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Fasting-Refeeding Impacts Immune Cell Dynamicsand Mucosal Immune Responses
Fasting-Refeeding Impacts Immune Cell Dynamicsand Mucosal Immune Responses
Correspondence
hase-kj@pha.keio.ac.jp
In Brief
Temporary fasting drastically reduces the
levels of B cells in Peyer’s patches, with
germinal center B cells undergoing
apoptosis and naive cells migrating to the
bone marrow and only egressing upon
refeeding.
Highlights
d Fasting drastically reduces lymphocyte levels in Payer’s
patches
*Correspondence: hase-kj@pha.keio.ac.jp
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2019.07.047
1072 Cell 178, 1072–1087, August 22, 2019 ª 2019 Elsevier Inc.
A
E
D
(C and D) PPs were stained with TUNEL (C) or for cleaved caspase-3, counterstained with hematoxylin (D). PPs were obtained from mice fed ad libitum (left),
fasted for 36 h (middle), or refed with CE2 for 48 h (right). Scale bar, 200 mm (upper panel), 50 mm (lower panel). In quantification of TUNEL assay, PPs were
obtained from the ad libitum (n = 7), fasting (n = 6), or refeeding group (n = 8).
(E) Sections of PPs were observed by TEM. Scale bar, 10 mm (upper left and lower), 2.0 mm (upper right).
Data represent the means ± SEM. ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test (C). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.
2.0
1.5 *
B cells (x107)
3
T cells (x106)
** **
1.5 ** ** *
** ** **
1.0 ** 2
1.0
0.5 1
0.5
0.0 0.0 0
0 24 48 72 96 0 24 48 72 96 0 24 48 72 96 (h)
** *
IgM+ IgD+
1.0
** 1.5 1.5
** **
** **
1.0 ** 1.0 **
0.5 ** **
0.5 0.5
C 5 ** 2.0 E
B220+ cells (x107)
Total cells (x107)
4
1.5 Fasting Refeeding
3
1.0 **
Total cell
2 B220+ cell
0.5 naive B cell 4
1
0.0
immature B cell
0
0 24 48 72 0 24 48 72 (h) CD4+ T cell
D CD8+ T cell
10
6 Granulocyte 3
Immature B cells (x106)
**
Naive B cells (x106)
**
8 Macrophage
GMP
IgM- IgD-
IgM+ IgD+
4 6 ** **
**
MEP
4
CMP
2
2 CLP 2
0 0
MPP(CD34Flt3)
0 24 48 72 0 24 48 72 ST-HSC(CD34Flt3)
LT-HSC(CD34Flt3)
1.5
MPP2(SLAM) 1
Ki67+ B cells (x107)
MPP3(SLAM)
1.0
MPP4(SLAM)
**
ST-HSC(SLAM)
0.5
** LT-HSC(SLAM)
0
0.0
0 24 48 72 (h)
F G
Naive B cells /PP # (x106)
1.6
ZT0 ZT8 ZT16
0.69 0.045 0.71 0.072 1.56 0.061 1.4
CD3ε
1.2
PP
1.0
n.s.
56.5 42.7 0.8
55.2 44.0 57.4 41.0 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
(ZT)
B220
B220+CD3ε- gated 2.0
Naive B cells (x106)
** **
0.94 6.06 1.18 8.88 1.81 14.0
1.5
IgD
BM
1.0
0.5
(F) Representative flow cytometry dot-plots of B220/CD3ε gated (upper panels) and IgM/IgD gated on B220+CD3ε B cells (lower panels) in the BM of mice fed ad
libitum.
(G) The circadian fluctuation in the number of naive B cells in PPs (upper) and the BM (lower). The mean number of PP cells was normalized by the number of PPs
(each time point, n = 8).
Data represent the means ± SEM. ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test for comparison with mice fed ad libitum (A–D) or ZT0 (G). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. CMP,
common myeloid progenitor; GMP, granulocyte/macrophage progenitor; MEP, megakaryocyte/erythrocyte progenitor; MPP, multipotent progenitor; ST/LT-
HSC, short term/long term-hematopoietic stem cell.
See also Figures S1, S2, S3, and S4 and Table S1.
Figure 3. Trafficking of Naive B Cells between PPs and the BM during Fasting
(A) The experimental protocols for adoptive cell transfer of CTV-labeled PP cells.
(B and C) Numbers of CTV+ total (B, n = 12–13) and indicated cell subsets (C, n = 7–8) in the ad libitum-fed and fasting groups.
(D) The experimental protocols for lymphocyte trafficking from PPs in KikGR mice.
(E) Numbers of KikGR-Red+ indicated cell subsets in the ad libitum-fed (n = 10) and fasting groups (n = 12).
Data represent the means ± SEM. Student’s t test. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; n.s., not statistically significant.
imply that differential CXCL13 expression in PPs and BM at least from PPs to the BM (Figure S5), indicating that the S1P-S1P1
partly account for the localization of naive B cells during fasting axis is likely not involved in regulating naive B cell dynamics in
and refeeding. response to nutritional status.
The sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P)-S1P receptor type 1
(S1P1) axis promotes egress of lymphocytes from peripheral mTOR Signaling Partially Contributes to Lymphocyte
lymphoid tissue into circulatory fluids under physiological condi- Dynamics
tions (Matloubian et al., 2004). However, treatment with FTY720 To gain mechanistic insight into lymphocyte dynamics, we as-
failed to prevent the fasting-dependent naive B cell trafficking sessed the activation status of Akt-mTOR signaling, a sensor
D E
(D and E) Numbers of indicated cell subsets (D) and Cxcl12 and Cxcl13 mRNA expression (E) in PP and the BM of mice treated with vehicle (PBS) or rapamycin
(each group, n = 8).
Data represent the means ± SEM. ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test (A) or Tukey’s test (C). Mann-Whitney U test (B and E). Student’s t test (D). *p < 0.05;
**p < 0.01; n.s., not statistically significant.
See also Figures S5 and S6.
E F G
H I J
C D
underscoring the essential role of nutrient signals in the mainte- Under physiological conditions, a variety of food antigens
nance of gut immune homeostasis by securing PP cellularity. accompanied by opportunistic pathogens are continuously
delivered to the intestinal mucosa. The intestinal mucosa in adult
DISCUSSION humans possesses a total surface area of 200 m2. PPs conduct
immunosurveillance on the mucosal surface to eliminate
Our findings demonstrated the dynamic behavior of lympho- potentially hostile agents. A preconceived notion is that the gut
cytes during fasting and refeeding. Fasting decreased the mucosal immune system constitutively induces immune re-
number of PP lymphocytes while refeeding selectively restored sponses as evidenced by active GC reactions (Cesta, 2006).
naive—but not GC and IgA class-switched—B cells. GC B cells However, our findings revealed that immunological activity in
underwent massive apoptosis due to downregulation of PPs is nearly shut down during fasting where approximately
mTORC1 signaling during fasting, whereas PP-derived naive half of lymphocytes egress PPs or undergo apoptotic cell death.
B cells migrated into the BM in a CXCL13-dependent B cells comprise a major population of PPs, where the B cell/T
manner—at least in part. CXCL13 expression by peripheral cell ratio is 5-fold higher than in peripheral lymph nodes (Abbas
stromal cells was mostly dependent on glycolysis. Moreover, et al., 2014). We found that B cell populations were highly
repeated fasting attenuated antigen-specific IgA response susceptible to food deprivation; however, the physiological
and oral tolerance, which eventually exacerbated antigen- significance of this phenomenon remains to be elucidated. Given
induced diarrhea. that both luminal antigens and nutrient supply are greatly
C D
F
250 μl PBS
100 μl CFA
G H
Further information and requests for reagents may be directed to, and will be fulfilled by the Lead Contact, Koji Hase (hase-kj@pha.
keio.ac.jp)
Mice
Unless otherwise stated, four to five-week-old male BALB/c mice were purchased from CLEA Japan Inc. (Tokyo, Japan) and were
acclimated for one week under specific pathogen-free (SPF) conditions at the animal facilities of the National Center for Global Health
and Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, Keio University (Tokyo, Japan). Knock-in mice carrying Kikume-Green Red (KikGR) cDNA under
the CAG promoter were obtained from RIKEN RBC (Tokyo, Japan) and were maintained under SPF conditions at the animal facilities
of Faculty of Pharmacy, Keio University (Tokyo, Japan). Germ-free (GF) BALB/cA mice (CLEA Japan Inc.) were maintained in GF vinyl
isolators at an animal facility in the Faculty of Medicine, Keio University. SPF and GF mice were fed with CE-2 (CLEA Japan) and were
kept under a 12:12 h light-dark cycle. During the fasting period, mice were kept in plastic cages without bedding chips or bait, with a
stainless mesh floor to avoid coprophagia, and with ad libitum drinking water. Irrespective of the fasting and refeeding period length,
refeeding or tissue collection was set to begin at 8:00 a.m. for all experiments. To examine the effect of rapamycin, 2DG and FTY720
in vivo, rapamycin (5 mg/kg; LC laboratories, Woburn, MA) was administrated intraperitoneally daily for seven consecutive days
(Zeng et al., 2016), 2DG (250 mg/kg; Abcam, Cambridge, UK) was also administrated i.p. three times every 12 h (Varanasi et al.,
2017), while FTY720 (1 mg/kg; Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, MI) was orally administrated three times every 12 h during
fasting. All animal experiments were performed according to the Institutional Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals in
Research with approval by the local ethics committees at the National Center for Global Health and Medicine, and Keio University.
METHOD DETAILS
Flow cytometry
For surface and intracellular staining, non-specific binding was blocked with Fc receptor antibody (clone: 2.4G2; Tonbo Biosciences,
San Diego, CA) prior to staining with fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies. For intracellular staining, lymphocytes were fixed,
permeabilized, and stained with monoclonal antibodies using the Foxp3 staining set (eBioscience, San Diego, CA) according to man-
ufacturer’s instructions. 7-AAD (Tonbo Biosciences), Fixable Viability Dye eFluor 780 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA), LIVE/
DEAD Fixable Blue Dead Cell Stain Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific), or SYTOX Blue Dead Cell Stain (Thermo Fisher Scientific) was used
to discriminate dead cells. The stained samples were analyzed using LSR II, LSRFortessa, and Aria III flow cytometers with DIVA
software (all from BD Biosciences, Franklin Lakes, NJ) and FlowJo software version 10 (FlowJo LLC, Ashland, OR).
Salmonella infection
rSalmonella–ToxC (DaroA, DaroD) and TT were kindly provided by the BIKEN Foundation (Osaka, Japan)(VanCott et al., 1996).
Ad libitum or fasting group mice were orally immunized with 5 3 107 CFU of rSalmonella-ToxC on day 4. In the fasting group,
36-h fasts began at 8:00 p.m. on day 0, 17, and 31. TT-specific IgA in feces was measured by ELISA. Flat-bottomed, 96-well
MaxiSorp Nunc-Immuno plates were coated overnight with 500 ng/well of TT. Plates were blocked with 2% BSA in PBS, and optically
diluted fecal extracts and sera were added into the plate wells. The Mouse IgA ELISA Quantitation Set (Bethyl Laboratories) was used
for antibody detection. To produce HRP signals were visualized by adding 3,30 ,5,50 -tetramethylbenzidine as a substrate (Sigma-
Aldrich) and then the reaction was terminated by 1.2 M H2SO4.
Food antigen-induced diarrhea model
To establish diarrhea, female mice were injected intraperitoneally with 100 mL OVA (1 mg/mL) and alum (1 mg/mL; Thermo Fisher
Scientific) in PBS on day 0 and 7. Starting on day 14, OVA (50 mg) was administered orally every three days (on day 14, 17, and
20). In the fasting group, 36-h fasts began at 8:00 p.m. on day 10 and 17. The severity of allergic reactions to OVA was evaluated
based on total and OVA-specific IgE in plasma and diarrhea occurrence, which was assessed by visually monitoring the mice for
up to 1 h after oral challenge. Fecal and plasma samples were collected on day 14 and 20 to measure total and OVA-specific IgA
and IgG, respectively.
Immunofluorescence
For immunostaining, PPs were snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen and embedded in OCT compound (Sakura, Tokyo, Japan). Frozen sec-
tions (4-mm thick) were fixed in dry ice-cold acetone for 15 min and then completely dried at room temperature for 1 h. After blocking
with an anti-CD16/CD32 antibody (Tonbo Biosciences) in 10-fold diluted Block Ace (blocking buffer; DS Pharma Biomedical) for
30 min, the sections were incubated with primary antibodies (hamster monoclonal anti-mouse CD3ε; BD pharmagen, or rat mono-
clonal anti-mouse CD45R/B220; eBiosciences) in blocking buffer overnight at 4 C. Bound antibodies were detected with FITC-
labeled anti-hamster (Southern Biotech) or TRITC-labeled anti-rat antibodies (Southern Biotech) and counterstained with DAPI.
The sections were then examined with a confocal microscope (BX50; Olympus, Tokyo, Japan).
Frozen BM sections (10-mm thick) were prepared according to the Kawamoto method (Kawamoto, 2003; Yamazaki et al., 2011)
and were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde. After blocking with Protein Block (Dako, Jena, Germany) for 1 h, the fixed sections were
washed with 0.3% (v/v) Triton X-100 in PBS and incubated with Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated anti-IgM antibodies (Thermo Fisher
Scientific), anti-CD31 and anti-endomucin antibody, for 16 h at 4 C. The stained sections were again washed with 0.3% (v/v) Triton
Histological analysis
PPs were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and embedded in paraffin. Tissue sections (3.5-mm thick) were then stained after deparaffi-
nization. For histological examination, the sections were stained with hematoxylin (Dako) and eosin (Wako Pure Chemical Corpora-
tion). Antigen retrieval was performed by autoclaving the sections in Target Retrieval Solution (Dako). Then, the sections were treated
with 3% H2O2 (Wako Pure Chemical Corporation) in methanol to inactivate endogenous peroxidase. After blocking with Protein Block
Serum-Free (Dako) for 1 h, the sections were incubated with anti-cleaved Caspase-3 (0.5 mg/mL; Cell Signaling Technology, MA,
USA) for 16 h at 4 C. After washing with PBS, sections were incubated with ENVISION+ System-HRP labeled Polymer Anti-Rabbit
(Dako) for 30 min at room temperature. The ImmPACTTM DAB peroxidase substrate (Vector Laboratories) was used for diaminoben-
zidine staining, and hematoxylin was used for counterstaining. For TUNEL staining, the DeadEnd Colorimetric TUNEL System
(Promega, Madison, WI) were used according to the manufacturer’s instructions. All sections were examined via confocal micro-
scopy (BX50).
Plasma parameters
Plasma glucose levels were measured using Spotchem EZ SP-4430 (Arkray, Kyoto, Japan) with an automated dry chemistry system
(Spotchem II; Arkray). Plasma BHB concentration was measured using the Serotec Ketone-H Kit (Serotec Co., Ltd., Sapporo, Japan)
according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
For statistical analyses of two or more groups, we used Student’s t test or ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test. When variances were not
homogeneous, the data were analyzed by the non-parametrical Mann-Whitney U test or the Dunnett’s test. Two-way ANOVA was
applied to the time-course analysis of TT-specific IgA production. Differences with P-values < 0.05 were considered statistically sig-
nificant. Statistical analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism 8 software (GraphPad Software, Inc., La Jolla, CA). The exper-
iments were not randomized, and the investigators were not blinded to allocation during experiments and outcome assessment.
Figure S1. The Behavior of Lymphocytes in Multiple Organs during Fasting and Refeeding, Related to Figure 2
(A) Numbers of the indicated cell subsets in PPs, the CPs, the MLNs, and SILP of mice fed ad libitum (PPs, n = 9; CPs, MLNs, and SILP, n = 10) or mice fasted for
36 h (PPs, n = 12; CPs, MLNs, and SILP, n = 10).
(B) Numbers of PP cells from proximal (Prox), middle (Mid), or distal (Dis) small intestine (each group, n = 10).
(C) Numbers of the indicated cell subsets from PPs at each time point. Mice were fasted for 36 h (blue background) and refed with CE2 for 72 h (red background)
(0, 84, and 108 h, n = 9; 24, 36, and 60 h, n = 12).
(D) Numbers of the indicated cell subsets in the spleen of mice fed ad libitum, mice fasted for 36 h, and mice refed with CE2 for 48 h (each group, n = 8).
Data represent the means ± SEM. Student’s t test (A and B). ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test (C) or Tukey’s test (D). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; n.s., not significant.
(legend on next page)
Figure S2. Flow Cytometry Gating Strategies and Localization of Naive B Cells in the BM, Related to Figure 2
(A) Flow cytometry gating strategies on lymphocytes, granulocytes, macrophages, hematopoietic stem cells, and multipotent progenitors in the BM.
(B) Sections of the BM, which were obtained from mice fed ad libitum, fasted for 36 h, or refed with CE2 for 48 h, were stained with Abs against IgM (green) and
DAPI (gray) shown on the left and Abs against CD31 (blue), Emcn (blue), and DAPI (gray) shown on the right. The solid arrow indicates IgM+ naive B cells in
intravascular space. Scale bar: 20 mm.
(C) The ratio of IgM+ naive B cells in DAPI+. Calculated from Figure S2B (each group, n = 8).
Data represent the means ± SEM (C) ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.
Figure S3. Minimal Contribution of Gut-Microbiota to the Behavior of Lymphocytes during Fasting, Related to Figure 2
Numbers of the indicated cell subsets in PPs and the BM of mice fed ad libitum (n = 9) or fasted for 36 h (n = 8). Six-week-old mice were kept under germ-free
conditions. Data represent the means ± SEM. Student’s t test. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.
Figure S4. The Behavior of Lymphocytes during Fasting and Refeeding in Aged Mice, Related to Figure 2
(A and B) Numbers of the indicated cell subsets in PPs and the BM of mice fed ad libitum, fasted for 36 h, or refed with CE2 for 48 h. Sixteen-week-old (A) and
40–50-week-old (B) mice were kept under SPF conditions (each group, n = 8).
Data represent the means ± SEM. ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.
Figure S5. Minimal Effects of FTY720 on B Cell Dynamics in PPs and the BM, Related to Figure 4
(A) Diagram illustrating the FTY720 treatment protocol. FTY720 or vehicle (PBS) were orally administered into ad libitum-fed or fasting mice.
(B and C) Body weight (B) and numbers of the indicated cell subsets in PPs and the BM (C) of mice fed ad libitum or fasted for 36 h. Mice were treated with vehicle
or FTY720 (each group, n = 8).
Data represent the means ± SEM. ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test (B). Student’s t test (C).
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; n.s., not statistically significant.
Figure S6. Quantification of Phosphorylated Akt-mTOR Signaling Proteins in PPs and the BM, Related to Figure 4
(A and B) Quantification of phosphorylated Akt, BAD, GSK-3a/b, IRS-1, PTEN, S6 ribosomal protein, mTOR, and p70 S6 kinase in PPs (A, n = 18) and the BM
(B, n = 6) using whole tissue lysates. The mean of mean fluorescent intensity (MFI) from mice fasted for 36 h, mice refed with CE2 for 24 h and 48 h, and mice
treated with rapamycin was normalized by that of mice fed ad libitum. Data are represented as a heatmap.
Figure S7. The Effect of Fasting on Salmonella-Induced Mucosal Responses, Related to Figure 6
(A) Diagram illustrating the protocol for oral immunization model using S. Typhimurium expressing the fragment C of the tetanus toxoid (Salmonella-ToxC).
Mice were fasted for 36 h on day 0, 17, and 31 in the fasting-refed group.
(B) Absorbance of tetanus toxoid (TT)-specific IgA in feces from mice eating ad libitum (n = 8) or fasting-refed (n = 7). Data represent the means ± SEM.
Two-way ANOVA.