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Solution Manual (Review Questions) - Rao
Solution Manual (Review Questions) - Rao
Question 1.1:
1. T
2. F
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. F
Question 1.3:
1. resonance
2. energy
3. mass
4. periodic
5. simple
6. period
7. frequency
8. synchronous
9. phase difference
10. infinite
11. discrete
12. coordinates
13. free
14. forced
15. natural
16. f (−t ) = − f (t )
17. half
18. harmonic
19. 104.72 rad/s
20. 0.01 s
Question 1.4:
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. a
5. c
6. b
7. c
8. b
9. a
10. a
11. b
12. c
13. a
14. b
15. a
16. a
Question 1.5:
1. ⎯b
2. ⎯c
3. ⎯e
4. ⎯d
5. ⎯a
Question 1.6:
1. ⎯c
2. ⎯e
3. ⎯a
4. ⎯d
5. ⎯b
Question 1.7:
1. ⎯b
2. ⎯c
3. ⎯e
4. ⎯d
5. ⎯f
6. ⎯h
7. ⎯g
8. ⎯a
Question 2.1:
Specific damping capacity: It is the ratio of energy dissipated per cycle and the
total strain energy.
21. (i) Damping force is independent of the displacement and velocity.
(ii) Damping force depends only on the normal force (weight of the mass)
between the sliding surfaces.
(iii) Governing equation is nonlinear.
22. Complex stiffness = k + ih = k (1 + iβ )
h
where k = stiffness, i = − 1 , h = hysteresis damping constant, and β = = a
k
measure of damping.
23. Hysteresis damping constant (h) is the proportionality constant that relates the
damping coefficient (c) and the frequency ( ω ) as
h
c= .
ω
24. Hammer, baseball bat, pendulum used in Izod impact testing of materials.
25. One.
26. Time constant is the value of time which makes the exponent in the solution
c
− t
x(t ) = x 0 e equal to -1.
m
27. A graph that shows how changes in one of the parameters of the system will
change the roots of the characteristic equation of the system is known as the root
locus plot.
28. Negative damping corresponds to an unstable system.
29. A system whose characteristics do not change with time is called a time invariant
system.
Question 2.2:
1. T
2. T
3. T
4. F
5. F
6. F
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. F
11. T
12. T
13. F
14. T
15. T
16. T
17. T
18. T
19. T
20. T
21. T
22. F
Question 2.3:
1. kinetic, potential
2. harmonic
3. torsional
4. percussion
5. continues
6. μN
7. loss
8. rigid
9. critical
10. amplitude
11. natural
12. logarithmic
13. ω d = 1 − ς 2 ω n
14. 63.2%
15. faster
16. damped
Question 2.4:
1. b
2. c
3. c
4. b
5. a
6. a
7. b
8. b
9. a
10. c
11. b
12. b
13. a
14. b
15. b
16. c
17. b
18. a
19. a
Question 2.5:
1 ⎯g
2 ⎯d
3 ⎯f
4 ⎯a
5 ⎯b
6 ⎯e
7 ⎯c
Question 2.6:
1 ⎯c
2 ⎯a
3 ⎯d
4 ⎯e
5 ⎯b
Question 3.1:
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ωn ⎠
X ω
4. If < 1 , then > 1 or ω > ω n .
δ st ωn
5. In the neighborhood of resonance, the amplitude (X) is given by
δ
X = st
2ς
and the phase angle by
π
φ = tan −1 (∞) = .
2
6. Phase corresponding to peak amplitude is given by
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎛ 2ς r ⎞ −1 ⎜ 2ς 1 − ς −1 ⎜ 2 1 − ς
2
φ = tan −1 ⎜ = − ς 2
= ⎟ = ⎟
2 ⎟
with r 1 tan tan
⎝1− r ⎠ ⎜ 1 − (1 − ς 2 ) ⎟ ⎜ ς ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For ς < 1 (underdamped system),
φ = tan −1 ( w) where w < 2 . Hence φ < 90 0 .
7. Because it avoids the amplitude from reaching a value of infinity.
8. Forced equation of motion:
.. .
m x + c x + k x = F (t ) = F0 cos ω t
Vector representation:
mω 2 X
cωX
ωt
F0
φ
kX
Question 3.2:
1. T
2. T
3. T
4. F
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. F
9. F
10. T
11. T
12. T
13. T
14. T
15. T
16. T
Question 3.3:
1. harmonic
2. harmonic
3. transient
4. resonance
5. magnification
6. beating
7. transmissibility
8. impedance
9. bandwidth
10. quality
11. Coulomb
12. large
13. complex
14. turbulent
15. motion
16. self-excited
17. diverges
18. Laplace
19. transfer function
20. F(s)
21. algebraic
Question 3.4:
1. b
2. a
3. a
4. a
5. a
6. b
7. c
8. b
9. a
10. b
11. a
Question 3.5:
1⎯d
2⎯a
3⎯f
4⎯e
5⎯c
6⎯b
Question 3.6:
1⎯c
2⎯e
3⎯a
4⎯d
5⎯b
Question 4.1:
⋅ F
taken as x(t = 0) = 0 , x(t = 0) = ~
m
5. Equation of motion of a system subjected to base excitation y (t ) is given by
.. . ..
m z + c z + kz = −m y where z = x − y .
6. Response spectrum is a graph showing the variation of the maximum response,
such as maximum displacement , with the natural frequency of a single degree of
freedom system to a specified forcing function.
7. It can treat discontinuous functions without any particular difficulty.
It automatically takes into account the initial conditions.
8. The response spectrum associated with the fictitious velocity associated with the
apparent harmonic motion is called pseudo spectrum.
∞
9. x( s ) = L x(t ) = ∫ e − st x(t ) dt
0
1. T
2. T
3. T
4. F
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. F
11. T
12. T
13. T
Question 4.3:
1. superposing
2. Fourier
3. short
4. impulse
5. convolution
6. response
7. convolution
8. steady
9. algebraic
10. reciprocal
11. momentum
12. impulse
13. undamped
14. pseudo
15. Fourier
16. initial
17. impulse
18. steady state
19. X(s)
20. F(s)
21. Second
22. 1
Question 4.4:
1. b
2. b
3. c
4. c
5. b
6. b
7. a
8. b
9. b
10. a
11. a
12. c
13. c
14. a
15. b
16. a
17. b
18. a
Question 4.5:
1⎯c
2⎯e
3⎯a
4⎯f
5—b
6⎯d
Question 4.6:
a—2
b—5
c—1
d—3
e—4
Question 5.1:
2. If the mass matrix is not diagonal, the system is said to have mass coupling.
If the damping matrix is not diagonal, the system is said to have velocity coupling.
If the stiffness matrix is not diagonal, the system is said to have elastic coupling.
3. Yes.
4. (a) Six: for a rigid body
(b) Infinity: for an elastic body.
5. The coordinates that lead to equations of motion that are both statically and
dynamically uncoupled, are known as principal coordinates. They are useful since
the resulting equations of motion can be solved independently of one another.
6. Due to symmetry of influence coefficients; that is, the force along xi to cause a
unit displacement along x j is same as the force along x j to cause a unit
displacement along xi .
7. Node is a point in the system which does not move during vibration in a particular
mode.
8. Static coupling: If a static force is applied along xi , it causes displacement along
x j as well.
Dynamic coupling: If a dynamic force is applied along xi , it causes displacement
along x j as well.
Coupling of the equations of motion can be eliminated by using a special system
of coordinates known as principal coordinates.
9. Impedance matrix [ Z (iω )] is defined by [ Z (iω )] X = F 0
where,
Z rs (iω ) = −ω 2 mrs + iω c rs + k rs
10. By giving initial conditions that simulate the displacement pattern of the
particular mode shape.
11. Degenerate system is one for which at least one of the natural frequencies is zero
( that is, the stiffness matrix is singular ) .
Examples:
Two railway cars connected by a spring.
Two rotors connected by an elastic shaft.
12. At the most, six, corresponding to three translational and three rigid body
rotational motions.
13. The frequency transfer function can be obtained by substituting s = i ω in the
general transfer function.
14. One.
Question 5.2:
1. T
2. F
3. T
4. F
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. T
11. F
12. F
13. F
14. F
15. T
16. T
17. T
18. T
19. T
20. T
Question 5.3:
1. natural/principal/normal
2. independent
3. resonance
4. initial
5. mass moments of inertia, torsional springs
6. coupling
7. rigid
8. static
9. dynamic
10. velocity
11. uncoupled
12. stability
13. physically
14. free
15. forced
16. characteristic
17. elastic
Question 5.4:
1. a
2. b
3. c
4. a
5. c
6. a
7. a
8. b
Question 5.5:
1⎯c
2⎯a
3⎯d
4⎯b
Question 5.6:
1⎯b
2⎯d
3⎯e
4⎯c
5⎯a
Question 6.1:
1. The flexibility influence coefficient, aij , is defined as the deflection at point i due
to a unit load at point j.
The stiffness influence coefficient, k ij , is defined as the force at point i due to a
unit displacement at point j when all the points other than the point j are fixed.
If [a] and [k ] denote the flexibility and stiffness matrices, respectively, then
[k ] = [a] −1 and [a ] = [k ] −1 .
2. Equations of motion:
.. .
[ m] x + [c ] x + [ k ] x = F
or
.. .
⎢ M ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ mn1 mn 2 L mnn ⎦
5. The mass matrix [m] is always positive definite because the kinetic energy,
.T . .
1
T = x [m] x , cannot be negative or zero for nonzero velocity vector x .
2
6. No. The stiffness matrix [k ] is positive definite only if the system is constrained
and stable. For a semi-definite system, the matrix [k ] will be singular and is said
to be just positive (not positive definite).
7. The generalized coordinates are a set of n independent coordinates that describe
the motion of an n degree of freedom system uniquely. They may be lengths,
angles or other set of numbers. On the other hand, if Cartesian coordinates are
used to describe an n degree of freedom system, we may require more than n
coordinates along with certain constraints to describe the system uniquely.
8. Lagrange’s equations:
⎛ ⎞
d ⎜ ∂T ⎟ ∂T ∂V
⎜ ⎟− + = Q (j n ) ; j = 1,2, L, n
dt ⎜ ∂ q. ⎟ ∂q j ∂q j
⎝ j ⎠
. ∂q j
where q j = = generalized velocity, Q (j n ) = nonconservative generalized
∂t
coordinate q j , T = kinetic energy , V = strain energy, and t = time.
9. Matrix eigenvalue problem:
ω 2 [ m] X = [ k ] X
where ω 2 is the eigenvalue and X is the eigenvector.
10. Mode shape is same as the eigenvector X in the eigenvalue problem,
ω 2 [ m] X = [ k ] X (E.1)
(i )
The eigenvector X corresponding to the eigenvalue ω i2 can be computed by
substituting ω i2 in Eq. (E.1) and solving the resulting linear algebraic equations to
(i )
find X :
(i )
[ ω [ m] − [ k ] ] X = 0
i
2
1. T
2. F
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. F
10. T
11. F
12. T
13. T
14. F
15. T
16. T
17. T
Question 6.3:
1. force
2. i, j
3. stiffness
4. orthogonal
5. influence
6. generalized
7. 0
8. singular
9. six
10. modal
11. basis
12. expansion
13. modal
14. uncoupled
15. basis
16. energy
17. characteristic
18. Maxwell’s
19. symmetric
20. stable
21. synchronous
22. stiffness, mass
Question 6.4:
1. c
2. a
3. c
4. a
5. b
6. b
7. b
8. a
9. c
10. b
11. a
12. b
13. a
Question 6.5:
1⎯c
2⎯f
3⎯d
4⎯h
5⎯b
6⎯g
7⎯a
8⎯e
Question 7.1:
where
⎛ 2 d ij ⎞
tan 2θ = ⎜ ⎟ ( E.2 )
⎜d −d ⎟
⎝ ii jj ⎠
and [ D] is the matrix whose eigenvalues and eigenvectors are to be found.
By carrying out the computations as
[ D ] = [ R1 ]T [ D ][ R1 ] ( E.3 )
the off-diagonal components d ij and d ji of [D] will be reduced to zero. By
carrying out the computations according to Eq. ( E.3 ) using different rotation
matrices [ R2 ], [ R3 ],L , the final matrix [D] will be reduced to a diagonal matrix.
The diagonal elements will then represent the eigenvalues and the columns of the
product of rotation matrices [ R1 ][ R2 ]L denote the eigenvectors of the matrix [ D] .
12. Standard eigenvalue problem:
[ [D] − λ [I ] ] X = 0
where λ is the eigenvalue and X is the eigenvector.
13. The general eigenvalue problem
[k ] X = ω 2 [k ] X ( E.1 )
can be converted to a standard eigenvalue problem as
[ D] X = λ X ( E.2 )
⎛ 1 ⎞
where λ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ and [ D] = [k ] −1 [m].
⎝ω ⎠
However, [ D] will be nonsymmetric in Eq. ( E.2 ) although [k ] and [m] are
symmetric. Choleski decomposition method can be used to express [k ] as
[k ] = [U ]T [U ] ( E.3 )
where [U ] is an upper triangular matrix, and Eq. ( E.1 ) can be converted to a
standard eigenvalue problem as
[ D] Y = λ Y ( E.4 )
T −1 −1
where [ D] = ( [U ] ) [ m ] [ U ] ( E.5 )
and Y = [U ] X or X = [U ] −1 Y .
The matrix [D] in Eq. ( E.4 ) will be symmetric.
14. If [u ij ] = [U ] is an upper triangular matrix, its inverse, [a ij ] = [U ] −1 , can be
determined as follows:
[U ] [U ] −1 = [ I ]
Equating the corresponding elements on both sides of Eq. ( E.1 ), we can
determine the elements of [U ] −1 .
Question 7.2:
1. F
2. T
3. F
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. F
10. T
11. T
Question 7.3:
1. upper triangular
2. Choleski
3. zero
4. expansion
5. largest
6. upper, lower
7. eigenvector
8. static
9. trial and error
10. Holzer’s
11. deflation
Question 7.4:
1. a
2. b
3. b
4. a
5. c
6. a
Question 7.5:
1⎯d
2⎯e
3⎯a
4⎯b
5⎯c
Question 8.1:
∂w
P = −k w
∂x ~
8. Frequency equations:
For discrete systems: Polynomial equation.
For continuous systems: Transcendental equation.
9. For tensile force, the natural frequencies of the beam increase.
10. As the axial force (compressive) approaches the Euler buckling load, Pcri , the
natural frequency of the beam approaches zero.
11. The beam becomes less stiff when the effects of shear deformation and rotary
inertia are considered.
12. Drumhead, cover of a cylindrical soda can.
13. The maximum potential (strain) energy is equal to the maximum kinetic energy.
14. The Rayleigh’s quotient, which gives ω12 , attains minimum at the exact
fundamental mode. Hence any other mode, used as an approximation, yields a
larger value of ω12 than the exact value.
15. In Rayleigh’s method, a one-term solution is assumed for the mode shape. In the
Rayleigh-Ritz method, a multi-term solution is assumed for the mode shape.
⎧ l ⎛ d 2W ( x) ⎞ 2 ⎫
⎪ ∫ EI ⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟ dx ⎪
⎪ dx ⎪
Rayleigh’s quotient for a beam, R(ω ) = ω 2 = ⎨ 0 l ⎝ ⎠
⎬
⎪ ρA(W ( x) )2 dx ⎪
⎪ ∫0 ⎪
⎩ ⎭
Question 8.2:
1. T
2. T
3. F
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. F
Question 8.3:
1. wave
2. characteristic
3. product
4. initial
5. positive
6. flexural, torsional
7. Euler- Bernoulli
8. fourth
9. increases
10. thick
11. membrane
12. plate
13. fundamental/first
14. bending moment
15. ordinary
16. stiffness
17. kinetic
18. strain
Question 8.4:
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. a
5. c
6. b
7. a
Question 8.5:
1⎯d
2⎯c
3⎯b
4⎯a
Question 8.6:
1⎯b
2⎯d
3⎯a
4⎯c
Question 8.7:
1⎯c
2⎯a
3⎯b
Question 9.1:
Question 9.2:
1. T
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. F
8. T
9. T
10. F
11. F
12. T
13. F
14. T
Question 9.3:
1. resonance
2. less
3. vibration
4. critical
5. piston
6. secondary
7. high
8. small
9. source
10. passive
11. actuator
12. absorber
13. two
14. static
15. single
16. unbalance
17. vibration
18. critical
19. instability
Question 9.4:
1. a
2. b
3. c
4. a
5. a
6. c
7. a
8. b
9. c
10. a
11. b
Question 9.5:
1⎯d
2⎯a
3⎯b
4⎯c
Question 10.1:
Question 10.2:
1. T
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. F
8. T
9. F
10. T
11. T
12. T
13. T
14. T
15. T
Question 10.3:
1. transducer
2. charge
3. spring-mass-damper
4. accelerometer
5. accelerometers
6. velometer
7. resonance
8. cantilever
9. contact
10. frequency
11. health
12. octave
13. deformation
14. unconstrained/free-free
15. load
16. accelerometers
17. spectrum
18. vibration
19. bathtub
20. changes
21. power spectrum
Question 10.4:
1. b
2. a
3. a
4. a
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. a
10. c
11. b
Question 10.5:
1⎯d
2⎯c
3⎯b
4⎯e
5⎯a
Question 11.1:
1. The governing differential equation and the associated boundary conditions are
replaced by finite difference equations. For this, each derivative is replaced by its
finite difference equivalence. This leads to a system of linear algebraic equations
instead of a differential equation.
2. The Taylor’s series expansions for xi +1 and xi −1 can be expressed about the grid
point i as
h2 h3
xi +1 = xi + hx& i + &x&i + &x&&i + L (E.1)
2 6
2
h h3
xi −1 = xi − hx& i + &x&i − &x&&i + L (E.2)
2 6
where xi = x(t = t i ) and h = t i +1 − t i = Δt. By taking two terms only and
substracting Eq.(E.2) from (E.1) , we get the central difference formula for the
first derivative as
dx 1
x& i = = ( xi +1 − xi −1 ) (E.3)
dt t i 2h
By taking three terms only and adding Eqs.(E.1) and (E.2), we get the central
difference formula for the second derivative as
d 2x 1
&x&i = 2 = 2 ( xi +1 − 2 xi + xi −1 ) (E.4)
dt t i h
3. A conditionally stable method is a numerical method that requires the use of the
time step ( Δt ) smaller than a critical time step ( Δt cri ). If Δt is chosen to be larger
than Δt cri , the method becomes unstable.
4. The Runge-Kutta method requires the function value at a single previous point to
find the function value at the current point. The central-difference method
requires function values at two previous points to find the function value at the
current point.
5. If a derivative is to be approximated at a boundary point using the finite
difference method, it may require the use of the function value at a grid point
outside the material (which is called a fictitious grid point). For example, if
dφ
= 0 at a boundary (grid point i), the use of central difference approximation
dx
gives
dφ Φ − Φ −1
= 2 =0
dx i 2h
where Φ −1 = Φ ( x −1 = x1 − Δx = x1 − h) with –1 denoting a fictitious grid point.
6. Tridiagonal matrix is a square matrix that has non-zero elements only along the
main diagonal and each diagonal that lies on either side of the main diagonal.
7. The acceleration of the system is assumed to vary linearly between two instants of
time, t i and t i +θ .
8. Linear acceleration method is one in which the acceleration is assumed to vary
linearly between two time stations t i and t i +1 so that
⎛ t − ti ⎞
&x&(t ) = &x&i + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟( &x&i +1 − &x&i ) ( E.1 )
⎝ t i +1 − t i ⎠
where &x&i = &x& ( t i ) and t i ≤ t ≤ t i +1 . By integrating Eq. ( E.1 ) once and twice, we
can find expressions for the velocity x& and displacement x , respectively.
9. If a numerical integration method requires the use of the equilibrium equation at
time t i +1 to find the solution xi +1 , it is called an implicit integration method. If a
numerical integration method requires the values of the response at previous time
steps t i and t i −1 , including the use of the equilibrium equation at time t i , to find
the value of the response at t i +1 , the method is known as an explicit integration
method.
10. No, not directly.
Question 11.2:
1. F
2. T
3. T
4. F
5. T
6. T
7. F
8. T
Question 11.3:
1. closed
2. derivatives
3. three
4. mesh/grid
5. Taylor’s
6. conditionally
7. unstable
8. recurrence
Question 11.4:
1. c
2. a
3. a
4. c
5. b
6. a
7. c
8. a
9. b
10. a
Question 11.5:
1⎯e
2⎯a
3⎯b
4⎯c
5⎯f
6⎯d
Question 12.1:
1. The basic idea behind the finite element method is to replace the actual structure
by several pieces called finite elements. The finite elements are assumed to be
interconnected at certain points known as nodes. A simple solution is assumed
within each element and equilibrium of forces at the nodes and compatibility of
displacements between the elements are enforced. This leads to a system of
equations valid for the overall structure (assembly of elements) whose solution
yields an approximate solution of the problem.
2. The shape function, N i ( x, y ) , is a polynomial in x and y defined such that its
value is 1 at node i (with coordinates xi and y i ) and 0 at all other nodes j (with
coordinates x j and y j ) of the finite element.
3. A transformation matrix, [λ ] , relates the nodal displacements of an element
between local and global coordinate systems. It permits conversion of element
matrices (such as stiffness matrices) derived in a local coordinate system to those
valid in a global coordinate system so that the element matrices can be assembled
to derive a system or overall matrix.
4. Transformation of nodal displacements of one coordinate system to those of
another coordinate system.
5. The rows and columns of the system matrices and system load vectors
corresponding to zero degree of freedom are deleted.
6. By using symmetry conditions. The system must remain symmetric even after
deformation. Hence suitable displacement conditions are to be incorporated along
axes of symmetry.
7. Because the variation of displacement within an element is expressed as a
polynomial in terms of its nodal displacement values (unknowns).
8. A consistent mass matrix is a mass matrix derived using the same displacement
model that is used for deriving the element stiffness matrix.
9. A lumped mass matrix is a mass matrix derived by distributing the mass of the
element to its various nodes.
10. In the finite element method, an approximate solution is assumed within each
finite element. In the Rayleigh-Ritz method, an approximate solution is assumed
for the whole system. In the case of structural problems, the potential energy of
the complete system is minimized in both the finite element and Rayleigh-Ritz
methods to derive the system equilibrium equations.
11. The distributed load is used to compute the virtual work of the element. By
equating this virtual work with the virtual work associated with the equivalent
joint forces and the associated virtual joint displacements, the expressions for the
equivalent joint forces are derived.
Question 12.2:
1. T
2. T
3. F
4. T
5. F
6. T
7. F
8. T
9. T
10. T
Question 12.3:
1. finite elements
2. nodes/joints
3. approximate
4. shape
5. two
6. three
7. displacement
8. consistent
9. lumped
10. dynamic
11. transformation
Question 12.4:
1. a
2. a
3. b
4. b
5. a
6. b
7. c
8. c
Question 12.5:
1⎯d
2⎯c
3⎯a
4⎯b
Question 13.1:
Question 13.2:
1. T
2. T
3. F
4. T
5. F
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. T
11. T
12. T
13. T
14. T
15. T
Question 13.3:
1. nonlinear
2. superposition
3. Mathew
4. Mathew
5. phase
6. trajectory
7. phase
8. jump
9. two
10. algebraic
11. self-excited
12. autonomous
13. isoclines
14. limit
Question 13.4:
1. a
2. b
3. b
4. a
5. a
6. a
7. c
8. b
9. b
10. a
11. b
Question 13.5:
1⎯c
2⎯e
3⎯a
4⎯b
5⎯d
Question 13.6:
1⎯b
2⎯d
3⎯a
4⎯c
Question 14.1:
where x1 and x 2 denote the values of the random process x(t ) at t1 and t 2 ,
respectively, and p ( x1 , x 2 ) is the joint density function of x1 and x 2 .
10. A stationary random process is one for which the probability distributions remain
invariant under a shift of the time scale. On the other hand, a nonstationary
random process is one for which the probability distributions are functions of
time.
11. The autocorrelation function of a stationary random process, R(τ ) , is bounded as
follows:
− σ 2 + μ 2 ≤ R(τ ) ≤ σ 2 + μ 2
where μ and σ are the mean and standard deviation of the process.
12. Ergodic process is a stationary random process for which we can obtain all the
probability information from a single sample function and assume that it is
applicable to the entire ensemble.
13. If x(t ) is an ergodic random process, and x i (t ) denotes a typical sample function
of duration T, the averages of x(t ) can be computed by averages with respect to
time along x i (t ) . Such averages are called temporal averages. For example, the
temporal averages of x(t ) , denoted as x(t ) , is defined as
T /2
1
x(t ) = E [x ] = lim
T →∞ T ∫
x ( i ) (t )dt
−T / 2
14. A Gaussian random process (x(t ) ) is one for which the probability density
function is given by
2
1 ⎛⎜ x − x ⎞⎟
1 2 ⎜⎝ σ x ⎟⎠
p ( x) = e
2π σ x
where x and σ x denote the mean and standard deviation of x.
The Gaussian random process is used frequently in vibration analysis because of
the following reasons:
( i ) It is simple to use.
( ii ) Most physical random processes can be very well modeled as Gaussian
processes.
15. The Parseval’s formula for a periodic function, x(t ) , states that the mean square
value of x(t ) is equal to the sum of the squares of the absolute values of the
Fourier coefficients.
Thus if
∞
x(t ) = ∑c e
n = −∞
n
inω 0t
∑c
2
x (t ) =
2
n
n = −∞
16. Power spectral density function, S (ω ) :
For a stationary random process, S (ω ) is defined as the Fourier transform of
R(τ )
where R(τ ) is the autocorrelation function.
2π
White noise: A random process whose power spectral density is constant, with
respect to frequency, is called white noise.
Band-limited white noise: It is random process for which the power spectral
density is constant over a frequency band.
Wide-band process: It is a stationary random process whose spectral density
function S (ω ) has significant values over a range or band of frequencies which is
approximately the same order of magnitude as the center frequency of the band.
Narrow-band process: It is a stationary random process whose spectral density
function S (ω ) has significant values only in a range or band of frequencies
whose width is small compared to the magnitude of the center frequency of the
process.
∞
17. E[ x 2 ] = R(τ = 0) = ∫ S (ω ) dω
−∞
If the mean is zero, the variance of the stationary random process, x(t ) , is given
by
∞
σ x2 = R(0) = ∫ S (ω ) dω
−∞
18. The response of a single degree of freedom system to a unit impulse is called the
impulse response function.
19. Response of a single degree of freedom system, x(t ) , using Duhamel integral:
t t
1
x(t ) = ∫ F (τ ) g (t − τ ) dτ = ∫ F (τ ) e
−ςω n ( t −τ )
sin ω d (t − τ ) dτ
0
mω d 0
y (t ) = H (ω ) e i ω t
~
where H (ω ) is called the complex frequency response function. It is given by
1
H (ω ) =
{(1 − r 2 ) 2 + (2ς r ) 2 }2
1
ω
where r = and ς is the viscous damping ratio.
ωn
21. The power spectral densities of the input, S x (ω ) , and the output, S y (ω ) , are
related by the complex frequency response function, H (ω ) , as
2
S y (ω ) = H (ω ) S (ω )
22. Wiener-Khintchine relations:
∞
1
S (ω ) = ∫
2π −∞
R (τ ) e −i ω τ dτ
∞
∫ S (ω ) e
iωτ
R (τ ) = dω
−∞
Question 14.2:
1. T
2. F
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. T
11. F
Question 14.3:
1. deterministic
2. random
3. random
4. parameter
5. variance
6. joint
7. single
8. bivariate
9. multivariate
10. t
11. engodic
12. bell
13. zero,one
14. infinite
15. power
16. wide-band
17. narrow-band
18. Fourier
19. band-limited
Question 14.4:
1. a
2. c
3. a
4. c
5. a
6. b
7. a
8. b
9. b
10. b
11. c
12. c
Question 14.5:
1⎯c
2⎯f
3⎯a
4⎯e
5⎯b
6⎯d