over the last thirty years, this collection of Professor Peter Verdonk's most important work on the stylistics
of poetry clearly shows that the stylistics of poetic discourse is a diverse and valuable interdiscipline. Discussing the poetry
of Auden, Heaney and Larkin amongst many others, Verdonk covers everything from intrinsic textual meaning and external
context in its widest sense to the reader's cognitive and emotive response to poems. The book will appeal to all students on
stylistics and literary linguistics courses, especially those focussing on poetry and poetic language.
“I think that stylisticians, along with discourse analysts and cognitive linguists with an interest in literature, will
benefit from reading this book. Firstly, it provides the stylistician with a wealth of valuable insights into the discursive and
cognitive aspects of poetic language, and Verdonk's own contributions to both discursive stylistics and cognitive stylistics
are now available to the stylistician in one concise and easily accessible volume. Secondly, the discourse analyst will find
that many of the principles from his or her discipline are also applicable to the analysis of poetry, and, perhaps more
importantly, that application of these may result in new understandings of poetry as discourse. Thirdly, a cognitive
linguist, such as myself, will not only find that the brief exposés of cognitive stylistics serve as very useful entry points
into cognitive stylistics, but also that application of cognitive science in the analysis of poetic language casts light on both
poetic language in its cognitive function and the wealth of creative potential that resides in human cognition. Moreover,
linguists and literary critics who are simply interested in each other's work should read the volume simply because of the
way it bridges the gap between linguistics and literary criticism in a way that respects, appreciates, and validates the work
on both sides of the gap. ” – Kim Ebensgaard Jensen, Aalborg University, Globe: A Journal of Language, Culture and
Communication, 1 (2015)

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Review poetry genres, language, devices/techniques, and meaning in the light of stylistic study;
 Discuss a survey of poetry authors, their unique styles and purposes of writing such poems; and

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA)

ACTIVITY:

MY THOUGHTS. State/write your prior knowledge and understanding POETIC TECHNIQUES.

(See ACTIVITY ANSWER SHEET on the succeeding pages.)

ANALYSIS:

Given the picture with a saying on it, analyze and explain them based on your understanding and perception.
(See ANALYSIS ANSWER SHEET on the succeeding pages.)

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ABSTRACT

Poetry has been around for almost four thousand years. Like
other forms of literature, poetry is written to share ideas,
express emotions, and create imagery. Poets choose words for
their meaning and acoustics, arranging them to create a tempo
known as the meter. Some poems incorporate rhyme schemes,
with two or more lines that end in like-sounding words.

Today, poetry remains an important part of art and culture.

POETIC GENRES
Whereas a "form" defines the way a poem arranges sounds, rhythms,
or its appearance on the page, "genre" is something like the poem's
style. Many poetic genres have a long history, and new poems
almost always seek to explore a new aspect of the traditional style
and thus to redefine the genre in some way. The following list is a
selection of the major genres of poetry.

 ALLEGORY: A narrative with two levels of meaning, one stated and one unstated.
 AUBADE: A song or poem greeting the sunrise, traditionally a lover's lament that the night's passion
must come to an end.

 BALLAD: Broadly speaking, the ballad is a genre of folk poetry, usually an orally transmitted narrative
song. The term "ballad" applies to several other kinds of poetry, including the English ballad stanza,
which is a form often associated with the genre.

 BLASON: A Renaissance genre characterized by a short catalogue-style description, often of the female
body.

 CENTO: A poem composed entirely of lines from other poems.

 DIRGE: A funeral song.

 DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE: This might be called a "closet soliloquy": a long poem spoken by a
character who often unwittingly reveals his or her hidden desires and actions over the course of the
poem. The "I" of the dramatic monologue is very distinct from the "I" of the poet's persona. Robert
Browning was a master of this genre.

 ECLOGUE: A short pastoral poem; Virgil's eclogues are one of the first examples of this genre.

 EKPHRASIS: Originally a description of any kind, "ekphrasis" is now almost exclusively applied to
the poetic description of a work of art.

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 ELEGY: This genre can be difficult to define, as there are specific types of elegiac poem as well as a
general elegiac mood, but almost all elegies mourn, and seek consolation for, a loss of some kind: the
most common form of elegy is a lyric commemorating the death of a loved one. Greek elegiac meter,
which is one source of what we know as the elegy today, is not normally associated with loss and
mourning.

 EPIC: A long narrative poem that catalogues and celebrates heroic or historic deeds and events, usually
focusing on a single heroic individual.

 EPIGRAM: A brief and pithy aphoristic observation, often satirical.

 EPITAPH: A tombstone inscription. Several famous poems end with the poet writing his own. (See, for
example, Thomas Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard" or W.B. Yeats's "Under Ben Bulben.")

 EPITHALAMION: A song or poem that celebrates a wedding.

 FABLE: A brief tale about talking animals or objects, usually having a moral or pedagogical point,
which is sometimes explicitly stated at the end. Aesop and la Fontaine are perhaps the most famous
fable-writers.

 GEORGIC: The agricultural cousin of pastoral, a georgic is a poem that celebrates rustic labor.

 HYMN: A song of praise.

 INVECTIVE: A personal, often abusive, denunciation.

 LAMENT: An expression of grief.

 LIGHT VERSE: Poetry that is mostly for fun: this can mean anything from nonsense verse to folk
songs, but typically there is a comical element to light verse.

 LYRIC: This genre encompasses a large portion of the world's poetry; in general, lyrics are fairly brief
poems that emphasize musical qualities.

 MASQUE: Courtly drama characterized by elaborate costumes and dances, as well as audience
participation.

 OCCASIONAL VERSE: Poetry written with reference to a particular event.

 ODE: A long, serious meditation on an elevated subject, an ode can take one of three forms.

 PAEAN: A song of joy or triumph.

 PALINODE: A recantation or retraction, usually of an earlier poem.

 PANEGYRIC: Poem or song in praise of a particular individual or object.

 PARODY: A comic imitation.

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 PASTORAL Originally a poem that depicted an idealized singing competition between shepherds,
"pastoral" has come to denote almost anything to do with a rural setting, although it also refers to several
specific categories of the genre. Associated genres of varying synonymity are idyll, bucolic, eclogue,
andgeorgic.

 PSALM: A sacred song.

 RIDDLE: A puzzling question that relies on allegory or wordplay for its answer. Riddles are often
short, and often include an answer to the question posed, albeit an unsatisfying one. The riddle of the
Sphinx, which Oedipus solved, is a particularly famous example: "what walks on four legs in the
morning, two at midday, and three in the afternoon?"

 ROMANCE: An adventure tale, usually set in a mythical or remote locale. Verse forms of the romance
include the Spanish ballad and medieval or chivalric romance.

 SATIRE: Ridicule of some kind, usually passing moral judgment.

 TRAGEDY: This genre originated in ancient Greek verse drama and received extended treatment in
Aristotle's Poetics, which made the downfall of the main character one of the criteria for tragedy. The
genre has since expanded to include almost anything pertaining to a downfall.

 VERSE EPISTLE: A letter written in verse, usually taking as its subject either a philosophical or a
romantic question.

WHAT IS LANGUAGE POETRY?

From meter and metaphor to rhyme, rhythm, and beyond, we spend a lot of time analyzing how different poetic
devices are used to create meaning. Why would a poet choose one word over another? Why would they use an
enjambment over a single line? But in those studies, how often do we stop to consider the role the reader plays
in creating a poem’s meaning?

In the late 1960s and early ’70s, a challenge to traditional poetry took shape: language poetry. A sort of cross
between poetry, philosophy, and semiotics, language poetry was an avant-garde movement that emphasized the
role of the reader in a poem’s meaning. Instead of relying on traditional poetic techniques, language poets invite
readers to analyze the text and participate in constructing meaning.

If that explanation of language poetry seems a bit abstruse, imagine this: What if, instead of watching a
performance, you were invited to join? What if reading a poem made you an active participant, rather than a
passive experiencer? Well, that’s just what language poetry argues. It says that the reader’s interpretation of the
text matters just as much as the words the poet chooses to put on the page.

The movement gained mainstream attention around the same time that L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E magazine, edited
by Charles Bernstein and Bruce Andrews, and This journal, edited by Robert Grenier and Barrett Watten, were
being produced. The two magazines, as well as a slew of other poetry produced during that time period, blurred
the line between poetry and critical writing about poetry.

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RHYTHM AND METER

These are similar but not identical concepts. Rhythm refers to the overall tempo, or pace, at which the poem
unfolds, while meter refers to the measured beat established by patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Poets who write free verse, generally de-emphasize or ignore meter and focus instead on refining and tuning
their natural speech rhythms to suit the poem's tone and content. Or as Ezra Pound put it, they "compose in the
sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome."

Still, even if you write mostly free verse, understanding some basic metric principles can help. As has often
been pointed out, English sentences naturally tend to establish a dominant beat, usually iambic, so if you have a
troublesome line or phrase that "just doesn't feel right," you may find that by quickly scanning your line, you
can spot and fix the problem, replacing a one syllable word with a two syllable word, or vice-versa. Besides
helping with such quick rhythmic tune ups, metric awareness is essential for writing in traditional fixed forms,
such as blank verse or the sonnet.

POETIC FEET AND LINE LENGTH

POETIC FEET

There are two parts to the term iambic pentameter. The first part refers to the type of poetic foot being used
predominantly in the line. A poetic foot is a basic repeated sequence of meter composed of two or more
accented or unaccented syllables. In the case of an iambic foot, the sequence is "unaccented, accented". There
are other types of poetic feet commonly found in English language poetry.
The primary feet are referred to using these terms (an example word from Fussell's examples is given next to
them):
Iambic: destroy (unaccented/accented)
Anapestic: intervene (unaccented/unaccented/accented)
Trochaic: topsy (accented/unaccented)
Dactylic: merrily (accented/unaccented/unaccented)

The substitutive feet (feet not used as primary, instead used to supplement and vary a primary foot) are referred
to using these terms:
Spondaic: hum drum (accented/accented)
Pyrrhic: the sea/ son of/ mists (the "son of" in the middle being unaccented/unaccented)

The second part of defining iambic pentameter has to do with line length.

LINE LENGTH

The poetic foot then shows the placement of accented and unaccented syllables. But the second part of the
term, pentameter, shows the number of feet per line. In the case of pentameter, there are basically five feet per
line.

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The types of line lengths are as follows:

One foot: Monometer

Two feet: Dimeter
Three feet: Trimeter
Four feet: Tetrameter
Five feet: Pentameter
Six feet: Hexameter
Seven feet: Heptameter
Eight feet: Octameter

Rarely is a line of a poem longer than eight feet seen in English language poetry (the poet C.K. Williams is an
exception). Line length and poetic feet are most easily seen in more formal verse. The example above from
D.G. Rossetti is pretty obviously iambic pentameter. And Rossetti uses an accentual-syllabic meter to flesh out
his poem with quite a bit of success. What most free verse poets find more useful than this strict form is
accentual meter, where the accents only are counted in the line (although when scanned, the syllables are still
marked off...it is just that their number is not of as much import.)

Take this free-verse example from James Merrill:

Free-verse James Merrill Poem

Things to note about this poem:
There is no any "set" meter in this poem, but the
meter clearly plays a key role in its effectiveness. In
particular it is worth noting the line that stands alone
(line 7). Notice that Merrill moves toward iambic
pentameter in line 6 and then sustains it through line
7. Here there is an inversion from the typical set-
meter/variation sequence that is found in a lot of
more formal poetry. Here the variation comes in the
move into set meter, rather than varying from a set
meter.
Just like establishing a visual pattern in a poem,
establishing a meter creates expectations in your
reader. Consequently, as with pattern, to vary that
meter is to create emphasis. Some will say that your
ear should be the first judge on these matters rather
than your eye (looking at the scanned poem). There
is probably some truth to this. Many poets will tell
you that you should always read a poem out loud
several times every time you get a draft done. If it
doesn't sound good every time, there might be
something that isn't working. This is where scanning
the poem might come in handy; dissecting the lines
and sculpting them until they sound better.

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POETIC TECHNIQUES
 Alliteration - Alliteration is a literary device that repeats the same letter or sound at the beginning of
words, these words are closely connected. Alliteration is used to create rhythm and mood.
 Allusion - Allusion is an expression designed to call something to mind without mentioning it explicitly;
an indirect or passing reference.
 Assonance - Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in a phrase or sentence
 Caligram - Caligram refers to a concrete ‘shape’ poem,that uses repetition of words or lines to form the
shape.
 Conceit - Conceit refers to an extended metaphor, which builds on a metaphorical comparison between
two things and explores its different facets throughout the poem or a section of the poem.
 Confessional Poetry - Confessional Poetry is the poetry of the “I”. According to the Academy of
American poets in their blog, Poets.org, “This style of writing emerged in the late 1950s and early 1960s
and is associated with poets such as Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton, and W. D. Snodgrass…
Private experiences with and feelings about death, trauma, depression and relationships were addressed
in this type of poetry, often in an autobiographical manner.”
 Connotation - Connotation is when a word prompts additional associations beyond its simple dictionary
definition.
 Couplet - Couplet refers is a successive pair of lines in a poem. The pair of lines that comprise a couplet
generally rhyme with each other and contain the same meter.
 Double Couplet - The repetition of sounds to create a rhyming pattern- AABB. Double couplets within
a quatrain may be used to create a strong positive rhythm. In poetry, a couplet is a pair of lines in a
verse. Typically, they rhyme and have the same meter, or rhythm. They make up a unit or complete
thought.
 Dramatic monologue - Dramatic monologue is a poem spoken by one person to another person; the
listener is implied. These poems deploy voice: the use of first person, “I” and second person, “you” in
this poem.
 Emotive Language - Emotive Language is a way of writing were the author deliberately choices his/her
words carefully to create and evoke emotion within the reader. It is about word choice which can evoke
different reactions, such as sadness or joy. Upon reading, the reader begins to feel or have their senses
awaken as the words impact on their emotional levels.
 Enjambment - (in verse) the continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line,
couplet, or stanza. Used to quicken pace for the reader/listening or create a sense of urgency.
 Epigraph - Epigraph is a short quotation or saying at the beginning of a text, intended to suggest its
theme.
 First Person Point of View - First Person Point of View is where the story is narrated by one character
at a time. This character may be speaking about him or herself or sharing events that he or she is
experiencing.
 Free verse - Free verse is a style of poetry that does not have a regular rhyme scheme or rhythm.
 Hyperbole - Hyperbole refers to exaggerated claims or statements not meant to be taken literally, often
utilised for dramatic or poetic effect.

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 Imagery - Imagery is the use of words to create images in the reader’s mind based on the five senses of
sight, smell, touch, hearing and taste. It can also relate to emotion (how one feels inside) and involve the
use of descriptive language to paint a picture using words.
 Imagism - Imagism is a style of poetry which uses precise language and painting clear pictures with
words.
 Intertextuality - Intertextuality is an interpretation of the way in which one text influences another text.
This can be a direct borrowing such as a quotation or plagiarism, or slightly more indirect such as
parody, pastiche, allusion, or translation.
 Metaphor - Metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to
which it is not literally applicable.
 Meter - Meter is a stressed and unstressed syllabic pattern in a verse, or within the lines of a poem.
Stressed syllables tend to be longer, and unstressed shorter. In simple language, meter is a poetic device
that serves as a linguistic sound pattern for the verses, as it gives poetry a rhythmical and melodious
sound.
 Mood - Mood refers to inducing of or suggesting of a particular feeling or state of mind
 Onomatopoeia - Onomatopoeia is where the formation of a word from a sound associated with what is
named (e.g. cuckoo, sizzle).
 Pantoum - Pantoum refers to a poem which features repeating, interwoven lines with a specific line
structure. See illustrated example: https://www.youngwriters.co.uk/types-pantoum
 Personification - Personification is a literary device often used in poetry where human characteristics
are applied to make inanimate things, objects or even animals enlivened.
 Punctuation - Punctuation is the marks, such as full stop, comma, and brackets, used in writing to
separate sentences and their elements and to clarify meaning.
 Quatrain - Quatrain is a literary device that contributes to the structure of a poem. It is a four-line
stanza employing a very tight rhyme scheme.
 Refrain - Refrain is a repeated line or lines used as a cohesive device in music and poetry. In this case,
single words have been carried over from one line to another to tie ideas together. Underline the
repeated words and note their effect of the reading.
 Repetition - Repetition is a literary device that repeats the same sounds, words or phrases a few times to
make an idea clearer. Repetition is used to emphasise a feeling or idea, create rhythm and familiarity,
and/or develop a sense of urgency.
 Rhyme - Rhyme occurs when words are placed in a way that emphasises the repetition of sounds
(particularly vowel sounds). End rhyme occurs when the last words in two or more lines of poetry
rhyme. Internal rhyme occurs when two or more words in a single line rhyme.
 Rhyme scheme -Rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhymes at the end of each line of a poem or song.
Conventionally, each rhyming sound is given a successive letter of the alphabet, so that a rhyme scheme
could be abab cdcd, or, if in rhyming couplets, aa bb cc…
 Semiotics - Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols - and these are culturally created and
interpreted. Signs can connote meanings beyond themselves and can also be read at a literal level.
 Sensory imagery - Sensory imagery is any description that involves one or more of the five senses --
touch, sight, taste, smell and hearing. Poetry that is rich in sensory detail helps the reader perfectly
envision or experience the scene the poet is describing.

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 Simile - Simile is a literary device that compares one thing with another using like or as. Similes are
used to create to help create an image and enable you to better visualise the image.
 Symbolism - Symbolism is used when the poet invites the reader to see something standing for
something else, e.g. an object or word to represent and abstract idea.
 Tone - Tone is the the general character or attitude of a place, piece of writing, situation, etc.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA) SHEET

ACTIVITY ANSWER SHEET

MY THOUGHTS. State/write your prior knowledge and understanding about POETIC TECHNIQUES..

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ANALYSIS ANSWER SHEET

Given the picture with a saying on it, analyze and explain them based on your understanding and perception.

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KEY POINTS
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 A literary genre is a category of literary composition.

 Genres may be determined by literary technique, tone, content, or even (as in the case of fiction) length.
 They generally move from more abstract, encompassing classes, which are then further sub-divided into more
concrete distinctions.
 PROSE refers to written or spoken language that is not in poetic form, whether in rhythm, rhyme, or structure.
 Drama is a performing art in which actors use dialogue and actions to tell a story or convey a message to a
viewing audience.
 In most cases, dramatic works are written down so that the performers can memorize and rehearse the lines before
performing them

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it is now time for an
assessment to see how far you have improved. On every module’s “End of Module Assessment” (this part),
write your answers on separate sheet/s provided. (See separate sheets for the questions.)

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SELF AND MODULE EVALUATION

This part requires you to rate the quality of the module to help you continuously improve the
development of this learning module. This also asks you to rate your learning experience for each of the
modules. Rate the module using the following:

1 - Strongly disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Agree
4 - Strongly agree
The learning module 1 2 3 4

Please check the appropriate column.

was engaging
allowed for self-checking (SAAs)
developed in gradual, manageable steps
provided independent, self-paced learning
contained relevant information I needed

SELF-EVALUATION
Rate the extent of your learning in this module using the scale below. Check the column corresponding
to your rating in the space provided. Do not hesitate to contact me if you need further assistance.

4 - I’m an expert. I understand and can teach a friend about it.

3 - I’m a Practioner. I understand and can cite examples on the topics given.
2 - I’m an apprentice. I understand if I get help or look at more examples.
1 - I’m a novice. I do not understand the topic.

My Learning: 1 2 3 4
I can now

Please check the appropriate column.

Review poetry genres, language, devices/techniques, and meaning in the light of
stylistic study;
Discuss a survey of poetry authors, their unique styles and purposes of writing
such poems

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END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT ANSWER SHEET

(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)
Name: _____________________________________________ Course& Year: _____________
Module Number and Title: ______________________________________________________
Contact number & email (if any):_______________________________
Date accomplished: ________________________

A. POETIC GENRES AND TECHNIQUES

Directions: Select 5 poetic genres and 5 poetic techniques then explain each one of them why you have chosen
these genres/techniques in which you will use them in your future writing/compositions.

B. REFLECTION. Write your reflection of what you have realized/learned in this whole lesson.

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